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Low-Cycle Fatigue
B. F. LANGER Methods are described for constructing a fatigue curve based on strain-fatigue data
Consulting Engineer, W e s t i n g h o u s e for use in pressure vessel design. When this curve is used, the same fatigue strength-
Electric C o r p o r a t i o n , Pittsburgh, Pa. reduction factor should be used for low-cycle as for high-cycle conditions. When
Fellow A S M E evaluating the effects of combined mean and alternating stress, the fatigue strength-
reduction factor should be applied to both the mean and the alternating component, but
then account must be taken of the reduction in mean stress which can be produced by
yielding.
The complete fatigue evaluation of a pressure vessel can be a major task for the de-
signer, but it can be omitted, or at least drastically reduced, if certain requirements can
be met regarding design details, inspection, and magnitude of transients.
Although the emphasis in this paper is on pressure vessel design, the same principles
could be applied to any structure made of ductile metal and subjected to limited numbers
of load cycles.
I Introduction Ref. [3]) for estimating the fatigue life for combined steady and
alternating stresses.
N THE designing of pressure vessels and piping, it (5) The use of Miner's hypothesis for estimating the cumula-
has not been the usual practice to give serious consideration to tive effect of stress cycles of varying amplitude [4, 5].
the possibility of fatigue failure. This practice has been success- (6) Recognition of the fact that, when a fluctuating stress ex-
ful because pressure equipment, unlike rotating machinery and ceeds the elastic limit of the material, a shift occurs in the mean
aircraft structures, is not usually subjected to large numbers of stress component about which the stress fluctuates [1].
load cycles during its lifetime, and ductile metals can absorb
(7) The use of "fatigue strength reduction factors" Kt, rather
surprisingly large strains for limited numbers of cycles. When,
than "theoretical stress concentration factors" Kt [2].
however, the utmost in reliability and efficient utilization of
The present paper will describe the results of later work on
material is required it becomes necessary to calculate pressure
some of these elements.
stresses and thermal stresses in detail and to determine whether
or not fatigue failure is possible in a few thousand cycles. The
purpose of this paper is to describe methods by which the de- II Construction of a Fatigue Curve
signer can make use of the available data on low-cycle fatigue to
The fatigue curve needed by the designer is one which shows
evaluate the integrity of a component which is to be used at tem-
stress versus cycles and which contains sufficient safety factors to
peratures below the creep range for the material.
give safe allowable design stress for a given number of operating
The basic elements of the proposed design method have been cycles or, conversely, allowable operating cycles for a given value
described in previous publications [1, 2]. 1 They are: of calculated stress. The stress values on the fatigue curves
should be directly comparable to the stress values which the
(1) The use of the maximum shear theory of failure rather
than the maximum stress theory of failure. In order to make designer calculates using his usual methods of analysis for
allowable shear stress values comparable to the more familiar pressure stress, thermal stress, stress concentration, etc.
values of tension and compression, calculated stresses are ex- One obvious way of constructing such curves would be to ob-
pressed in terms of two times the shear stress, which is the largest tain a large amount of low-cycle fatigue data on each material,
algebraic difference between any two of the three principal which would be extremely laborious. Fortunately, Coffin's work
stresses. This quantity is called the "equivalent intensity of on low-cycle strain fatigue has disclosed some fundamental and
combined stress," or more briefly, the "stress intensity." apparently conservative relationships which can be used to esti-
(2) Calculation of stresses using the assumption of elastic be- mate this curve from some of the better-known mechanical
havior. (In situations which involve instabilities, such as plastic properties.
hinges or other forms of nonlinearity, plastic analysis is required.) The terms used in this section are defined as follows, and as
When the elastic limit of the material is exceeded, the elastic cal- shown in Fig. 1.
culation results in a stress value which, although fictitious, is
E modulus of elasticity
=
proportional to strain, which in turn is a good measure of the
N =
cycles to failure
damage being done.
e, =
total strain range
(3) The use of fatigue data from tests in which strain rather
te =
elastic portion of strain range
than stress is the controlled parameter.
e;, =
plastic portion of strain range
(4) The use of the modified Goodman diagram (see Fig. 136 of
c =
a material constant
1 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper. tj =
true strain at fracture, commonly known as fracture
Contributed by the Metals Engineering Division and presented at ductility
the Winter Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y „ November 26-Decem-
S = 7 iEet
b e r 1, 1 9 6 1 , o f T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y O F M E C H A N I C A L ENGINEERS.
Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters. May 31, 1961. Paper A S = stress amplitude
Xo. 61—WA-18. Se = endurance limit
where
AS = 2SU[N~0A2 (9)
log 2AS1 - log 2AS 8
where S„, is the true stress at fracture in the tensile test. k = (15)
If eq. (9) is substituted in eq. (7), we obtain the formula log Ni — log N2
and
E 100
S = 7= In (10) (16)
G = 2ASiNi~l
WN 100 - RA
in place of eq. (8). The use of this equation reduces the error The desired relationship between S and N is
previously noted in eq. (8) in the region around N = 1000, but
has the disadvantage that S approaches zero when AT becomes S = 1 (Eep + 2 AS) (17)
/L
very large. This is not realistic for materials which have a true
endurance limit. This difficulty, however, is easily overcome by
arbitrarily ending the curve plotted from eq. (9) at the value of N = - (EMN' + GNk)
for which A S = S e and extending it as a horizontal line for larger
values of N . Another disadvantage of eq. (10) is that S u i is not The quantities M, z, G, and k have been defined above in terms
so readily available as S c . of the measured quantities.
Manson's analysis is particularly useful if just a few plastic The fatigue curve described in the foregoing is applicable to
fatigue tests can be made, because it shows how to obtain the cycles of complete stress reversal, where the stress passes through
most information from a small number of tests. Instead of ob- zero and attains equal values of tension and compression. It is
taining the complete curve from a large number of tests, as was well known that at the high-cycle end of the curve, the addition of
done in Fig. 2, it is sufficient to run just two strain-fatigue tests a steady mean stress reduces the endurance limit, and the amount
at well-separated values of strain and observe A S and cycles-to- of reduction can be estimated by means of the Goodman diagram.
10° S
RA = 50 % , S E = 37500 psi
oa> 0 /
UJ ^ ^ co era '0 ,
-
C\J ^ ^ ^ Ax
i i f f e „
- ' "*—' ^
DESIGN' CURVE
10 ! 1 II 1 111 ! ' 1 1 11 1 1 ! 11 1 11 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 I 1
10 10
C Y C L E S TO F A I L U R E
S„
for S,<Sb (18)
S.
- S„
for Sa<Sb (19)
MEAN STRESS Sa
Fig. 3 Modified Goodman diagram When the number of cycles decreases to the point where Sa >
Sb, then Sa' = S„ and mean stress has no effect on the allowable
stress amplitude.
Attention is now called to the 45-degree line AB which con-
nects the Sb values on the horizontal and vertical axes. S& is Fig. 2 shows the experimental data from refs. [8, 9, 10, and 11]
called the "limit of elastic behavior" and may be described as the for unnotched austenitic stainless steel. The yield strength of
highest stress amplitude the material can maintain without yield- this material is usually about 30,000 to 40,000 psi. It therefore
ing, even after being cycled several times. It is the yield strength appears that 1 / 2 fie; exceeds the yield strength in the whole range
after strain hardening or strain softening. 3 For practical pur- of interest. Therefore, it may be concluded that this material
poses it can be taken as the higher of the 0.2 per cent offset yield cannot sustain a mean stress at any cyclic stress level which
strength or the endurance limit. Regardless of the conditions would produce failure, and therefore no correction for the effects
under which any given test is started, the true conditions after of mean stress need be made. Experimental verification of this
the application of a few cycles must fall inside the triangle O A B conclusion would be a worth-while research project.
or on the vertical axis above A. The reason for this is that any Fig. 2 also shows a design fatigue curve for austenitic stainless
test which is started under conditions which wrould fall outside of steel based on the best-fit curve and with a safety factor of either
this region would have a maximum stress greater than Sb and 2 on stress or 20 on cycles, whichever is more conservative at
yielding would then reduce the mean stress to a value which would each point. It is believed that these safety factors are sufficient to
make the cycle fall on AB or on the axis above A. It is true cover the effects of size, environment, surface finish, and scatter
that test results have been reported [14] outside this region, of data. Several fatigue tests and simulated service tests on
models of components have confirmed this belief. Service ex-
2 In ref. [1 ] it was recommended that point- D be located midway
perience has also been good, but is probably not lengthy enough
between Sb and <SU, but the author has more recently become con-
to be cited as a strong confirmation of the proposed methods.
vinced that this estimate was too conservative.
3 Coffin [11] has shown that work-hardened materials strain-soften There are materials, however, for which S„ < Sb at and above
under cyclic loading. a finite number of cycles. For such cases, eq. (19) may be used
to reduce the fatigue curve in the high-cycle region. In choosing The best-known method [3] for expressing the relationship
values for Sb and S„ for use in eq. (19), it must be noted that it is between the fatigue strength-reduction factor Kf and the
conservative to use a high value for Sb and a low value for Sa. theoretical stress concentration factor K, is by means of the
When a single design curve is being constructed to give allowable notch sensitivity q which is defined as
values for a whole group of materials, conservatism requires that
the highest value of Sb and the lowest value of Sa be chosen from
the group. Fig. 4 shows such a curve which can be safely used for
most of the nonheat-treated steels commonly used in pressure
vessel construction, such as SA-201, SA-204, SA-212, SA-302, Notch sensitivity is a property of the material but is also a func-
and the equivalent forging grades. The solid curve has been ad- tion of the notch geometry. Therefore it is not a true material
justed where necessary for the maximum effects of mean stress. property. A somewhat different concept, with wider applicabil-
The dotted curve shows the unadjusted values applicable to zero ity, has been described by Peterson [2, 15, 16], It is best ex-
meau stress. plained by means of a simple example. In Fig. 5(a), a bar with
It may be found that for heat-treated steels, for which the a central hole is subjected to cyclic axial load and the stress dis-
yield strength is not far below the ultimate strength, eq. (19) tribution across the section is as shown. The hypothesis is that
gives an unduly conservative result. When this occurs, it is ad- fatigue failure does not occur when the peak stress reaches the
visable to calculate the mean stress which will actually occur and endurance limit, but rather, as shown in Fig. 5(b), when the en-
not assume that it is always at its maximum possible value. durance limit is reached at some finite distance 8 below the sur-
Take, for example, a heat-treated bolting steel for which Su = face. The rationale for this hypothesis is that, due to the granulai
150,000 psi, Sb = Sy = 130,000 psi, and Sc = 75,000 psi. Assume structure of the material, a finite volume of the material must be
also that Sa = 130,000 psi at 2000 cycles and Sa = 95,000 psi at at a stress equal to the endurance limit in order to cause failure.
10,000 cycles. Mean stress must be considered at any number The dimension 8 might be viewed as a material property, which is
of cycles above 2000, since this is the number of cycles for which smaller for high-strength metals than for low-strength metals.
S„ = Sb. At 10,000 cycles, eq. (19) gives Fig. 6 (reproduced from ref. [16]) shows the approximate rela-
tionship between 8 and tensile strength for steels. Two curves
ri50,000 - 130,0001 are shown, one for the maximum shear theory of failure and one
S ' = 95,000 - = 34,000 psi. for the Mises criterion. Since the values for 8 are empirical, the
L 150,000 - 95,000 J ' 1
answer to any given problem comes out about the same regardless
For this case it would be worth while to calculate the actual of which theory is used.
mean stress rather than accept such a large penalty in reduced
The use of the 8 concept produces several interesting and useful
endurance limit.
results. For one thing, it explains the size effect which has been
noted in fatigue tests of notched specimens. This may be seen
Ill Application ot Stress Concentration Factors by noting what happens in Fig. 5(b) when the size is increased
It is well known that the theoretical stress concentration fac- but 8 is held constant. Another advantage of the 8 concept is
tors which are calculated from the theory of elasticity or deter- that there may be a possibility of extending it to very small notch
mined from photoelastic tests do not always indicate the actual radii, even including tight cracks [2]. Fig. 7 shows the calcu-
weakening which the stress concentration introduces into the lated strength reduction factors for long cracks in steel of 100,000
structure The actual amount of weakening depends not only on psi tensile strength. The abscissa is crack depth, and it may be
the peak stress but also on the stress gradient, the material, and seen that a buried crack of depth 2b is equivalent to a surface
the type of loading. crack of depth 6.
2 5 0
, — M A X I rfUM SHEAR
200
2
UJ
cr
t- I 5 0
MISES—/
I 00
50 1 1 1 1 1 1 V X 1
.0001 .0002 .0005 .001 .002 .005
S (INCHES)
S e = FATIGUE LIMIT
Fig. 6 Material constant 5 versus tensile strength for steel (from Peterson,
Ref. [16])
1?
cr. j
! i
O
\ - 1 1 •
C )
<1
LL 10
y
7?.
O 9
Lb) 1-
|
MAX STRESS
( >
8
SURFACE
0 JUJJJJL, / CRACK
cr 7 HURItU^
CRACK
T
1- B
CD
V B y
III 5
RR
/ w
I -
</>
/
LLI
z> 3
/ i
/
Fig. 5 Stress distribution in bar w i t h circular hole o 1 i
1- !
2
<R
LI_
A relationship of the kind shown in Fig. 7 can also be used to 1
i•
estimate the required sensitivity of a method of nondestructive 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
testing, such as radiography. When the radiographer uses a DEFECT SIZE PARAMETER,2b (inches)
penetrometer having a thickness of, say, 2 per cent of that of the
section he is inspecting, he must realize that defects smaller than Fig. 7 Fatigue strength-reduction factors for cracks
2 per cent will be undetected. If sensitivity is expressed in per
cent of the section thickness, Fig. 8 shows the strength-reduction basis for the commonly accepted practice of using lower values
factor which may be produced by hidden defects in various thick- of Kf for lower values of N. In (C), however, although nominal
nesses of material. The quality of a vessel design can be charac- stress is the controlled parameter, the material in the root of the
terized by a factor K, which is the ratio between the highest peak notch is really being strain cycled, because the surrounding
stress at a discontinuity, hole, fillet, etc., to the average stress material is at a lower stress and behaves elastically. Therefore,
intensity in the shell. If the desired vessel quality corresponds it should be expected that the ratio between curves (.4) and (C)
to K = 3, then we see from Fig. 8 that 2 per cent sensitivity is should be independent of N and equal to Kt. The experimental
adequate up to almost 3-inch thickness and 1 per cent sensitivity verification of this relationship is not adequate, but some does
is adequate up to 5-inch thickness because the hidden defects exist [2]. The use of a Kf independent of N together with strain-
will then not be the controlling factor. If a lower quality vessel cycling fatigue data appears to the author to be both logical and
is being built, say, K = 5, then 2 per cent sensitivity is adequate conservative, even though it is contrary to the most commonly
up to 9-inch thickness. accepted practices.
In the field of low-cycle fatigue, it has been common practice In applying stress concentration factors to the case of fluctuat-
to use lower stress concentration factors for small numbers of ing stress—that is, a cycle which has both a mean and an alternat-
cycles than for large numbers of cycles. This is reasonable when ing component—it has been the common practice to apply K s to
the allowable stresses are based on stress-fatigue data, but is not only the alternating component. A careful studj' of what hap-
advisable when strain-fatigue data are used. Fig. 9 shows a pens to fluctuating stresses when they enter the plastic range re-
typical relationship between S versus N curves from ( A ) strain- sults in a better method of using the stress concentration factor.
cycling tests on unnotched specimens, (B) stress-cycling tests on Take, for example, the case of a material with 40,000 psi yield
unnotched specimens, and (C) stress-cycling tests on notched strength and 30 X 10® psi modulus made into a notched bar which
specimens. The ratio between the ordinates of curves (B) and has a Kf — 3. The bar is cycled between nominal tensile stress
(C) decreases with decreasing cycles-to-failure, and this is the values of 0 and 20,000 psi. Common practice would call the
z
o
H
o
ZD
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16
SECTION THICKNESS (INCHES)
10" T 1 I I I I 1 I I I I I
- A : S T R A I N - C O N T R O L L E D T E S T S , UNNOTCHED (ORDINATE I S - g E 6 , )
10
mean stress 10,000 psi and the alternating component (V2) X 3 X example, if the yield strength had been 50,000 psi, the adjusted
20,000 = 30,000 psi. The stress-strain history of the material at value of mean stress would have been 20,000 psi, and the common
the root of the notch would be, in idealized form, as shown in Fig. practice would have given an unconservative result.
10. The calculated value of Et/2, which would be compared
with strain-fatigue data, is 30,000 psi. The basic value of mean IV Determination of Need for Fatigue Evaluation
stress is also 30,000 psi, but yielding causes an adjustment down Since most pressure vessels are subjected to limited numbers of
to 10,000 psi. Therefore the yielding during the first cycle is pressure and temperature cycles during their lifetime, considerable
seen to be the justification for the common practice of ignoring design effort could be saved by defining the conditions which do
K f when calculating the mean stress component. It so happens or do not require that a fatigue evaluation be made. In order
that, for the case chosen, the common practice gives exactly the to define these conditions, several factors must be considered.
same result as the proposed method described here. The common For pressure cycling only, we need to know:
practice, however, would have given the same result regardless (1) The expected range of pressure cycles, which may be con-
of the yield strength of the material, whereas the proposed method veniently stated as a fraction of the design pressure. Let us call
gives different mean stresses for different yield strengths. For this fraction F.
IOO
10* 10"
ALLOWABLE CYCLES
tn U-
co O
ALLOWABLE CYCLES
0I i i i i mil i mil i i i i mil i lllllli
IO3 IO4 IO5 IO6 10
Fig. 12 Allowable pressure transients for Sm = 2 0 , 0 0 0 psi and various values of K
240
200
A L L O W A B L E THERMAL
180
TRANSIENTS
O
1 160
U:
U.
Q 140
a:
S
£ 120
2~ 100
UJ
«
1 80
x
VI Acknowledgments
T he author is indebted to several of his associates for sug-
gestions and contl'ibutiotls to the development of the design
methods proposed in this paper. Particular mention sho uld be
made of rvJr. R. E. Peterson, ,1I,'estinghouse Research Laboratories,
Dr. L. F. Coffin, General Electric R esearch Laboratories, D ..
W. E. Cooper, General Electric Knolls Atomic Power Laborr..·
tory, tlnd Mr. J. L. ~dershon, Bureau of Ships. The development
of eq. (8) resulted from discussions held by n. Task Gmup of t.he
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee under the chair-
manship of D r. 'V. T. Lank ford , U. S. Stccl Corporation. The
statis tical study of t.he dat.a in F ig. 2 was made by Mr. T. Shiroa-
moto, Westinghouse Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory. The
assistance of Mr. W. J. O'Donnell , of Bet.tis, is also appreciated .
References
1 B. F. Langer, "Design Vnlues for Thermal Strel>S in Du ctile
.Mn.terials," Weldi1l(J Journal Research Supplement, vol. 37, September ,
1958, p. 411s.
2 B. F. Langcr, "Application of Stress Concent.mt.ion Factors,"
Bellis Teclmical Review, WAPD.B'J'-IS, April. 19GO, p. I.
3 R. E. Peterson, "Stress Concentrat.ion Design Factors," John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1953.
4 B. F. Langer, "Fatigue Fail ure From Strcss Cycles of Varying
Amplitude," Journal of Ap1Jlied llfecha7l1'c8, vol. 4, TUANS. ASME,
vol. 59, 1937.
5 l\'l ilton A. :iVIiner, "Cumulative Damage in Fatigue," JOlLrllal
of Al'l;Heil Mecham'C8, vol. 12, TRANS. ASME, vol. 61, 1945, p. A-1S9.
G L. F. Coffin, Jr. , " A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses all a Ductile IVIetnl," TI(ANS, ASME, vol. 76, 1954, p. 93l.
1 J. F. Tnvcrllelli lind L. F. Coffin, Jr. , "A Compilntion a nd
Interpretation of Cyclic Strain Fatigue Tests on Metals," Trans.
ASM, \'01. 51. 1959, p, 438.
8 J. 1". Tavcrnclli and L. F. Coffin, Jr., "Experimental Support
for Gencl'lllized Equation Predicting Low-Cycle Fatigue," General
Electric Research Labs. i\Jcmo Report No. :ME-S3,September, 1959.
9 A. Jolmnnson, "}'ntigue of Steels at Constnnt Strain Amplitude
and Elevated Tempcmtllre ," Proeeedillgs Colloquium on Fat.igue,
Stockholm , Spri nger, Berlin, 1955.
10 E. E. Bnldwin, G. J . So kol, and L. F. Coffin, Jr., "Cyclic
Strnin Fatigue Studies all AIS I~347 Stainless Steel," AS7'M Proceed-
i1l0s, vol. 57,1957, p. 561.
11 L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. F. Tavernelli, "The Cyclic Straining
and Fatigue of Metals," 'J'rans. MetallurGical Society, AlME, vol.
215, October, 1959, pp. 791-807.
12 S. S. IVlunson, "Thermnl Stresses in Design-Part 19. Cyclic
Life of Ductile IVIaterials," Machine Desigl~, July 1, 19GO, p. 139.
13 J. II. Gross, S. TSBlld, Bnd R. D. Stout, "Factors Affecting
Resist·ance of Pressure Vessel Steels to Repented Overloading,"