Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1477 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.

pdf

Fields of quaternions as generalization of Maxwell’s

equations
Khanukaev J.I., Kurakin V. A. (kurakin@satis-tl.ru)

Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University)

The hypothesis of quaternion nature of all fields in physics is put forward. The
ε µ
two quaternions P = −i
µ
( E + E ) + ( H + H ) and Q = −i
ε
(M + M ) + ( A + A) (ε, µ
are permeabilities), which satisfy the equations ∇ o P + ε Q = J , ∇* o Q − µ P = I


( )
* ∂ ∂ 
 ∇ ∇ = −i εµ ∂t  i εµ ∂t  − div + grad + rot  correspond to electromagnetic and
  
gravitational fields. The fields exist irrespective of current-quaternions
i i
J= q+J, I= ρ + I . Currents are the cause of fields’ variations.
εµ εµ
For a quaternion’s body the scalar product is introduced thus transforming the
body into quaternion’s field with pseudoeuclidean metric. Isomorphism of hyper complex
numbers, vector-quaternions, and tensor-quaternions allows introduction of the nabla-
quaternion operator, applicable for any orthogonal system of coordinates in
pseudoeuclidean space.
The purpose of the work is to give a new treatment of electrodynamics presenting
an electromagnetic field as a field of quaternions. There are enough reasons to such an
approach.
D.Maxwell's equations first written in the scalar form after appearance of vector
analysis were rewritten in a vector form: the Maxwell-Heaviside-Hertz equations (further
referred to as Maxwell’s equations). And, as it was noted by N.Tesla, «the simplicity of
the mathematical description bewitched all the world and the minds of researchers were
paralyzed». Since then the results of all experimental researches were adjusted to these
equations. It was natural as no other equations existed.
There are many works in which the conception of quaternions is used for the
description of Maxwell’s equations, however, arising scalar fields, as well as in the case
of vector description, are eliminated by calibration conditions.
In 1911 A.W.Conway [1] and independent of him L.Silberstein in 1912 [2] have
constructed a quaternion analogue of the special theory of relativity. It was thus found
out that the use of full quaternions, and not just only their vector parts, gives natural
possibility to write down Maxwell’s equations in a form naturally covariant concerning
Lorentz's transformations. Such form of Maxwell’s equations is completely equivalent to
their tensor formulation. In 1912 the necessity of quaternion description of
electrodynamics was also pointed out by English physicist Young.
Before making any generalizations of Maxwell’s equations we will note a number
of assertions which will be taken as a basic principle of all further constructions.
− The Real space-time named vacuum, is not an "empty" mathematical space-time
of I. Newton. The vacuum is a certain essence, which for some problems only can
be modelled with space-time of I.Newton.
− Some properties of the disturbed condition of vacuum are described by the
Maxwell’s equations, which are forminvariant with respect to H.Lorentz's
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1478 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

transformations. H.Lorentz's transformations are quaternion transformations

which realize rotation of space-time at an imaginary angle around a velocity
vector
− There takes place the fact of separation of the gravitational field reflecting also
property of vacuum.
− A number of the mathematical facts occur:
The theorem of Frobenius (1849-1917). Any associative algebra with division is
isomorphic to one of the three: algebra of real numbers, algebra of complex numbers or
algebra of quaternions.
Hurwitz’s theorem (1858-1919). Any normalisyted algebra with unity element is
isomorphic to one of four algebras: real numbers, complex numbers, quaternions or
octaves.
So, normalized associative algebras with division and unit are algebras of real
numbers, complex numbers and quaternions. Normalized algebras with division and
unity element are algebras of real numbers, complex numbers, quaternions and octaves.
These facts show that the mathematical model describing a disturbed condition of
vacuum should be formulated in terms of quaternions or octaves. The use of octaves is
possible under refusal of associativity.
The necessity of the equations’ analysis is caused also by the experimental data.
In certain cases electromechanical devices produce fields, which cannot be interpreted as
electric or magnetic ones. So the experimental facts cannot be explained by the equations
of Maxwell as it would be desired [3].
- For example, the term “radiant” energy introduced by N.Tesla requires an
explanation. How the variety of the different devices repeating this or that N.Tesla’s
patent [4] works requires an explanation too.
- V.I.Korobeinikov [5] marks unusual properties of the antenna composed as a
contour, consisting of capacity and two coils located coaxially at some distance from
each other. Coils are connected so that their magnetic fields are directed against each
other (antiphase connection of magnetic coils). The contour is tuned to the frequency of
the signal to be received. Coils are placed in the copper screen improving work of the
antenna. Unusually strong interaction between contours with current was also marked by
G.V.Nikolaev [7].
- A.A.Shpilman's radiator [6] represents a torus made of a ferromagnetic
material with wedge-shaped inserts – permanent magnets. The magnetic field is oriented
along the torus’ axis. The torus rotates on the axis of symmetry with a speed of some
thousand turns per minute. Arising radiation is directed along the rotation axis. Usual
sensors do not detect the field. However at certain light exposure it can be observed
visually. The field possesses a very high penetrating ability (lead and ferroconcrete walls
are not obstacles).
- G.V.Nikolaev [7] describes experiments in which the elements of various
electromechanical systems move. For an explanation of observable effects there are
introduced the additional scalar magnetic field raised by moving charges, and additional
force of interaction of a scalar magnetic field with a current. Forces do not contradict the
third law of mechanics.
If Maxwell’s equations are considered to be absolute truth then all experimental
facts should find their explanation. But if inexplicable facts occur then we understand
that that either the equations of electrodynamics should be made more exact, or new
fields must be introduced.
1. Consider a four-dimensional space with pseudoeuclidean metrics as
Goo = G oo = 1, Goα = G oα = 0, Gαα = Gαα = −1, Gαβ = Gαβ = 0, α , β = 1, 2, 3 .
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1479 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

Let us introduce into consideration a vector-quaternion V = EoV o + Eα V α isomorphic to

hyper complex number-quaternion V = V o + Eα V α , V o , V α ∈ C . For basis elements
Eα , α = 0,1, 2, 3 we introduce the following rules of scalar and quaternion multiplication
Eo ⋅ Eo = 1, Eo ⋅ Eα = 0, Eα ⋅ E β = −δ αβ ,
Eo o Eo = Eo , Eo o Eα = Eα o Eo = Eα , (1.1)
Eα o Eα = −Eo , Eα o E β = δ αβγ Eγ , α , β = 1, 2, 3,
where δ αβ − symbols of Kronecker, δ αβγ − discriminant tensor antisymmetric in any two
indices. Introduction of the scalar product transforms the body of quaternions into the
field of quaternions.
The basis inversion corresponds to quaternion conjugation: E% α = −Eα , α = 1, 2, 3 ;
and substitution of i by −i : i* = −i corresponds to complex conjugation.
A matrix can be associated with any quaternion and this matrix in turn can be
treated as tensor-quaternion. For example, LW = LW αβ Eα E β or
R W = R W αβ Eα E β , where
 W o −W 1 −W 2 −W 3   W o W1 W2 W3 
 1   1 
αβ  W W o −W 3 W 2  αβ  −W Wo −W 3 W2 
LW = , W = .
 W 2 W 3 W o −W 1  R  −W 2 W 3 Wo −W 1 
 3   
 W −W
2
W1 W o  3
 −W −W
2
W1 W o 
A scalar product of tensor-quaternions corresponds to quaternion product of two
vector-quaternions: VA o VB ⇔ WA ⋅ WB . Two quaternions can be associated with the
commutator [ A o B] = A o B − B o A and the anticommutator {A o B} = A o B + B o A .

With any point of space we associate a vector-quaternion

X = Eo iX o + Eα X α , X o , X α ∈ R, X o ≡ cT , isomorphic to its’ tensor-quaternion

LX = Eα E β L X αβ = Eα E β R X αβ = R X and operators nabla [9]

i ∂ ∂ i ∂ ∂
∇ = −Eo + Eα α
, ∇* = E o + Eα ,
c ∂T ∂X c ∂T ∂X α
(1.2)
% = −E i ∂ ∂ %* i ∂ ∂
∇ − Eα , ∇ = Eo − Eα .
∂X α ∂X α
o
c ∂T c ∂T
Lorentz's transformations conserve the interval that dXdX* = c 2 dT 2 − dX 2 = c 2 dτ 2
establishes connection between an observable indication of moving clock and an
dX
1 − (U c ) dT = dτ , where U =
2
indication of unmoving clock: − three-dimensional
dT
speed.
Let's introduce 4-speeds as
dX dX dT
= ( ic + U ) 1 − (U c )
2
UT = = ic + U , Uτ = = UT
dT dτ dτ
d *
d d% %, d% *
and operators = U T o ∇* , = UT o ∇, = UT o ∇ = UT o ∇% * .
dt dt dt dt
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1480 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

dV
It is possible to consider operations ∇ ⋅ V , ∇ o V , , ∇V , L , R ∇ ⋅ W,
dT
dW
L , R ∇ o W, etc., where V − is vector-quaternion and W − is tensor-quaternion. For
dt
i ∂V o o
% * ⋅ V = i ∂V + divV
example, ∇⋅V = − − divV , ∇
с ∂T с ∂T
 i ∂V o   i ∂V 
and further ∇oV = − − divV  +  − + gradV o + rotV  ,
 c ∂T   c ∂T 
 i ∂V o   i ∂V 
∇* o V =  − divV  +  + gradV o + rotV  ,
 c ∂T   c ∂T 

% o V =  − i ∂V + divV  +  − i ∂V − gradV o − rotV o  ,

o
∇    
 c ∂T   c ∂T 

% * o V =  i ∂V + divV  +  i ∂V − gradV o − rotV  ,

o
∇    
 c ∂T   c ∂T 
d *V  1 ∂V   ∂V o 
= −ic  divV + U ⋅ − − U ⋅ gradV o − U ⋅ rotV +
dt  c 2 ∂T   ∂T 
 1 ∂V o 1 ∂V   ∂V 
+ic  gradV o + rotV + U 2
+U × 2 +− − UdivV + U × gradV o + U × rotV ,
 c ∂T c ∂T   ∂T 
i ∂  i ∂V o
  i ∂V 
(
∇ o ∇* o V = − )

c ∂T  c ∂T
− divV  − div  + gradV o + rotV  −
  c ∂T 
i ∂  i ∂V   i ∂V o
  i ∂V 
−  + gradV o + rotV  + grad  − divV  + rot  + gradV o + rotV  =
c ∂T  c ∂T   c ∂T   c ∂T 
 1 ∂ 2V o   1 ∂ 2V 
= 2 2
− divgradV o  +  2 2
− graddivV + rotrotV  = ∇* o ( ∇ o V ) .
 c ∂T   c ∂T 
Cartesian coordinates can be associated with curvilinear coordinates
 ∂X s 
X s = X s ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 ), det  k  ≠ 0, s, k = 1, 2, 3 . Vector X = Eo iX o + Eα X α is associated
 ∂x 
with vector x = eo ix + e s x s , x o , x s ∈ R, x o ≡ ct ≡ cT ≡ X o . The basis of curvilinear
o

system of coordinates is defined by equalities

∂X k ∂X α ∂X α
eS = Ek = g sk E k , where g sk = . (1.3)
∂x S ∂x s ∂x k
∂x s ∂x s ∂x s
Then Eα = e s α = g α s e s , g αβ = , g sα g α k = δ sk . (1.4)
∂X ∂X α ∂X β
Curvilinear coordinates with the basis eo , eα , α = 1, 2, 3 assume the mutual basis
e o , eα , α = 1, 2, 3 , (eo = eo ) that is different from the initial one. Thus, we have two
representations of a vector-quaternion and four representations of a tensor-quaternion.
For orthogonal curvilinear coordinates the rules of elements multiplication of the
basis e s , e k repeat the multiplication rules of the elements E s , E k .

2. H. Lorentz’s transformation is a quaternion transformation [10] and all the

requirements of relativistic form invariance for quaternion fields are fulfilled
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1481 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

automatically: F = L% o f o L% → F = S T f , x = L o X o L → x = SX ,
∂x ∂F ∂S T f ∂x ∂S T f ∂f
=S→ = = = SS T , where SS T = 1 .
∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂x ∂x
If different parts of moving frame of reference have different speeds then this frame of
reference it is not inertial one and H. Lorentz’s transformation is local.
Further we will note some positions characterizing the equations of Maxwell:
- relativistic forminvariance of the electromagnetic field equations is provided with
introduction of tensors F = ∇A − ( ∇A ) = µ G [8] which can be formally derived from
T

i
the vector-quaternion-potential A = Eo Ao + Eα Aα , c =1 εµ , Ao , Aα ∈ R :
c
 0 iE1 c iE2 c iE3 c   0 icD1 icD2 icD3 
 −iE c 0 B3 − B2   −icD 0 H3 −H2 
F= 1
, G =  1
,
 −iE2 c − B3 0 B1   −icD2 −H3 0 H1 
 −iE c B − B1 0    −icD H2 − H1 0 
 3 2  3

∂A
where B = rotA, E = − gradAo − ; the components of tensors F pq , G pq satisfy the
∂t
∂F ij
∂F jk
∂F ki 3
∂G jk
equalities +
∂X k ∂X i ∂X j
+ = 0, ∑
k =o ∂ X k
= J j i, j , k = 0,3 , which are

equivalent to the Maxwell’s equations

∂B ∂D
rotE + = 0, divB = 0, rotH − = J , divD = ρ ;
∂t ∂T
- considering the equations of Maxwell as the description of the experimental facts, in
connection with relativistic forminvariance, it is natural to treat them as the equations of
quaternion field;
- such a treatment of the Maxwell’s equations allows to drop the special constructions
of G.Minkowski connected with the tensors F pq , G pq introduced above.

ε
Let's introduce a quaternion P = −i (E + E) + (H + H ) , (2.1)
µ
µ
µ P = −i εµ ( E + E ) + ( B + B ) = −i
ε
( D + D) + ( B + B )
where E, H ∈ R electric and magnetic fields’ strengths, ε , µ (c = 1 εµ ) are
corresponding permeabilities, and E , H ∈ R − scalar fields. We obtain the equations in the
form, coinciding with the Maxwell’s equations, setting
ε  ∂B   ∂D 
∇ o P = −i  − divE +  −  divH + −
µ  ∂T   ∂T 
(2.2)
ε  ∂B   ∂D 
−i  rotE + gradE +  +  rotH + gradH −  = J,
µ ∂T   ∂T 
i
where J = q + J − four-current, or
εµ
∂B ∂B
rotE + gradE + = 0, divD − ε = q,
∂t ∂t
(2.3)
∂D ∂D
rotH + gradH − = J, divB + µ = 0.
∂t ∂t
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1482 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

Usually scalar fields E , H , D = ε E , B = µ H are supposed to be equal to zero.

 ∂q  i  ∂J 
The equality ∇* o J = −  + divJ  +  εµ + gradq  + rotJ = rotJ ,
 ∂T  εµ  ∂T 
∂q ∂J
that is equivalent to + divJ = 0, εµ + gradq = 0 (2.4)
∂t ∂t
reflects a continuity of the current. All components of the field satisfy the equations of
∂2F ∂2 F
Laplace: divgradF − εµ = 0, graddivF − rotrotF − εµ = 0.
∂t 2 ∂t 2

Quaternion P can be received from similar quaternion

µ
Q = −i (M + M ) + ( A + A),
ε
(2.5)
ε
ε Q = −i εµ ( M + M ) + ( L + L ) = −i ( N + N ) + (L + L ),
µ
where M , M , A, A ∈ R − field strengths and N = µ M , N = µ M , L = ε A, L = ε A − the
corresponding inductions:
µ  ∂L   ∂N 
∇* o Q = i  + divM  +  − divA  −
ε  ∂T   ∂T 
(2.6)
µ  ∂L   ∂N 
−i
ε  rotM + gradM − ∂T  +  rotA + gradA + ∂T  = µ P,
   
or
∂L ∂L
rotM + gradM − = D, divM +
= − D,
∂t ∂t
(2.7)
∂N ∂N
rotA + gradA + = B, divA − = − B,
∂t ∂t
So, we have ∇ o P = J , ∇* o J = rotJ , ∇* o Q = µ P
or ∇* o ∇ o P = rotJ , ∇ o ∇* o Q = µ J . (2.8)
Quaternion Q represents the integral characteristic of quaternion P .

Two points attract attention:

- asymmetry of these equations;
- the field exists only in the presence of a current.
The equations (2.2) and (2.6) become symmetric if written down, for example, in the
form ∇ o P = −ε Q + J , ∇* o Q = µ P + I , (2.9)
i
where I = ρ + I − four-current and ∇ o I = rotI .
εµ
Then the equations (2.3) and (2.7) will become
∂B ∂B
rotE + gradE + = −N, divD − ε
= ε N + q,
∂t ∂t
(2.10)
∂D ∂D
rotH + gradH − = − L + J , divH + = L,
∂t ∂t
∂L ∂L
rotM + gradM − = D, divN + µ = −µ D + ρ ,
∂t ∂t
(2.11)
∂N ∂N
rotA + gradA + = B + I , divA − = − B.
∂t ∂t
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1483 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

Each of the fields satisfies the non-uniform equation of Helmholtz

∇* o ( ∇ o P ) + εµ P = −ε I + rotJ , ∇ o ( ∇* o Q ) + εµ Q = µ J + rotI . (2.12)
The equations were separated, therefore the complex quaternions P and Q can be
interpreted as different essences.
In the absence of scattering the field exists irrespective of charges and currents,
which are responsible only for change of fields (the fact that N.Tesla found out
experimentally). There is a certain analogy to treatment of dynamics. By G.Galilei the
motion of material bodies is possible with the presence of forces only, and by I.Newton
the motion can take place without forces. Forces are responsible for change of
momentum only.
The question on the nature of the formations, which are the carrier of two types four-
currents J and I , is open. Different variants are possible:
- usual four-current J generated by electrons exists, and four-current I is
absent;
- there are two types of formations, each of which is responsible for one
type of a current;
- the formations named electrons, possess two types of charges and generate
two types of four-currents J and I ;
- tempting is possibility of an identification of an electron charge ρ with its
mass, and dielectric permittivity ε with a gravitational constant γ ( ε = γ )
because mass and charge are the only macroscopic properties of electron.
At identity of a charge ρ to mass we have the dynamic equations of gravitation.
Let's note some points confirming the validity of such identification:
− Identity of the form of the Coulomb’s law and the I. Newton’s law of universal
gravitation;
− Absence of reasonable physical sense for dielectric permittivity of vacuum;
− The given identification removes static character of the law of universal
gravitation and eliminates its isolation;
− The experimental facts testifying to the presence of additional forces at
gravitational interactions [11];
− Impossibility to calculate the real condition of the Solar system for a long enough
interval of time, using only the universal gravitation law;
− At last, numerous attempts of unification gravitational and electromagnetic fields,
since Heaviside [12]; among modern authors we will note V.L.Diatlov [13].
3. Concerning manifestation of this field it is necessary to notice the fact that
functioning of the majority of measuring devices is based on force influence of a field on
charges and currents. The masses carrying these charges and currents change the
condition of movement according to dynamics equations.
We will define force as
 d*   iq  
Fq = Re  qQ  = Re ( qUT o ∇* ) o Q  = Re  + J  o µP =
   
 dT   εµ  
  q⋅B 
= Re i  + εµ ( J ⋅ E )  + ( q ⋅ E + J ⋅ B ) +
 
  εµ 
 q⋅B  
+i  − εµ ( J ⋅ E + J × E )  + ( q ⋅ E + J ⋅ B + J × B )  =
 εµ 
  
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1484 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

= ( q ⋅ E + J ⋅ B ) + ( q ⋅ E + J ⋅ B + J × B ).
Let's note the presence of the force J ⋅ B , which had been experimentally found out by
V.G.Nikolaev [7].
By analogy we have a force, operating on the mass carrying a charge ρ ,
d    iρ  
Fρ = Re  ρ P  = Re ( ρ UT o ∇ ) o P  = Re  −  + I  o εQ =

 dT    εµ  
  ρ ⋅L 
= Re  −i  + εµ ( I ⋅ M )  + ( − ρ ⋅ M + I ⋅ L ) +
 
  εµ 
 ρ⋅L  
+i− + εµ ( I ⋅ M + I × M )  + ( − ρ ⋅ M + I ⋅ L + I × L )  =
 εµ 
  
= ( −ρ ⋅ M + I ⋅ L ) + ( −ρ ⋅ M + I ⋅ L + I × L ).
Besides static force Fρ = − ρ ⋅ M we have the terms I ⋅ L + I × L depending on
movement of mass I = V ρ ( V − speed of mass) and a field L + L , which can be caused
by movement of a field source M .
There is a question on measurement of non force field display:
- what is the sense of imaginary components of fields Im Fq , Im Fρ ;
- what is the sense of scalar components of the introduced forces?
All these hypotheses require experimental confirmation.
4. Let’s summarize. The quaternion treatment of an electromagnetic field initially
declared by D.Maxwell, is more adequate to reality as the field equations are naturally
forminvariant to H.Lorentz’s transformation, do not require calibration and explain
experimentally found addition to H.Lorent’s force power influence.
Symmetrization of the equations causes the existence of the additional
electromagnetic field, which has been found out by N.Tesla. In the absence of field
scattering, once the fields have arisen, they exist unlimitedly long. Charges and currents
cause only field change. Electric permittivities ε1 , ε 2 and magnetic permittivities µ1 , µ 2
of both fields are assumed identical for simplicity, but that is, probably, not so.
The mathematical facts connected with exceptional algebras, put a problem about
representation of an electromagnetic field in the form of octave fields. Any other fields
associated with vacuum, should have also a quaternion treatment.
All these hypotheses require experimental check and judgement.

References
1. A.W.Conway, On the application of quaternions to some recent developments of
electrical theory. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. A29(1911), 80.
2. L. Silberstein Quaternionic Form of Relativity Phil Mag S. 6 vol 23 No. 137
(May 1912) 790-809
3. Nikola Tesla. Articles. Samara “AGNI” Edition, 2008, 584p.
4. Nikola Tesla. METHOD OF UTILIZING RADIANT ENERGY, Patent
No.685,958,dated November 5,1901 APPARATUS FOR THE UTILIZATION
OF RADIANT ENERGY Patent No.685,957,dated November 5,1901
5. Korobeinikov V.I. www.qrz.ru/schemes/contribute/antenns/eh/
6. M. Sue Benford, Probable Axion Detection via Consistent Radiographic Findings
after Exposure to a Shpilman Axion Generator, (Torsion Fields and Their
Utilization), www.spinfields.hut2.ru/ALMANACH/2n02/BenfordAxionR.htm
Электронный научный журнал «ИССЛЕДОВАНО В РОССИИ» 1485 http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2009/112е.pdf

7. Nikolaev G.V. Modern Electrodynamics and the Causes of its’ Paradoxality.

Prosperities of Noncontradictive Electrodynamics Creation. Tomsk: “Tverdynia”
Edition, 2003. 149p.
8. G.Minkowski. The Two Articles On Main Electrodynamics Equations. Moscow,
Izhevsk Computer Research Institut. 2003.
9. Andre Waser. Quaternions in Electrodynamics. AW-Verlag; www.aw-verlag.ch
10. Yu.I.Khanukaev. On Quaternions I. Finite Motions of Solid Body and Point.
Researched in Russia. http://zhurnal.ape.relarn.ru/articles/2002/033/pdf
11. G.A. Nikolsky. Curl Effects of Solar Radiation Penetrating Component. St-
Petersburg University Journal #24-25,
28.11.2005.www.spbumag.nw.ru/2005/24/14.shtml
12. Heaviside O.A. Gravitational and Electromagnetic Analogy // The Electrician.
1893.V.31.P.281-282,359.
13. V.L. Diatlov Polarization model of dipole physical vacuum. Novosibirsk. MI
SORAN Edition, 1998. 183p.