Chapter 3: Matrices

3.1 Introduction to matrices

What is a matrix?

A rectangular arrangement of numbers in ‘m’ rows and ‘n’ columns, can be called as
a matrix with order of m x n (m by n).

a11 a12 a13 1st Row

M3×3 = [a21 a22 a23 ] 2nd
st
1 Row
Row
a31 a32 a33 3rd Row

1st 2nd 3rd

Column Column Column
1st Row

a32 2nd Column

3rd Row

The order of a matrix is the number of the rows and the columns.

The entries are the numbers in the matrix.

Example 1:

9 2 5 𝜋 5
𝐴 = [ 11 −1] 𝐵=[ ] 𝐶 = [8 −11 7]
−3 8 −4 3

𝐀𝟑×𝟐 𝐁𝟐×𝟐 𝐂𝟏×𝟑

3.2 Types of matrices

1. Row vector

A matrix just only has 1 row and ‘n’ columns, called as 1 x n matrix.

𝐷 = [1 2 3], order D1×3

2. Column vector

A matrix just only has ‘m’ rows and 1 column, called as m x 1 matrix.

1
𝐸 = [2], order E3×1
3

3. Square matrix

A matrix has same number of rows and columns.

1 2
𝐹=[ ], order F2×2
3 4

4. Zero matrix

A matrix that contain all zero.

0 0 0
𝐺 = [0 0 0], order G3×3
0 0 0

5. Identity matrix

A square matrix which has ‘1’s on the diagonal and zero everywhere else.

1 0 0
𝐼 = [0 1 0], order I3×3
0 0 1
6. Upper triangular matrix

A square matrix in which all elements below the diagonal are zero.

1 2 3
𝐻 = [0 4 5], order H3×3
0 0 6

7. Lower triangular matrix

A square matrix is the opposite of upper triangular matrix, in which all elements
above the diagonal are zero.

1 0 0
𝐽 = [2 3 0], order J3×3
4 5 6

8. Diagonal matrix

A square matrix in which all elements are zero except on the main diagonal.

−1 0 0
𝐾 = [ 0 2𝜋 0], order K 3×3
0 0 2

9. Symmetrical matrix

A square matrix in which all elements in the upper triangular is equal to the lower
triangular.

1 9 2
𝐿 = [9 7 −3], order L3×3
2 −3 0
 10. Transposed matrix

If M is a (m x n) matrix, then the transpose of M is the (n x m), where the first

column is the first row of M, the second column is the second row of M and so
on.

1
𝑇
i. 𝑀3×1 = [−3], 𝑀1×3 = [1 −3 8]
8

4 6 −7 4 −1 3
𝑇
ii. 𝑁3×3 = [−1 3 3𝜋 ], 𝑁3×3 =[ 6 3 2]
3 2 0 −7 3𝜋 0

3.3 Operations of matrix

1. Addition/Subtraction

To add/subtraction matrices, we add/subtraction the corresponding elements, in which

they must have the same order.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞 𝑎±𝑝 𝑏±𝑞
[ ]±[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑟 𝑠 𝑐±𝑟 𝑑±𝑠
2. Multiplication

a) Multiplication a matrix by a number

Each element in a matrix is multiplied by a constant.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏
𝑘[ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑

b) Multiplication of matrices

Can only be multiplied if the number of columns in the 1st matrix is

EQUAL to the number of rows in the 2nd matrix.

a b
[p q r] × [c d] = [𝑝𝑎 + qc + re pb + qd + rf]
e f
3.4 Determinant of matrices

For every square matrix, a value/number is called a determinant of a matrix and it is

denoted by |A|.

3.5 Inverse of 3x3 matrices

Let A be any square matrix of order (n x n). Then, if there exists a matrix B such that

AB = BA = I

then B is called inverse of A and vice-versa. The inverse of A is denoted by A-1. Also,

A . A-1 = A-1 . A = I

Steps of inverse 3x3 matrices

1. Find the determinant of the matrix
2. Transpose the matrix
3. Find the adjoint of the matrix
4. Multiply with the alternate sign
1
5. Form into an inverse formula A1   adjoint A
A

3.6 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

An eigenvector of a square matrix A is a non-zero column vector x such that Ax  x

where  is a scalar, called the corresponding eigenvalue of A. For example

 2 0 1    2   6    2
 1 2 3  4   12  3 4
      
 1 0 2  2   6   2

 2
Therefore,  4 is an eigenvector with corresponding an eigenvalue   3
 2
 Finding Eigenvalues and eigenvectors:

Rearranging the equation Ax  x

Ax  Ix  0
 A  I x  0

 is an eigenvalue of A if and only if A  x  0 .It can be found by using Cramer’s rule

method.

3.7 Power method

An iterative approach in which to determine the largest eigenvalue and its corresponding
eigenvector.

If A is a square matrix, then a nonzero vector v is called an eigenvector of A, if and only

if A  vi is a scalar multiple of v, that is

Av  v
Steps of Power method:
1. Calculate A  vi .
2. Find m which is the largest magnitude of A  vi .
1
3. Find vi1   A  vi
m
4. STOP the process until the difference | vi1  vi | ≤ 