WP 02 I

Status and Potential of Offshore Resources in Sri Lanka

National paper prepared for the FAO/SEAFDAC workshop on

“ Assessment and management of the offshore resources of south
and south east Asia” to be held 17 -20
June in Thailand

Prepared by

W S Wickramasinghe
&
D S Nandasena

Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

P.O. Box 531
New Secretariat, Maligawatta
Colombo 10
Sri Lanka

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Contents
1. Introduction

2. Physical characteristics of offshore area

Extent of country’ s offshore area (EEZ and high seas) & characteristics within the
EEZ

3. Management arrangements of the offshore area

Management arrangements within the EEZ
Management arrangements outside EEZ in high sea areas

4. Research surveys and experimental fishing

4.1 Research surveys on pelagic resources
4.2 Research surveys on demersal resources

5. Commercial fishing

6. Resource characteristics

7. Current resource status

8. Economic feasibility

9. Technological feasibility

10. Livelihood benefits and impacts

11. Environmental concerns

12. Conclusions

2
1. Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to present the current status of offshore resources
in Sri Lanka with a view to consider the technical and economic feasibility of
new fishing activities in offshore areas.

In preparation of this paper Administrative reports of the Department, Annual

Fisheries Statistics published by the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, findings of various research surveys used. Since recent research
surveys have not been carried out on Sri Lanka’ s fish resources, findings of
previous surveys such as Dr Fridtjof Nansen survey results (1979 – 1980),
different survey results on selective fisheries and previous catch data are used
in various analyses.

2. Physical Characteristics of the offshore area

2.1 Extent of contrary’ s offshore area (EEZ and high seas)

The Territorial sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Sri Lanka extend
to the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles, and 200 nautical miles or up to the
maritime boundary between Sri Lanka and India respectively from the baseline.
The extent of the Territorial Sea and the EEZ is 21,500 sq.km and 517,000
sq.km respectively. The area of EEZ amounts to 7.8 times of the total land area
of the country (total land area is approximately 65, 610 sq.km). The area
covered by the continental shelf is 30,000 sq.km. i.e. 5.8 percent of the total
extent of the EEZ.

Sri Lanka and the Southern tip of India lie on the same continental shelf and are
separated by a shallow sea; the Palk Strait, which is barely 30 m deep. The
shelf around northern and north - western Sri Lanka is broad, forming the Pedro
Bank and the Gulf of Mannar. However, the shelf ends more abruptly in the
South and east of Sri Lanka (the shelf area is estimated to cover about 30,000
sq.km). The mean water depth is about 75m, but the submarine elevation drop
abruptly to 900m within 3 km and 1800m within about 15 km of the shelf’ s
edge. The continental shelf is comparatively narrow and its width averages 22
km and rarely exceeds 40 km. The Figure 1 shows maritime zones of Sri Lanka.

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 Figure 1: Maritime zones of Sri Lanka

3. Management arrangements of the offshore area

3.1 Within the EEZ

Fisheries management arrangements within the EEZ are implemented under the
provisions of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act No.2 of 1996. Main
objectives of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act No.2 of 1996 are
management, conservation, regulation and development of the fisheries and
Aquatic Resources of Sri Lanka.

Following fisheries Management arrangements have been introduced under the

above act.

1. Licensing of fishing operations

2. Registration of fishing boats

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3. Protection of fish and other aquatic resources
a) Prohibition against the use or possession of poisonous or explosive
substances
b) Prohibited fishing gear and fishing methods
c) Control of fish import and export

4. Declaration of fisheries management areas

a) Establishment of fisheries management committees and management
authorities
b) Register of fishermen
c) Declaration of closed or open season for fishing

5. Declaration of fisheries reserves

6. Licensing of aquaculture

7. Settlement of fishing disputes

Concerning the Monitoring Control and Surveillance (MCS) arrangements 05

surveillance vessels belongs to the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources were destroyed due to Tsunami disaster in December 2004.
Currently 01 surveillance vessel is being constructed. The Fisheries
Management Division and the Monitoring Control and Surveillance (MCS)
Division of the Department are responsible for the management initiatives.

3.2 Outside EEZ in high sea areas

Actions have been taken to introduce a new Fisheries Management and

Development Act with a view to effect the sustainable development of fishing
industry through application of sound management and conservation measures
for fisheries and aquatic resources in conformity with national and international
requirement. This will give provisions to mange high sea fisheries.

4. Research surveys and experimental fishing

Marine Fisheries in Sri Lanka can be divided into two sub-sectors.

(i) Coastal or inshore fisheries and
(ii) Offshore fisheries
Coastal fisheries confined to conduct shelf area while offshore fisheries extend
from outer edge of continental shelf up to the outer limit of EEZ and beyond.

5
Pelagic and demersal resources

The maximum sustainable yield of the coastal marine resources has been
estimated (in the Dr Fridtjof Nansen survey 1979-1980) at about 250,000 mt. of
which up to 170,000 mt. are pelagic fish(small and medium sized sardine, scad,
mackerels, anchovies, seerfish and tunas) and upto 80,000 mt. are demersal or
semi-demersal (breams, snappers, groupers etc.).

Fisheries in offshore/deep sea waters are supported by medium-sized and large

pelagic species mainly tuna, and exotic range of deepwater commercial species.
The MSY for these species has not been systematically estimated but the
government has estimated the offshore resource potential at 150, 000 mt. In
2007, landings of large migratory pelagic totaled 113,222 mt. (Large Pelagic
Fishery data base – NARA). With observed catch levels and landings indicating
that coastal fisheries are nearing their MSYs and that expansion of
offshore/deep sea fisheries is feasible. However, there is an urgent need for a
more scientific and reliable estimate of the possible catch from these waters and
to install an effective monitoring system to ensure the sustainable use and
protection of Sri Lanka’ s fish resources.

Within the coastal waters the distribution of fishery resource shows variation
with distance from the shore. The resources in the inshore areas up to 3-5 km
from the coast are different from the resources beyond. Distribution of many
small pelagics, and small demersals and other non-fin fish resources such as
shrimp, lobster, crab, bivalve, sea cucumber etc. are more concentrated in the
inshore habitats. The medium sized pelagics and large demersals are found in
water outside the inshore areas as well. Species such as Spanish mackerel,
frigate tuna, kawakawa and bullet tuna that are sometimes categorized as large
pelagics, have a wider distribution. They are migratory and found in both the
coastal water and the off shore waters.

Concerning the large pelagics, there are two species of tuna, the skipjack
(Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellow-fin tuna (Thunus albacares) that dominate the
large pelagic catches. They are highly migratory and therefore this resource has
to be shared with other nations fishing in the Indian Ocean. Contribution of the
big-eye tuna (Thunnus obesus) to the total catch is comparatively small. The
long tail tuna (T. tonggol) and dogtooth tuna (Gjmnosuda unicolor) have
occasionally been reported in the commercial catches. Small tuna species such
as frigate tuna (Auxis thazard), bullet tuna (A. rochei), Kawakawa (Euthyurnus
affinis) and bonito (Sarda orientalis) occur in mixed schools within the coastal
waters and near the offshore range. The billfish catches are also multi species

6
in composition. Five species have been identified in catches. They are the
sailfish (Istiophorus playtypterus), Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) and three species
of marlins, viz. black marlin (Makaira indica), Blue marlin (M. nigricans) and
striped marlin (Terapturus andax). The group of fish commonly referred to as
seerfish consists of four species. Two of them, which dominate the seerfish
catches are the Wahro (Acanthorybium solandri) found in the offshore catches,
while king mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson) found both in the coastal and
offshore areas. The other two species contribute only in small quantities and are
limited to coastal water. A total of 44 species of shark belonging to 16 families
have been identified in the large pelagic catches. The silky shark (Carcharinus
fabciformis) is the dominant species.

A survey carried out during the period 1973-1975 under the UNDP/Sri Lanka
Skipjack Fishery Development Project indicated that surface tuna schools are
available in the offshore range of west, south and east coasts. The density of
distribution of such schools showed a tendency to decline beyond 60-70 miles
from the shore. The exploratory fishing for large pelagic species in the offshore
areas conducted during the 1987-88 period by the Bay of Bengal Programme of
the Food and Agriculture Organization and NARA showed encouraging results.
High catch rates for driftnet and shark long-line were reported from the south,
with high abundance of fish being reported from the 48-80 km and 80-160 km
ranges. This is the conformity with the earlier research findings.

According to the estimates made by NARA, the large pelagic landings in 1995
consist of 50 percent tuna, 35 percent sharks and 10 percent billfish. Skipjack
and yellow-fin tuna were the main tuna species, making up nearly 24 percent
and 10 percent respectively of the large pelagic catches. Sharks rank high in
terms of their contribution to the large pelagic catches.

According to the Large Pelagic Fishery Database of NARA large pelagic

landings in 2007 consisted 75% tuna (mainly skipjack), 2% sharks and 11%
billfish.

There are no comprehensive resource studies available for offshore/deep sea

demersal species in Sri Lanka. However, about 215 demersal species have been
reported in oceanic waters around Sri Lanka.

The commercially important lager species are L. lentjan, L. nebulosis and

Lutjanus, Pristipomoids and Epinephelus.

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5. Commercial fishing

5.1 Pelagic resources & demersal resources

There is no commercial fishery in Sri Lanka as fishing vessels over 24 meters

are not included in the Sri Lankan fishing fleet.

However, the number of multiday boats which are engaged in catching large
pelagics is about 2600 in 2007. The multiday boats made up some 6% of the Sri
Lanka fishing fleet.

The average multiday boat is about 28-35 displacement hull with a single 45 hp.
inboard engine with an insulated fish hold and few have gear haulers. All vessels
fish in outside the continental shelf and within the EEZ. The average number of
fishing trips per month is 3 with some 5-10 per month. The highest mean CPUE
were in the west and south areas and varied due to availability of migrating fish
stocks, weather conditions and gear units in the operation. The average number
of crew is 4-6.

In offshore fisheries the main fishing method is drift gill net with surface long-
lines attached. Specialist long-line boats are few in number but growing slowly.
The fishery has therefore two components: the gill net fishery and the long-line
fishery. Apart from tuna species, other main targeted species groups are bill fish
and sharks. Production of bill fish is mainly marlin and sailfish with a large
proportion of catches coming from the offshore fishery. The major shark
species group is silky with almost all sharks coming from the offshore MDB
boats.

Following tables give the necessary information on offshore fishery in Sri

Lanka.

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Table 1: Operating Fishing Boats by Type

Total Inboard Engines Out Board Engines Traditional(1)

Year Fishing
Crafts IMUL IDAY OFRP MTRB NTRB
1990 27,675 2,364 ** 9,758 973 14,580
1995 27,269 1,639 1,357 8,564 1,060 14,649
1999 27,491 1,419 1,275 8,623 1,274 14,900
2000 27,595 1,430 1,170 8,690 1,205 15,100
2001 27,149 1,572 993 8,744 640 15,200
2002 28,135 1,614 1,112 9,033 776 15,600
2003 29,694 1,530 1,486 11,020 618 15,040
2004 30,567 1,581 1,493 11,559 674 15,260
2005 29,901 1,328 1,164 11,010 1,660 14,739
2006 35,350 2,394 907 13,860 1,842 16,347
2007 37,040 2,460 1,060 15,200 1,680 16,640

Source : Statistics Unit - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic

Resources
(1) NBSB included

IMUL - Inboard engine multiday boats

IDAY - Inboard engine singleday boats
OFRP - Outboard engine fibergalss boats
MTRB - Motorized traditional boats
NTRB - Non motorized traditional boats
NBSB - Non motorized beach sien boats

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Table 2 : Fishing Boats by District - 2007 Census (As at 28, February 2007)

Total
District IMUL IDAY OFRP MTRB NTRB NBSB Boats
Puttalam 84 0 2,680 113 1,534 227 4,638
Chillaw 366 0 1,938 3 1,541 20 3,868
Negombo 400 129 1,845 1 2,024 34 4,433
Colombo 16 30 350 0 419 29 844
Kalutara 320 5 486 2 534 27 1,374
Galle 344 30 715 300 583 52 2,024
Matara 697 112 813 243 789 10 2,664
Tangalle 289 23 878 176 955 70 2,391
Kalmunai 7 273 714 257 1,050 113 2,414
Batticaloa 1 315 1,030 7 2,906 113 4,372
Trincomalee 94 70 1,653 2 1,777 117 3,713
Mullaitivu** 0 0 140 100 150 20 410
Kilinochchi** 0 0 280 240 270 30 820
Jaffna** 0 119 2,656 237 3,246 140 6,398
Mannar 0 51 1,657 173 428 6 2,315
2007 2,618 1,157 17,835 1,854 18,206 1,008 42,678
2004 1,581 1,493 11,559 674 15,260 1,052 31,619
Change % 66% -23% 54% 175% 19% -4% 35%

Sources : Statistics Unit - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Fishing Boat census - 2006/2007
** Fishing Boats have been estimated for the districts in nothern
province.

IMUL - Inboard engine multiday boats

IDAY - Inboard engine singleday boats
OFRP - Outboard engine fibergalss boats
MTRB - Motorized traditional boats
NTRB - Non motorized traditional boats
NBSB - Non motorized beach sien boats

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Table 3: Multiday Boats by Facilities

Facility 2001(1) Percent 2007(2) Percent

Total Multiday Boats 1,572 100.0% 2,618 100.0%
Onboard Facilities
Fish/Ice hold 1,518 96.6% 2,612 99.8%
Cold Room 452 28.8% 984 37.6%
Life Saving Instrument 104 6.6% 532 20.3%
Communication
Equipments
SSB Radio 931 59.2% 2,136 81.6%

Fishing Equipments
Winch 151 9.6% 492 18.8%
Echo Sounder 40 2.5% 868 33.2%

Navigation Equipments
GPS Navigator 1,113 70.8% 2,174 83.0%
Radar 50 3.2% 678 25.9%
Compass 1,444 91.9% 2,483 94.8%
Navigation Chart 657 41.8% 1,256 48.0%

(1) Census of Motorized Fishing Boats 2001

(2) Census of fishing boats 2006/2007

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Table 4. : Fishing Vessels and Effort
Information (Large Pelagic Fishery)

Average Catch
Boat
Code
. Boat Type 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
(kg/trip)

5.5 -7.2 m (17' -21')

FRP dinghy. Outboard
engine - 8 - 40 HP
UN1 51.16 60.60 68.05 71.35 69.32 47.28
(usually 15 - 25 HP).
Operate in coastal
waters
8.8 - 9.8 m (28' - 34').
FRP or wooden. Inboard
engine (single) - 40 HP.
No ice box or insulated
128.3 101.2
UN2A fish hold , no gear 118.06 102.00 124.26 132.50
0 8
hauler, navigational or
acoustic equipments.
Operate in coastal
waters.
8.8 - 9.8 m (28' - 34').
FRP wooden. Inboard
engine (single) - 40 HP.
Insulated fish hold , no 1078.9 1103. 1033.
UN2B 923.78 707.02 1036.27
gear hauler, may have 8 0 70
GSP/ sounder/ fish
finder. Operate in
offshore waters.
9.8 - 12.2 m (34' - 40').
FRP wooden. Inboard
engine (single) - 60 HP -
(includes Abu Dhabi
2396.7 2315.0 2449.5 1814. 1763.
UN3A vessels). Insulated fish 3266.59
4 5 0 0 60
hold and may have gear
hauler/ GSP/ sounder/
fish finder. Operate in
offshore waters.
12.2 - 15.2 m (40' - 50').
FRP or wooden.
Inboard engine (single) -
60 + HP. Insulated fish
4166.0 4647.5 4007.4 4027. 3784.
UN3B hold and may have 6070.75
9 4 0 10 20
freezer facilities. Gear
hauler/ GSP/ sounder/
fish finder. Operate in
offshore waters.

Source : Large Pelagic Fishery Data Base of MBRD - NARA

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Table 5: Annual Fish Production by Fishing Sub-sectors (Mt)

Marine Fish Catch

Year Off shore/ Total Marine Inland and Total Fish

Coastal Deep Sea Aquaculture Production

1980 165,264 2,148 167,412 20,266 187,678

1985 140,270 2,400 142,670 32,740 175,410
1990 134,120 11,670 145,790 38,190 183,980
1995 157,500 60,000 217,500 18,250 235,750
2000 175,280 88,400 263,680 36,700 300,380
2001 167,530 87,360 254,890 29,870 284,760
2002 176,250 98,510 274,760 28,130 302,890
2003 163,850 90,830 254,680 30,280 284,960
2004 154,470 98,720 253,190 33,180 286,370
2005 63,690 66,710 130,400 32,830 163,230
2006 121,360 94,620 215,980 35,290 251,270
2007 150,110 102,560 252,670 38,380 291,050

Source : Statistics Unit - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

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 Table 6: Marine Sector Fish Catch by Major Commercial Groups (Mt)

Commercial Groups 1983 1990 1995 2000 2004 2005 2006 2007

Seer 3,510 3,210 2,990 3,130 5,260 2,970 3,210 4,670

Paraw (Trevally) 11,590 8,040 8,910 10,450 13,580 5,950 9,310 11,360

Balaya (Ski jack tuna) 13,570 12,230 33,550 49,110 43,830 28,040 47,340 52,540
Kelawalla (Yellowfin &
Bigeye tuna) 9,280 8,410 26,050 29,320 32,870 17,030 31,670 39,260

Other Blood Fish 16,320 9,190 17,640 27,890 36,830 16,560 24,480 26,670

Shark/Skate 19,160 14,830 22,120 28,790 21,320 6,430 9,680 12,240

Rock Fish 7,920 6,780 10,450 14,910 17,540 10,570 11,170 13,870

Shore Seine Varities 81,780 67,920 60,610 76,250 54,410 24,870 56,230 71,760

Prawns 4,460 4,470 8,000 7,540 9,730 4,680 7,840 7,320

Lobsters 610 630 950 1,150 1,590 240 470 640

Others 16,540 10,080 26,230 15,140 16,230 13,060 14,580 12,340

Total 184,740 145,790 217,500 263,680 253,190 130,400 215,980 252,670

Source: Statistics Unit - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Table 7 : Fish Catch From Large Pelagic Fishery (Mt)

Variety 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Tuna 89,441 112,217 79,197 79,018 82,711 56,374 63,597 85,908
Seer 1,244 1,861 976 725 462 431 993 1,386
Bill Fish 20,002 27,222 14,346 12,441 17,279 9,023 10,944 12,315
Sharks 25,006 20,700 11,108 12,805 7,566 2,390 2,101 2,123
Skete and Rays 2,701 5,374 2,493 3,113 1,018 982 1,191 0
Mammals 5 796 389 6 - - - -
Other Bony Fish 8,127 31,774 62,274 18,054 12,867 3,413 7,279 11,489
Total 146,526 199,944 170,783 126,162 121,903 72,613 86,105 113,222

Source : Large Pelagic Fishery Data Base of MBRD - NARA

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Table 8 : Export Quantity of Fish and Fishery Products ( Mt)

Exported Item 1983 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007

Prawns 1,720 1,855 2,781 4,855 1,800 1,837 2,023
Lobsters 207 165 283 164 183 168 184
Crabs - - 898 555 1,012 568 1,151
Beche de Mer 56 36 248 87 258 153 208
Ornamental Fish - - - - - - -
Chank & Shells 144 - 746 698 546 451 564
Shark Fins 57 51 127 119 74 75 67
Molluscs - 1 51 15 300 106 713
Fish Maws - - 1 1 1 1 1
Fish 209 821 1,978 11,873 10,960 14,301 15,473
Others - - 12 188 851 987 1,039
Export Quantity 2,393 2,931 7,126 18,554 15,985 18,647 21,422

Source : Custom Returns/ Statistical Unit - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Table 9: Export Value of Fish and Fishery Products ( Rs. Million)

Exported Item 1983 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007

Prawns 296 486 2,153 5,041 1,769 1,987 2,487
Lobsters 38 50 260 157 267 307 352
Crabs - - 181 154 363 238 575
Beche de Mer 15 27 148 143 334 144 445
Ornamental Fish 28 68 273 593 756 888 906
Chank & Shells 3 - 41 90 124 125 145
Shark Fins 19 35 163 305 165 140 127
Molluscs - 13 16 14 98 55 228
Fish Maws - - 2 1 1 1 1
Fish 17 175 413 3,782 6,335 10,037 13,560
Others - - 4 47 484 518 297
Export Value 417 854 3,655 10,328 10,696 14,440 19,123

Source : Custom Returns/ Statistics Unit - Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

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6. Resource Characteristics

Characteristics of major pelagic and demersal species as obtained from the Fish
base are discussed below.

Big eye tuna (Thunnus obesus)

Maximum size: 250 cm TL (male/unsexed; Ref. 27000); max. published weight:

210.0 kg (Ref. 9987); max. reported age: 11 years.

Environment: pelagic; oceanodromous (Ref. 51243); marine; depth range 0 –

250 m.

Resilience: Medium, minimum population doubling time 1.4 - 4.4 years

(K=0.11-0.23; tm=3; tmax=11; Fec=2 million).

Distribution: Atlantic, Indian and Pacific: in tropical and subtropical waters.

Absent in the Mediterranean. Highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982
Convention on the Law of the Sea (Ref. 26139).

Biology: Occur in areas where water temperatures range from 13°-29°C, but
the optimum is between 17° and 22°C. Variation in occurrence is closely related
to seasonal and climatic changes in surface temperature and thermocline.
Juveniles and small adults school at the surface in mono-species groups or
mixed with other tunas, may be associated with floating objects. Adults stay in
deeper waters (Ref. 5377). Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Ref. 6390). Feed on a
wide variety of fishes, cephalopods and crustaceans during the day and at night
(Ref. 9340). Meat is highly prized and processed into sashimi in Japan. Marketed
mainly canned or frozen (Ref. 9684), but also sold fresh (Ref. 9340).

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 Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares)

Maximum size: 239 cm FL (male/unsexed; Ref. 40637); max. published weight:

200.0 kg (Ref. 26550); max. reported age: 9 years.

Environment: pelagic; oceanodromous (Ref. 51243); brackish; marine; depth

range 1 – 250 m.

Resilience: Medium, minimum population doubling time 1.4 - 4.4 years

(K=0.13-0.42; tm=2-5; tmax=8; Fec=200,000).

Distribution: Worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas, but absent from the
Mediterranean Sea. Highly migratory species, Annex I of the 1982 Convention
on the Law of the Sea (Ref. 26139).

Biology: An oceanic species occurring above and below the thermoclines.

Pelagic in open water , but rarely seen near reefs (Ref. 48637). They school
primarily by size, either in monospecific or multi-species groups. Larger fish
frequently school with porpoises, also associated with floating debris and other
objects. Feed on fishes, crustaceans and squids. It is sensitive to low
concentrations of oxygen and therefore is not usually caught below 250 m in the
tropics (Ref. 28952, 30329). Peak spawning occurs during the summer, in
batches (Ref. 9684, 51846). Eggs and larvae are pelagic (Ref. 6769). Encircling
nets are employed to catch schools near the surface (Ref. 9340). Marketed
mainly frozen and canned (Ref. 9684), but also fresh (Ref. 9340) and smoked
(Ref. 9987). Highly valued for sashimi (Ref. 26938).

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 Two spotted snapper

Maximum size: 90.0 cm TL (male/unsexed; Ref. 9987); max. published weight:

12.5 kg (Ref. 4699); max. reported age: 13 years.

Environment: reef-associated; marine; depth range 4 – 180 m.

Resilience: Medium, minimum population doubling time 1.4 - 4.4 years

(K=0.11-0.33; tmax=13).

Distribution: Indo-Pacific: East Africa to the Marquesas and Line islands, north
to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Australia. More common around oceanic islands
than in continental areas.

Biology: Inhabits coral reefs, including sheltered lagoons and outer reefs (Ref.
30573). Usually found singly, often adjacent to steep outer reef slopes, but
occasionally found in groups (Ref. 9710). Feeds mainly on fishes, but also takes
shrimps, crabs, amphipods, stomatopods, gastropods and urochordates. Large
fish from oceanic areas in the western Pacific are often ciguatoxic, e.g., in
Tuvalu (Ref. 9513). Utilized fresh and dried-salted (Ref. 9987). In Hong Kong
live fish markets (Ref. 27253).

Pink ear Emperaror (Lethrinus spp.)

Maximum size: 52.0 cm TL (male/unsexed; Ref. 1020); max. reported age: 19

years.

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Environment: reef-associated; non-migratory; brackish; marine; depth range
20 – 90 m. Resilience: Medium, minimum population doubling time 1.4 - 4.4
years (K=0.17-0.27; tm=2-3.8; tmax=15).

Distribution: Indo-West Pacific: widespread, from the Red Sea, Arabian

(Persian) Gulf, and East Africa to the Ryukyus and Tonga.

Biology: Inhabits sandy bottoms in coastal areas, deep lagoons and near coral
reefs (Ref. 30573). Juveniles and small adults commonly in loose aggregations
over seagrass beds, mangrove swamps and shallow sandy areas while adults are
generally solitary in deeper waters. Feeds primarily on crustaceans and
mollusks but echinoderms, polychaetes and fishes are also consumed in
considerable quantities (Ref. 2295). A protogynous hermaphrodite (Ref. 55367).

7. Current resource status

Recent stock assessment surveys have not been carried out for Sri Lanka’ s
fish resources in different zones.

Currently a stock assessment study on selected coastal fisheries such as

lobster, shrimp, sea cucumber and chanks are being carried out by the NARA
under a Canadian (CIDA) funded project. There had been some fish resources
assessment surveys for both inshore and offshore covering pelagic and
demersal resources in the past and that are summarized below.

Experimental bottom trawl surveys were conducted in the period from 1920-23
to identify suitable trawling grounds to operate large trawlers - continental shelf
of Sri Lanka specially in the areas of Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and Palk Strait,
Pedro Bank. Methodology used in the survey was bottom trawling using the
research vessel of 126ft 249GT, 500HP trawler named "Lilla". In this survey,
Wadge Bank and Pedro Bank were identified as suitable fishing grounds for
trawling.

Exploratory fishing survey was conducted under the Canada-Ceylon Colombo

Plan-FDP-during 1950s to assess all coastal fishery resources including pelagic
& demersal and identified trawl grounds off Colombo, Negombo, Chilaw,
Mulaithivu etc.

Aerial survey on surface tuna resource was conducted by the USA Company in
1970 for evaluation of potential surface tuna resource. But expected results
were not gained.

19
Deepwater demersal fish resources survey was conducted in 1972 to investigate
fish resources & productivity in the Exclusive Economic Zone of Sri Lanka.
200sqmiles prawn & lobster trawlable ground was found west of Kudremalai in
range of 200-350m depth.

Exploratory pole & line fishing survey was conducted under the UNDP during
1973-75 to expand pole & line fishing up to 100 miles. Findings were that
fishing is seasonal and 1ton per day in West and SouthWest during season.
Comparatively resource is small for commercial fishing.
Exploratory fishery survey was conducted in 1975 to explore under exploited
resources in NorthWest and NorthEast. The result is that the catch rate lower
than expected & no much squid resource are available around

Dr.Fridtjof Nansen Survey (1979 – 1980)

Offshore large pelagic fish resource survey (1995 – 1997). This survey was
conducted by NARA under the fisheries sector project funded by ADB – loan
No. 1201 – SRI (SF) fisheries sector project

8. Economic feasibility
Table 1: Existing financial performance of longline vessels
54ft 45ft 41ft 18ft
Gear Longline Longline Gillnet/ Bottom set net/
Longline longline/
pelagic net
Engine size (hp) 320 160 90 25
Number of crew 8 7 5 3
Days at sea per year 268 213 222 190
Average length of trip 12 14 15 1
Number of hooks 1,100 1,000 700 150
(average/set)
Catch per hook (kg) 0.29 0.35 0.29 0.25
Investment cost (Rs) 27,300,000 16,500,000 8,250,000 860,000
Sales revenue per year 25,093,084 22,661,210 12,631,517 1,843,900
(Rs)
Variable costs per year 11,412,827 7,743,696 5,925,000 590,000
(Rs)
Gross profit per year (Rs) 13,680,257 14,917,514 6,706,517 1,253,900
Crew share per year (Rs) 7,182,135 7,682,520 3,453,856 626,950
Fixed costs per year (Rs) 3,716,300 2,975,750 1,949,750 192,525
Profit per year (before 2,781,822 4,259,244 1,302,911 434,425
interest and tax) (Rs)
Earnings per crew per 897,767 1,097,573 690,771 313,475
year (Rs)
Internal Rate of Return 2.7% 20.2% 6.1% 43.4%
(IRR)
IRR with investment 14.0% 40.4% 23.3% 86.5%
costs 65% of current
levels

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Source: Draft final version – TCP on Tuna Long Line sector development in Sri Lanka,
FAO/Govt. of Sri Lanka

9. Technological feasibility

In the development of the offshore fisheries sector, Sri Lanka has several issues
and constraints to contend with, and challenges to be met. In order to realise
the optimum potential of the sector resources these need to be adequately
addressed. The issues and constraints, which require priority attention, are
discussed below.

9.1 Technical

9.1.1. Non-availability of Resource Information

The non-availability of resource information is a major constraint, which

impedes investment in the offshore areas. Although offshore fisheries extend
into high seas, fishermen do not have access to information on the fish stocks
and if more reliable information is available to them on the distribution and the
abundance of high seas fish stocks they could save time as well as fuel costs in
locating productive fishing grounds.

9.1.2. Excessive Reliance on Gillnetting

The overwhelming fishing gear used by the Sri Lankan fishermen is gillnet. Fish
caught with gillnet deteriorates sometimes even before it is landed and the
producer prices for such fish are much less than they would get for good quality
fish. Moreover, gillnet cannot take fish from the deeper layers of water, and
therefore commercially valuable resources found in deeper layers remain
largely under-exploited. There is also no export potential for fish caught by gill
nets. Long – lining, the effective gear for such varieties of fish is still not
widely used in Sri Lanka and one of the constraints in popularizing this gear is
the lack of suitable bait. This fishery also needs larger capital investments for
gear equipment compared to the gill net fishery. Therefore, if is difficult to
motivate fishermen to use long-line.

9.2 Post harvest losses

Up to around 1980, all the fishing in Sri Lanka was confined to the day or night
fishing and fishing trips never last more than 12 hours. With the development of
new boat design and capability of local fishing boatyards in early 80’ s a new
generation offshore fishing boats popularly known as multi-day boats was

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introduced and help the fishermen venture out to off shore/high sea area. At
present there are about 2600 such boats which ventures out as far as 200
nautical miles within the EEZ of Sri Lanka and sometimes stay at sea for up to 4
weeks targeting individually high valued fish species such as tuna, shark and bill
fish. As a result there has been a marked increase in the fish production from
offshore waters. The production from the offshore area increased from 800
M/Tin 1972 to 84,400 M/T in year 2000.

The expansion of the off shore fishing took place rapidly without the required up
grading of technology for fish preservation for longer duration. Chilling fish with
ice in the insulated fish hold is the present method of preservation of fish in
multi-day boats. Since the multi-day boat stays at sea up to a period of 4
weeks, the fish catches especially during early part of the period of stay are
subject to spoilage. It is estimated that our 30% of the landings by the multi-day
boats are below the acceptable quality levels.

9.3. Non-availability of Modern Fishing Boats

Sri Lanka’ s fishing fleet is characterized by its non-specialization. This has

limited the development of specialized fisheries as a result of which some
commercially valuable stocks of fish still remain under exploited. The vessels
presently in use even in the offshore fishery, are not geared and equipped to
enable effective fishing and require improvements such as the installation of
onboard cooling and freezing facilities and deck equipment without which
fishermen are unable to make optimum use of the deep seas resources.

9.4. Non-availability of trained man power for tuna long-lining

One of the important factors constraining the development of the deep sea
fishing by Sri Lankans is the non-availability of trained manpower to undertake
tuna long-line fishing.

9.5 Infrastructure

9.51 Harbours and anchorages (limited berthing, infrastructure & harbour

facilities)

There are only 12 fishery harbours in operation to provide safe anchoring

facilities for offshore fishing boats. This is inadequate for the present fleet,
particularly about 2,600 multi-day fishing vessels. The existing fishery
harbours cannot accommodate large fishing vessels owing to their shallowness,
and lack of space. Further, a large number of single-day fishing boats, which

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are fitted with inboard engines, have to be anchored in the open sea exposing to
marine peril.

9.6 Safety at sea

In the development of offshore fishing there is a greater need to improve the

safety standards aboard all vessels with equipment, training and certification of
crews. Although the legislation concerning safety has been updated,
implementation of the legislation is going to be the challenge as it requires
personnel, inspections, awareness raising and training, and certification and
effective control and sanctions in cases of contravention.

Presently vessels operate to the deep sea without lifejackets, fire extinguishers,
and other essential safety equipment. Some crews are not trained in the use of
such equipment. In addition, the use of new fishing methods and fishing gear
such as long lining poses a distinct danger to fishers not used to such gears or
untrained in the use of the new gear. Therefore under these circumstances
accidents could be occurred.

10. Livelihood benefits and impacts

The coastal fishermen who engaged in fishing within the inshore areas are
expected to divert towards deep sea long line fishery. Therefore, coastal
fishermen are the main target group benefited by developments towards fishing
in deeper waters.

11. Environmental concerns

The development of the long line fleet will require operational measures and
training to mitigate the capture of by-catch species as required under current
regulations.

In addition to that there should be system to avoid the effects from abandoned
fishing gear on the environment.

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12. Conclusions

In order to address the issues and constraints discussed in the offshore

fisheries it is necessary to make substantial policy reforms and structural
adjustments.

1. Domestic capability in exploiting offshore resources need to be

strengthened through the upgrading of the fishing fleet by encouraging the
improvement of vessel designs to undertake prolonged fishing trips and to
maintain high quality standards and reduce post harvest losses.

2. Popularization of fishing methods such as tuna long lining need to be

undertaken with concomitant efforts to reduce gill net fishing effort in
accordance with international protocols.

3. In the offshore area, surveillance needs to be developed through capacity

building.

4. There is an urgent need for offshore fishery stock assessment to enable

sustainable fishery management within the zone.

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