A PROJECT REPORT

ON

TO COMPUTE THE GOODNESS OF FIT OF THE

EXPERIMENTALLY OBTAINED HYSTERESIS
CURVE OF FERROELECCTRIC MATERIAL
USING CHI SQUARE FITTING TEST

Submitted as partial fulfillment for the

completion of course work paper PHY-601

BY
ROHIT
PH.D. Research Scholar
Department of Physics and Astrophysics
University of Delhi.
PH.D. registration No.-FOS-I/114/Ph.D./8072

Ferroelectricity
FERROELECTRIC MATERIALS

A ferroelectric material develops a spontaneous polarization (builds up a charge) in

response to an external electric field. The polarization does not go away when the external
field is removed. The direction of the polarization is reversible.Ferroelectricity is an
electrical phenomenon whereby certain materials may exhibit a spontaneous dipole
moment, the direction of which can be switched between equivalent states by the
application of an external electric field. The internal electric dipoles of a ferroelectric
material are physically tied to the material lattice so anything that changes the physical
lattice will change the strength of the dipoles and cause a current to flow into or out of the
capacitor even without the presence of an external voltage across the capacitor. There is a
class of materials which shows spontaneous polarization and for which the relation
between P and E is non-linear. Such materials also exhibit Hysteresis.

These substances whose properties are similar to ferroelectrics in many respects are called
Ferroelectrics. Spontaneous polarization is a function of temperature. Spontaneous
Polarisation decreases with increase in temperature and vanishes at the curie temperature
Tc. Above Tc, the substance is in the paraelectric state in which the elementary dipoles of
the various unit cells in the crystal are randomly oriented. In paraelectric state the
substance is found to obey the Curie-Weiss Law;

χ = C / (T –Tc)

Two stimuli that will change the lattice dimensions of a material are force and temperature.
The generation of a current in response to the application of a force to a capacitor is called
piezoelectricity. The generation of current in response to a change in temperature is called
pyroelectricity. Placing a ferroelectric material between two conductive plates creates a
ferroelectric capacitor. Ferroelectric capacitors exhibit nonlinear properties and usually
have very high dielectric constants. The fact that the internal electric dipoles can be forced
to change their direction by the application of an external voltage gives rise to hysteresis in
the "polarization vs voltage" property of the capacitor. Polarization is defined as the total
charge stored on the plates of the capacitor divided by the area of the plates. Hysteresis
means memory and ferroelectric capacitors are used to make ferroelectric RAM for
computers and RFID cards. The combined properties of memory, piezoelectricity, and
pyroelectricity make ferroelectric capacitors some of the most useful technological devices
in modern society. Ferroelectric capacitors are at the heart of medical ultrasound
machines, high quality infrared cameras, fire sensors, sonar, vibration sensors, and even
fuel injectors on diesel engines. The high dielectric constants of ferroelectric materials used
to concentrate large values of capacitance into small volumes, resulting in the very tiny
surface mount capacitor. The electro optic modulators that form the backbone of the
Internet are made with ferroelectric materials. Most ferroelectric materials undergo a
structural phase transition from a high-temperature no ferroelectric (or paraelectric)
phase into a low-temperature ferroelectric phase. The paraelectric phase may be
piezoelectric or no piezoelectric and is rarely polar. The symmetry of the ferroelectric
phase is always lower than the symmetry of the paraelectric phase. The temperature of the
phase transition is called the Curie point, Tc. Above the Curie point the dielectric
permittivity falls off with temperature according to the Curie–Weiss law.
PROPERTIES:

1. The reversibility of the permanent polarization by an electric field. Reversibility is

a result of the fact that the polar structure of a ferroelectric is a slightly distorted
nonpolar structure. The distortion gives rise to nonlinear dielectric behavior.
2. Ferroelectrics have very high dielectric constants at relatively low applied field
frequencies. Capacitors made from these materials can be significantly smaller than
capacitors made out of other dielectric materials. E.g.: Barium Titanate, Rochelle
salt, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, potassium niobate, and lead zirconate-
titanate (PZT).
3. All ferroelectric materials have a transition temperature called the Curie point (Tc).
At T > Tc the crystal does not exhibit ferroelectricity, while for T < Tc it is
ferroelectric. On decreasing the temperature through the Curie point, a ferroelectric
crystal undergoes a phase transition from a non-ferroelectric phase to a
ferroelectric phase. If there are more than one ferroelectric phases, the T at which
the crystal transforms from one phase to another is called the transition
temperature.

CORECIVITY: It is the intensity of the applied electric field required to reduce the
polarization of that material to zero after the polarization of the sample has been driven to
saturation. Thus coercivity measures the resistance of
a ferroelectric material to demagnetize. Coercivity is usually measured in oersted or
ampere per meter units and is denoted HC. It can be measured using a P-E analyzer.
Ferroelectrical materials having high coercivity are called electrically hard materials.
Materials with low coercivity are said to be electrically soft.

RETENTIVITY: A measure of the residual flux density

corresponding to the saturation induction of a electric material. In other words, it
is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual electric field when the
electric force is removed after achieving saturation. Residual Polarisation or
Residual Flux - the electric flux density that remains in a material when the electric force
is zero. Note that residual polarization and retentivity are the same when the
material has been polarized to the saturation point.

CORECIVE FORCE: The amount of reverse electric field which must be applied to
a electric material to make the electric flux return to zero.

RELUCTANCE: Is the opposition that a ferroelectric material shows to the establishment of

a electric field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
What is statistics??
It is the practice or science of collecting and analysis of numerical data in large
quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those
in a representative sample. The analysis of qualitative research involves aiming to
understand the big picture by using the data to describe the phenomenon and what
this means. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis involves labelling and coding all of
the data in order that similarities and differences can be recognised. Every
statistical investigation aims at collecting information about some aggregate or
collection of individuals or of their attributes, rather than the individuals
themselves. In statistical language, such a collection is called a population. A
population is finite or infinite, according as the number of elements is finite or
infinite. A finite subset of a population is called a sample and process of selection of
such sample is called sampling. The basic objective of the theory of sampling is
to draw inference about the population, using the information of the sample. Here,
these inferences are drawn using the chi square distribution and the chi square test or
goodness of fit test. The chi square goodness of fit test begins by hypothesizing
that the distribution of a variable behaves in a particular manner. For example, in order
to determine daily staffing needs of a retail store, the manager may wish to know whether
there are an equal number of customers each day of the week. To
begin, a hypothesis of equal numbers of customers on each day could be assumed,
and this would be the null hypothesis. A student may observe the set of grades for a
class, and suspect that the professor allocated the grades on the basis of a normal
distribution. Another possibility is that a researcher claims that the sample selected has a
distribution which is very close to distribution of the population. While no
general statement can be provided to cover all these possibilities, what is common
to all is that a claim has been made concerning the nature of the whole distribution.
Goodness of Fit Test
The χ2 appears quite different from the other statistics which have been used in
the previous hypotheses tests. It also appears to bear little resemblance to the
theoretical chi square distribution just described. For both the goodness of fit test and the
test of independence, the chi square statistic is the same. For both of these tests, all the
categories into which the data have been divided are used. The data obtained from the
sample are referred to as the observed numbers of cases. In the
chi square tests, the null hypothesis makes a statement concerning how many cases
are to be expected in each category if this hypothesis is correct. The chi square test
is based on the difference between the observed and the expected values for each
category. The chi square statistic is defined as

𝑖=𝑖

(0𝑖 − 𝑖𝑖)2
2=∑

𝑖𝑖
𝑖=0

where Oi is the observed number of cases in category i, and Ei is the expected

number of cases in category i. This chi square statistic is obtained by calculating
the difference between the observed number of cases and the expected number of
cases in each category. This difference is squared and divided by the expected
number of cases in that category. These values are then added for all the
categories, and the total is referred to as the chi squared value. The null hypothesis
is a particular claim concerning how the data is distributed. More will be said about
the construction of the null hypothesis later. The null and alternative hypotheses for
each chi square test can be stated as
Null Hypothesis H0 : Oi = Ei
Alternative Hypothesis H1 : Oi ≠ Ei
Large values of this statistic lead the researcher to reject the null hypothesis,
smaller values mean that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. If the claim made in the
null hypothesis is true, the observed and the expected values are close to
each other and Oi – Ei is small for each category. When the observed data does not
conform to what has been expected on the basis of the null hypothesis, the
difference between the observed and expected values, Oi – Ei , is large. The chi
square statistic is thus small when the null hypothesis is true, and large when the
null hypothesis is not true. Exactly how large the χ 2 value must be in order to be
considered large enough to reject the null hypothesis, can be determined from the
level of significance and the chi square table. A general formula for determining
the degrees of freedom is not given at this stage, because this differs for the two types of
chi square tests. In each type of test though, the degrees of freedom is
based on the number of categories which are used in the calculation of the statistic.
The chi square statistic, along with the chi square distribution, allow the researcher
to determine whether the data is distributed as claimed. If the chi square statistic is large
enough to reject H0, then the sample provides evidence that the distribution
is not as claimed in H0. If the chi square statistic is not so large, then the researcher
may have insufficient evidence to reject the claim made in the null hypothesis.

How to use 𝑖 to test for goodness of fit

Suppose we have a set of N experimentally measured quantities xi. We want to

test whether they are well-described by some set of hypothesized values of x. We
form a sum like that shown in Eq. 1. It will contain N terms, constituting a sample value
for . 2 (a) We hypothesize that our data are appropriately described by our
chosen function, Yi or set of xi (around which the curve is centred). This is the
hypothesis we are going to test. (b) From our data sample we calculate a sample
value of 2 (chi-square), along with ν (the number of degrees of freedom), (a
common value is .05, or 5 ). We choose a value of the significance level percent),
and from an appropriate table or graph, determine the corresponding value of , ,
2 . We then compare this with our sample value of 2 . (d) The critical value of the 2-
distribution corresponding to a few important LOS and a range of values
of x are available in the form of a table called 2 -table. , (e) If the
calculated , we will accept the null hypothesis H0 which assumes that the given
sample is one drawn from the hypothetical population, i.e. we will conclude that
the difference between the observed and expected is not significant at , we will
reject H0 and conclude that the difference is significant.

Conditions for the validity of test:

For the validity of test, the following conditions must be satisfied:

(i) The sample observations should be independent.

(ii) The total frequency should be reasonably large, say greater than 50. (iii)
Expected cell frequency should not be less than 5.
If any theoretical cell frequency is lesser than 5, then for the application of test, it
is pooled with the preceding or succeeding frequency so that the pooled frequency
is more than 5 and Degrees of freedom is properly adjusted. (iv) The number of
classes ‘n’ must be neither too small nor too large.

Here are graphs of for three values of degree of freedom k= 2,4,9.. The
distribution is highly skewed for small values of k and then
increases,approaching a Gaussian distribution and becomes more symmetric
as k increases , just as predicted by the Central Limit Theorem
Least Squares
Given is a bivariate dataset (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn), where x1, …, xn are
nonrandom and Yi = α + βxi + Ui are random variables for i = 1, 2, . . .,
n. The random variables U1, U2, …, Un have zero expectation and
variance σ 2
Method of Least Squares: Choose a value for α and β such that
n
S(α,β)=(
∑ ( y − α− β x )2
i

i
) is minimal.
1
– Regression
The observed value y corresponding to x and the value α+βx on the
i
i
i
regression line y = α + βx.
n
∑ ( y − α− β x )2
i
i
1
– Estimation
Method of Least Squares: Choose a value for α and β such that
n
S(α,β)=(
∑( y
− α− β x )2
i

i
) is minimal.
1
To find the least squares estimates, we differentiate S(α, β) with respect to α
and β, and we set the derivatives equal to 0:
After some calculus magic, we get two equations to estimate α and β:
Estimation
After some simple algebraic rearranging, we obtain:
(slope)
(intercept)

Relation with Maximum Likelihood

What are the maximum likelihood estimates for α and β?
To apply the method of least squares no assumption is needed about
the type of distribution of the Ui. In case the type of distribution of the Ui
is known, the maximum likelihood principle can be applied. In particular,
when the Ui are independent with an N(0, σ2) distribution.
Then Yi has an N (α + βxi, σ2) distribution, making the probability
density function
– Maximum Likelihood
For fixed σ >0 the loglikelihood l (α, β, σ) obtains the maximum when
n
∑ ( y − α− β x )2
i
i
1
is minimal. Hence, when random variables independent with a N(0,σ 2)
distribution, the maximum likelihood principle and the least
squares method return the same estimators.
The maximum likelihood estimator for σ 2 is:
n
̂σ2 1
=
∑ ( Y − ̂α− ̂β x )2
n
i
i
i= 1
HYSTERESIS CURVE

Hysteresis means an effect remains after its cause has disappeared. Hysteresis
defined it as: When there are two physical quantities M and N such that cyclic
variations of N cause cyclic variations of M, then if the changes of M lag behind
those of N, we may say that there is hysteresis in the relation of M to N".

Electric Hysteresis

Consider a electric material being subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The

graph intensity of magnetization (M) vs. magnetizing field (H) gives a closed curve
called M-H loop. Consider the portion AB of the curve given below. The intensity
of magnetization M does not become zero when the magnetizing field H is reduced
to zero. Thus the intensity of magnetization M at every stage lags behind the
applied field H. This property is called electric hysteresis. The M-H loop is called
hysteresis loop. The shape and area of the loop are different for different materials.

HysteresisLoop
An initially unmagnetized material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization. The
values of intensity of magnetization M and the magnetizing field H are calculated
at every stage and a closed loop is obtained on plotting a graph between M and H
as shown in the figure. The point ‘O’ represents the initial unmagnetized condition
of the material. As the applied field is increased, the magnetization increases to the
saturation point ‘A’ along ‘OA’. As the applied field is reduced, the loop follows
the path ‘AB’. ‘OB’ represents the intensity of magnetization remaining in the
material when the applied field is reduced to zero. This is called the residual
polarisation or remanence. The property of retaining some polarisation on removing
the electric field is called retentivity. OC represents the magnetizing field to be
applied in the opposite direction to remove residual polarisation. This is called
coercive field and the property is called coercivity. When the field is further
increased in the reverse direction the material reaches negative saturation point
‘D’. When the field is increased in positive direction, the curve follows path
‘DEF’.

Importance or Significance of B-H Loop:

The shape and size of the hysteresis loop largely depends on the nature of the
electric material. The choice of a electric material required for a particular
application often depends on the shape and size of the hysteresis loop.
The smaller the hysteresis loop area of a electric material, the less is the
hysteresis loss. For example, the hysteresis loop area for silicon steel has
very small, for this reason silicon steel is widely used for manufacturing of
transformer cores and rotating machines which are subjected to rapid
reversals of polarisation
The hysteresis loop for Hard Steel (large hysteresis loop area) indicates that
the material has high retentivity and coercivity. Therefore hard steel is quite
useful in making permanent magnets. But due to large area hysteresis loss is
quite high. This is the reason hard steel is not used for construction of
electrical machines

Hysteresis Loss:

When a electric material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization (magnetized

first in one direction and later magnetized in opposite direction in a cyclic manner),
an energy loss takes place. This energy loss is due to molecular friction in the
material. That is, the domains (or molecular magnets) of the material being turned
first in one direction and then the other. Energy is thus expended in the material in
overcoming this opposition. This loss is in the form of heat and is called hysteresis loss.
One of the major downs of hysteresis is the losses it causes in systems that have
changing electrical flux, like transformers. There it is one of the major reasons
for losses.
These losses increase with the increase of frequency requiring sofisticated
technicques as frequency increases; up to the point of making electric core
material contra productive at very high frequencies.

Methods to reduce Hysteresis Loop or M-H

Loop:

Hysteresis loop can by using soft electric materials (like CRGO core electric
material in transformers) having smaller loop to reduce the hysteresis loss.

TECHNIQUE FOR MEASUREMENT OF

MAGNETISATION WITH RESPECT TO
APPLIED ELECTRIC FIELD

A vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) systems are used to measure the

electric properties of materials. The vibrating component causes a change in the
electric field of the sample, which generates an electrical field in a coil based on
Faraday’s Law of Induction.

If the sample is placed within a uniform electric field H, a magnetization M will

be induced in the sample. In a VSM, the sample is placed within suitably placed
sensing coils, also held at the desired angle.
And the vibrating sample component is made to undergo sinusoidal motion, i.e.,
mechanically vibrated.

The electromagnet activates before the testing starts so if the sample is electric, it
will become more so the stronger the field that is produced. A electric field H
appears around the sample and, once the vibration begins, then the magnetization
of the sample can be analyzed as changes occur in relation to the timing of
movement. Because electric flux changes induce a voltage in the sensing coils
that is proportional to the magnetization of the sample. Changes in the signal are
converted to values by the software to graph magnetization M versus the electric
field
H
strength,
often
referred
to
as
a
hysteresis
loop.

VIBRATING SAMPLE MAGNETOMETER

(VSM)

FORMULATOCALCULATE
THEORETICAL MAGNETISATION OF
OBSERVATIONS:

M1=(2 Ms/3.142) tan(inverse)((H-Hc)/Hc) tan((3.142 Mr)/2

Ms))
M2=(2 Ms/3.142) tan(inverse)((H+Hc)/Hc) tan((3.142 Mr)/2
Ms))

OBSERVATION TABLE ::
Sum of chi
H(Oe)
M(emu/cm3)
M(emu/cm3
(Oi-EI)^2
(Chi)^2=
square
(Oi-
observed (Oi)
Expacted(Ei)

Ei)^2/Mod(Ei)
32.63194
56.63689
51.328566
28.1783
0.548978978
5674.889
29.47569
56.58549
50.685699
34.80753
0.686732836
26.3176
55.48318
49.872946
31.47473
0.631098182
23.16033
54.15764
48.815011
28.54368
0.584731705
20.00055
52.51419
47.382473
26.33452
0.555786089
20.00061
52.51625
47.382505
26.35534
0.556225082
19.20237
52.04507
46.937455
26.08773
0.555797731
18.40215
51.56498
46.448159
26.18186
0.563679115
17.60255
51.01135
45.909725
26.02658
0.566907723
16.80243
50.46384
45.313748
26.52345
0.585328929
16.00083
49.84239
44.650024
26.96066
0.603821953
15.20234
49.21226
43.91134
28.09975
0.639920186
14.40116
48.55046
43.078597
29.94128
0.695038529
13.60104
47.82896
42.138396
32.38252
0.768480097
12.8022
47.05683
41.070377
35.83762
0.872590469
12.00044
46.27351
39.841989
41.36446
1.038212785
11.20125
45.40362
38.428257
48.65569
1.26614353
10.40225
44.45493
36.784027
58.84275
1.599682189
9.60203
43.5228
34.853018
75.16512
2.156631599
8.80237
42.4864
32.573046
98.27459
3.017052428
8.0006
41.4018
29.854274
133.3454
4.466541599
7.20188
40.2263
26.620787
185.11
6.953587961
6.40222
38.9731
22.75914
262.8925
11.5510735
5.60083
37.59688
18.179098
377.0503
20.74086722
4.80193
36.09109
12.880535
538.7299
41.82511545
4.00227
34.44831
6.933217
757.0803
109.1961124
3.20124
32.55978
0.573246
1023.138
1784.81552
2.40117
30.49206
-5.814506
1318.167
226.7031343
1.60161
28.05273
-11.855491
1592.666
134.339953
0.80114
25.20519
-17.290232
1805.861
104.4439942
0.00255
21.78788
-21.986181
1916.168
87.15330855
-0.79767
17.58483
-25.973361
1897.316
73.04853628
-1.59855
11.98455
-29.320382
1706.097
58.18810299
-2.39903
6.0631
-32.121374
1458.054
45.39202011
-3.19838
-0.77417
-34.471395
1135.503
32.94044157
-3.99881
-7.43774
-36.460546
842.3233
23.10232184
-4.7978
-13.49503
-38.151428
607.938
15.93486782
-5.59868
-18.80126
-39.606086
432.8408
10.92864326
-6.39865
-23.33329
-40.862827
307.2847
7.519907211
-7.19759
-27.16178
-41.956814
218.893
5.217103259
-7.99781
-30.63623
-42.918679
150.8586
3.514985944
-8.79926
-33.22628
-43.769795
111.1657
2.539781339
-9.59922
-35.61295
-44.525022
79.42503
1.783829042
-10.3975
-37.67946
-45.198993
56.54338
1.250987528
-11.1976
-39.50183
-45.806226
39.74541
0.867685736
-11.9986
-41.16567
-46.35535
26.93278
0.581006906
-12.7974
-42.58045
-46.852188
18.24775
0.389474778
-13.5986
-43.82657
-47.306218
12.10795
0.255948387
-14.3989
-44.96047
-47.72099
7.620471
0.159688026
-15.1975
-46.04705
-48.100873
4.218189
0.087694644
-15.9985
-46.99698
-48.451837
2.116609
0.043684802
-16.7987
-47.87817
-48.775626
0.805427
0.016512905
-17.5979
-48.67191
-49.075277
0.162705
0.003315416
-18.3976
-49.43966
-49.353792
0.007373
0.000149397
-19.1977
-50.10384
-49.61327
0.240659
0.004850697
-19.9987
-50.72494
-49.855744
0.755502
0.015153754
-19.9993
-50.7663
-49.855922
0.828788
0.016623664
-23.1561
-52.82749
-50.672115
4.645641
0.091680432
-26.3137
-54.49817
-51.317926
10.11395
0.19708419
-29.472
-55.85514
-51.841333
16.11065
0.310768372
-29.4759
-56.45253
-50.685744
33.25582
0.656117838
-26.3183
-55.32967
-49.873152
29.77359
0.596986304
-23.1602
-54.01703
-48.814949
27.06165
0.554372119
-20.0026
-52.39315
-47.383565
25.09594
0.52963389
-20.0012
-52.38376
-47.38283
25.0093
0.527813574
-19.2025
-51.92512
-46.937549
24.87586
0.529977918
-18.4014
-51.42625
-46.447704
24.78592
0.533630689
-17.6025
-50.86627
-45.90969
24.56769
0.535130716
-16.8028
-50.31312
-45.31403
24.9909
0.551504707
-16.0012
-49.69501
-44.650339
25.44871
0.569955482
-15.2014
-49.07231
-43.910449
26.64481
0.606798828
-14.4024
-48.43372
-43.079943
28.66293
0.66534276
-13.6023
-47.68323
-42.139922
30.72826
0.729196024
-12.8025
-46.9209
-41.070734
34.22444
0.83330486
-12.0006
-46.11718
-39.842252
39.37472
0.988265458
-11.2024
-45.25126
-38.430484
46.52299
1.210575054
-10.401
-44.36982
-36.781292
57.58576
1.565626276
-9.60244
-43.40307
-34.854091
73.08504
2.096885612
-8.8014
-42.37312
-32.570036
96.10046
2.950578744
-8.00256
-41.2673
-29.861523
130.0917
4.356500805
-7.20249
-40.10926
-26.623482
181.8662
6.831045175
-6.40268
-38.8677
-22.761559
259.4078
11.39674914
-5.60154
-37.48904
-18.183485
372.7045
20.49686591
-4.8027
-36.03032
-12.885977
535.6606
41.56926657
-4.00156
-34.3675
-6.927711
752.942
108.6855414
-3.20068
-32.50761
-0.56874
1020.091
1793.598862
-2.4026
-30.40403
5.803292
1310.97
225.9011207
-1.60279
-27.99107
11.84698
1587.07
133.9641181
-0.80257
-25.14425
17.281161
1799.915
104.1547786
-0.00265
-21.72536
21.985639
1910.651
86.90452134
0.7994
-17.52902
25.98125
1893.144
72.86576264
1.59758
-11.96148
29.316678
1703.886
58.1200342
2.39867
-6.01514
32.120222
1454.306
45.27695465
3.19853
0.79852
34.471799
1133.89
32.89325627
3.99779
7.45529
36.458212
841.1695
23.07215407
4.7975
13.49534
38.150841
607.8937
15.93395358
5.59792
18.77985
39.604805
433.6788
10.95015493
6.39788
23.28332
40.8617
308.9994
7.562079978
7.19729
27.11895
41.95643
220.1508
5.24712929
7.99751
30.35486
42.91834
157.841
3.677705841
8.79773
33.2792
43.768265
110.0205
2.513704497
9.59739
35.53079
44.523391
80.86687
1.816278386
10.39751
37.59588
45.198993
57.80733
1.278951664
11.19762
39.3953
45.806262
41.10043
0.897266705
11.99917
40.98937
46.355715
28.79766
0.62123211
12.79755
42.42582
46.852277
19.59352
0.418197851
13.5991
43.699
47.306494
13.01401
0.275099925
14.3985
44.84358
47.720787
8.27832
0.17347409
15.19755
45.88661
48.100919
4.903164
0.101934941
15.99741
46.84883
48.451362
2.568109
0.053003852
16.79901
47.70568
48.775766
1.145084
0.023476495
17.59847
48.49426
49.075479
0.337816
0.006883591
18.39741
49.24854
49.353721
0.011063
0.000224158
19.19794
49.91931
49.613351
0.093611
0.001886809
19.99775
50.57894
49.855474
0.523403
0.010498407
19.99964
50.5796
49.856028
0.523556
0.010501367
23.15574
52.67015
50.672035
3.992464
0.078790275
26.31352
54.31934
51.31789
9.008702
0.175547009
29.47161
55.63319
51.841271
14.37865
0.277359128
32.62955
56.73089
52.273773
19.86589
0.380035548

From the Observation Table we conclude that

Total number of observations(n)=120
total degree of Freedom(d)=(n-k)
where k is number of constraints
therfore 2/𝑖 =47.68
From the theoretical table analysis ( 2 ≥ 2=0.47) > 2
at 5% confidence level.
0
0.05
Hence we accept null Hypothesis HO AT 5% CONFIDENCE LEVEL and assume observed
hysteresis curve is not deviated from the expacted hysteresis M-H curve .

60
60
observed
expacted
40
40
m3)
20
20
m3)
emu/c
0
n(
0
emu/c

n(
tio
tio
isa
-20
-20
et
isaet
gn
-40
-40
gn
Ma
Ma
-60
-60
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
Electric Field(Oe)

C PROGRAMME TO DETERMINE
THEORETICAL VALUES OF
MAGNETISATION USING HYSTERESIS
CURVE
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
main()
{
int i,n=120;
double M[120],H[120],Me1,Me2,Ms=56.8,Hc=3.13,Mr=22.0;
double chi=0.0,o,e,a;
FILE*fp;
FILE*gp=NULL;
fp=fopen("data.txt","r");
gp=fopen("data1.txt","w");

for(i=0;i<n;i++)

fscanf(fp,"%lf %lf",&H[i],&M[i]);

for(i=0;i<n/2;i++)
{
Me1=(2*Ms/3.142)*atan(((H[i]-Hc)/Hc)*tan(3.142*Mr/(2*Ms))) ;
fprintf(gp,"%lf %lf %lf\n",H[i],M[i],Me1);
}
for(i=n/2;i<n;i++)
{
Me2=(2*Ms/3.142)*atan(((H[i]+Hc)/Hc)*tan(3.142*Mr/(2*Ms))) ;
fprintf(gp,"%lf %lf %lf\n",H[i],M[i],Me2);
}
fclose(fp);
fclose(gp);
gp=fopen("data1.txt","r");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
fscanf(gp,"%lf %lf %lf",&a,&o,&e);
chi+=(o-e)*(o-e)/fabs(e);
}
printf("%lf\n",chi);
fclose(gp);
}

Conclusion

The goodness of fit test allows us to hypothesize that a distribution behaves in a

particular manner. The chi square test is used to determine whether the observed
distribution conforms to the model hypothesized by one in the null hypothesis
these
principles of hypothesis testing were applied to whole distributions. The structure of
the test is the same for each of the chi square tests, but the statistic used, and the fact
that whole distributions rather than parameters are used, makes these tests appear
somewhat different. In addition the chi square test of independence allows us to
determine whether variables are independent of each other or whether there is a
pattern of dependence between them. If there is a dependence, the researcher can
claim that the two variables have a statistical relationship with each other. The chi
square tests are among the most useful and most widely used tests in statistics. The
assumptions on which these tests are based are minimal, although a certain
minimum
sample size is usually required. The variables which are being examined can be
measured at any level, nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. The tests can thus be used
in most circumstances. While these tests may not provide as much information as
some of the other tests, their ease of use and their wide applicability makes them
extremely worthwhile tests.