TABLE OF CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

CERTIFICATE i

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

LIST OF FIGURES iv

LIST OF TABLES iv

ABSTRACT 3

1. INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 4-9

1.1 Artificial Intelligence 4

1.2 Philosophy of AI 4

1.3 Goals of AI 5

1.4 Contributions to AI 5

1.5 Programming without and with AI 5

1.6 AI technique 6

1.7 Components of Artificial Intelligence 7

2. FEATURES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 10-12

2.1 Applications of AI 10

2.2 Advantages 11

2.3 Limitations 12

2.4 Characteristics 12

3. INTRODUCTION TO EXPERT SYSTEMS 13-20

3.1 Expert systems 13

3.2 Characteristics of Expert systems 14

3.3 Capabilities of Expert systems 14

3.4 Components of Expert systems 15

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3.5 Expert systems limitations 19

3.6 Expert system technology 19

4. DESIGNING OF EXPERT SYSTEMS 21-22

4.1 Development of expert systems: General steps 21

5. APPLICATION OF EXPERT SYSTEMS 23-26

6. SCOPE OF EXPERT SYSTEMS 27

7. SCOPE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 28

8. CONCLUSION 29

LIST OF REFERENCES 30

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 ABSTRACT

Artificial Intelligence (A.I.) is a multidisciplinary field whose goal is to automate

activities that presently require human intelligence. Recent successes in A.I. include
computerized medical diagnosticians and systems that automatically customize hardware
to particular user requirements. The major problem areas addressed in A.I. can be
summarized as Perception, Manipulation, Reasoning, Communication, and Learning.
Perception is concerned with building models of the physical world from sensory input
(visual, audio, etc.). Manipulation is concerned with articulating appendages (e.g.,
mechanical arms, locomotion devices) in order to effect a desired state in the physical
world. Reasoning is concerned with higher level cognitive functions such as planning,
drawing inferential conclusions from a world model, diagnosing, designing, etc.
Communication treats the problem understanding and conveying information through the
use of language. Finally, Learning treats the problem of automatically improving system
performance over time based on the system's experience.
Expert systems are a well known area of Artificial Intelligence and have a huge impact in
various fields of life. An expert system is a computer application that solves complicated
problems that would otherwise require extensive human expertise. To do so, it simulates
the human reasoning process by applying specific knowledge and interfaces. Expert
systems also use human knowledge to solve problems that normally would require
human intelligence Education system will be revolutionized with the introduction of
expert systems in this field because of the following:
(1) Educational planning and decision making ability, manage student records, student
counselling, and special education programs.
(2) Teacher training and education, specifically, identifying training needs and using
computer assisted instruction to teach information and skills.
(3) Intelligent tutoring systems that guide students through instruction according to their
individual strengths and weaknesses.

CHAPTER 1

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INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

1.1 Artificial Intelligence

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.

Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot,

or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn, decide,
and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a
basis of developing intelligent software and systems.

1.2 Philosophy of AI

While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to
wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in
machines that we find and regard high in humans.

In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,
a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human
experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time,
Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S and British governments to
restore funding for academic research. However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp
Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting
hiatus began.

In the late 1990s and early 21st century, AI began to be used for logistics, data mining,
medical diagnosis and other areas. The success was due to increasing computational
power (see Moore's law), greater emphasis on solving specific problems, new ties
between AI and other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics), and a
commitment by researchers to mathematical methods and scientific standards. Deep Blue

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became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion,
Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.

1.3 Goals of AI

✔ To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

✔ To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that

understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.

1.4 Contributions to AI

Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer

Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A major
thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions associated with human
intelligence, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.

Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an intelligent
system.

1.5 Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Table no. 1.1 (Difference between programming with and without AI)

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

A computer program without AI can answer A computer program with AI can answer

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the specific questions it is meant to solve. the generic questions it is meant to solve.

AI programs can absorb new modifications

by putting highly independent pieces of
Modification in the program leads to change
information together. Hence you can modify
in its structure.
even a minute piece of information of
program without affecting its structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It may

Quick and Easy program modification.
lead to affecting the program adversely.

1.6 AI Technique

In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcome properties −

● Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.

● It is not well-organized or well-formatted.

● It keeps changing constantly.

AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way
that −

● It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

● It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.

● It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.

AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is equipped with.

1.7 Components of Artificial Intelligence

The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −

● Reasoning

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 ● Learning

● Problem Solving

● Perception

● Linguistic Intelligence

Let us go through all the components briefly −

✔ Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for judgement,
making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types −

Table no. 1.2 (Difference between inductive and deductive reasoning)

Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning

It starts with a general statement and

It conducts specific observations to makes
examines the possibilities to reach a
broad general statements.
specific, logical conclusion.

Even if all of the premises are true in a If something is true of a class of things in
statement, inductive reasoning allows for general, it is also true for all members of
the conclusion to be false. that class.

Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is Example − "All women of age above 60

studious. Therefore, All teachers are years are grandmothers. Shalini is 65 years.
studious." Therefore, Shalini is a grandmother."

✔ Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practising,

being taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the awareness of the
subjects of the study.The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals,
and AI-enabled systems. Learning is categorized as −

● Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For example,

students listening to recorded audio lectures.

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 ● Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of events that one has
witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.
● Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For example,
picking objects, Writing, etc.
● Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating others. For
example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.
● Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has seen
before. For example, identifying and classifying objects and situations.
● Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among various stimuli
on the basis of relational properties, rather than absolute properties. For Example,
Adding ‘little less’ salt at the time of cooking potatoes that came up salty last
time, when cooked with adding say a tablespoon of salt.
● Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images, colors,
maps, etc. For Example, A person can create roadmap in mind before actually
following the road.
● Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular behavior
when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises its ear on hearing
doorbell.

✔ Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at a
desired solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is blocked by
known or unknown hurdles. Problem solving also includes decision making, which
is the process of selecting the best suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to
reach the desired goal are available.

✔ Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing

sensory information. Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by
sensory organs. In the domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by
the sensors together in a meaningful manner.

✔ Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write the
verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal communication.

Difference between Human and Machine Intelligence

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 ● Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of rules and
data.
● Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by searching
algorithms. For example, the number 40404040 is easy to remember, store, and
recall as its pattern is simple.
● Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is missing or
distorted; whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.

CHAPTER 2

FEATURES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

2.1 Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

● Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-
toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible positions based on
heuristic knowledge.

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 ● Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer that
understands natural language spoken by humans.
● Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine,
software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide
explanation and advice to the users.
● Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual
input on the computer. For example,

a). A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out
spatial information or map of the areas.

b). Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

c). Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal
with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.

● Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and

comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a
human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the
background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.
● Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the text
written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of
the letters and convert it into editable text.
● Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They
have sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat,
temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient
processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition,
they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the new
environment.

2.2 Advantages

▪ Smarter artificial intelligence may replace human jobs, freeing people for other
pursuits by automating manufacturing and transportation.
▪ Self-modifying, self-writing and learning software can relieve programmers of the
burdensome tasks of specifying the functions of different programs.

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 ▪ Artificial intelligence will be used as cheap labour, thus increasing profits for
corporation.
▪ Artificial intelligence can make deployment easier and less resource intensive
▪ Compared to traditional programming techniques, expert-system approaches
provide the added flexibility (and hence easier modifiability) with the ability to
model rules as data rather than as code. In situations where an organization’s IT
department is overwhelmed by a software-development backlog, rule-engines, by
facilitating turnaround, provide a means that can allow organizations to adapt more
readily to changing needs.
▪ In practice, modern expert-system technology is employed as an adjunct to
traditional programming techniques, and this hybrid approach allows the
combination of the strengths of both approaches. Thus, rule engines allow control
through programs (and user interfaces) written in a traditional language, and also
incorporate necessary functionality such as inter-operability with existing database
technology.

2.3 Limitations

▪ Rapid advances in AI could lead to massive structural unemployment.

▪ Unpredictable and unforeseen impacts of new features.
▪ An expert system or rule-based approach is not optimal for all problems, and
considerable knowledge is required so as to not misapply the systems.
▪ Ease of rule creation and rule modification can be double-edged. A system can be
sabotaged by a non-knowledgeable user who can easily add worthless rules or rules
that conflict with existing ones. Reasons for the failure of many systems include the
absence of (or neglect to employ diligently) facilities for system audit, detection of
possible conflict, and rule lifecycle management (e.g. version control, or thorough
testing before deployment). The problems to be addressed here are as much
technological as organizational.

2.4 Characteristics:

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 ▪ Introduction to Machine Learning Approaches
▪ Fuzzy Logic Improves Decision Support Software
▪ Shell Programming in Expert Systems Applications
▪ Smart Home Appliances for Better Quality of Life – Combining artificial
intelligence with home automation in smart home appliances results in an improved
quality of life for many, including the elderly and disabled.
▪ Voice Recognition Software for Disabled Students – Disabled students are often at a
disadvantage in the classroom. Voice recognition software improves
communication, enables note-taking, and increases participation.
▪ Teaching Special Needs Children with Autism – Robots are acting as therapy
assistants to help parents and therapists in teaching special needs children with qqq
autism.

CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO EXPERT SYSTEMS

3.1 Expert Systems
The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems
in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.

Expert systems were introduced around 1965 by the Stanford Heuristic Programming
Project led by Edward Feigenbaum, who is sometimes termed the "father of expert
systems"; other key early contributors were Bruce Buchanan and Randall Davis. The
Stanford researchers tried to identify domains where expertise was highly valued and
complex, such as diagnosing infectious diseases (Mycin) and identifying unknown
organic molecules (Dendral). The idea that "intelligent systems derive their power from
the knowledge they possess rather than from the specific formalisms and inference
schemes they use" – as Feigenbaum said – was at the time a significant step forward,
since the past research had been focused on heuristic computational methods,
culminating in attempts to develop very general-purpose problem solvers (foremostly the

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conjunct work of Allen Newell and Herbert Simon). Expert systems became some of the
first truly successful forms of artificial intelligence (AI) software.

In the 1980s, expert systems proliferated. Universities offered expert system courses and
two thirds of the Fortune 500 companies applied the technology in daily business
activities. Interest was international with the Fifth Generation Computer Systems project
in Japan and increased research funding in Europe.

In 1981, the first IBM PC, with the PC DOS operating system, was introduced. The
imbalance between the high affordability of the relatively powerful chips in the PC,
compared to the much more expensive cost of processing power in the mainframes that
dominated the corporate IT world at the time, created a new type of architecture for
corporate computing, termed the client-server model. Calculations and reasoning could be
performed at a fraction of the price of a mainframe using a PC. This model also enabled
business units to bypass corporate IT departments and directly build their own
applications.

3.2 Characteristics of Expert Systems

● High performance

● Understandable

● Reliable

● Highly responsive

3.3 Capabilities of Expert Systems

The expert systems are capable of −

● Advising

● Instructing and assisting human in decision making

● Demonstrating

● Deriving a solution

● Diagnosing

● Explaining

● Interpreting input

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 ● Predicting results

● Justifying the conclusion

● Suggesting alternative options to a problem

They are incapable of −

● Substituting human decision makers

● Possessing human capabilities

● Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base

● Refining their own knowledge

3.4 Components of Expert Systems

The components of ES include −

● Knowledge Base

● Inference Engine

● User Interface

Let us see them one by one briefly −

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 Fig. no.3.1 (Components of Expert Systems)

3.4.1 Knowledge Base

It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge.

Knowledge is required to exhibit intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends

upon the collection of highly accurate and precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the
task domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as
knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base

The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.

✔ Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge

Engineers and scholars in the task domain.

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✔ Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.

Knowledge representation -It is the method used to organize and formalize the
knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.

Knowledge Acquisition -The success of any expert system majorly depends on the
quality, completeness, and accuracy of the information stored in the knowledge base.

The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and
the Knowledge Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of
empathy, quick learning, and case analyzing skills.

He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing

him at work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful
way, in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The
knowledge engineer also monitors the development of the ES.

3.4.2 Inference Engine

Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a
correct, flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the
knowledge from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

✔ Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule
application.

✔ Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.

✔ Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.

To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −

● Forward Chaining

● Backward Chaining

Forward Chaining

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It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”

Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally
deduces the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before
concluding to a solution. This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or
effect. For example, prediction of share market status as an effect of changes in interest
rates.

Fig. no. 3.2 (Forward Chaining)

Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this
happened?”

On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which
conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for
finding out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

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 Fig. no. 3.3 (Backward Chaining)

3.4.3 User Interface

User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is
generally Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in
the task domain. The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial
Intelligence.

It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may
appear in the following forms −

● Natural language displayed on screen.

● Verbal narrations in natural language.

● Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.

The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

✔ It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.

✔ It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.

✔ Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.

✔ It should make efficient use of user input.

3.5 Expert Systems Limitations

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No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require
significant development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which
include −

● Limitations of the technology

● Difficult knowledge acquisition

● ES are difficult to maintain

● High development costs

3.6 Expert System Technology

There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems technologies
include −

Expert System Development Environment − The ES development environment

includes hardware and tools. They are −

✔ Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.

✔ High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt Programming

(LISP) and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).

✔ Large databases.

Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.

✔ Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.

✔ They provide rapid prototyping

✔ Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference design.

Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell
provides the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −

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✔ Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for creating
an expert system.

✔ Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology, Mumbai
in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.

CHAPTER 4

DESIGNING OF EXPERT SYSTEMS

4.1 Development of Expert Systems: General Steps
The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include −

Step 1: Identify Problem Domain

● The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.

● Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.

● Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.

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Step 2: Design the System

● Identify the ES Technology.

● Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and
databases.
● Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.

Step 3: Develop the Prototype

From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −

● Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.

● Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.

Step 4: Test and Refine the Prototype

● The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any
deficiencies in performance.
● End users test the prototypes of the ES.

Step 5: Develop and Complete the ES

● Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment,
including end users, databases, and other information systems.
● Document the ES project well.
● Train the user to use ES.

Step 6: Maintain the System

● Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.

● Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.

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4.2 Benefits of Expert Systems

● Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.

● Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them
affordable.
● Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual
puts in.
● Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
● Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
● Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or
fatigued.

CHAPTER 5

APPLICATIONS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS

The spectrum of applications of expert systems technology to industrial and commercial

problems is so wide as to defy easy characterization. The applications find their way into
most areas of knowledge work. They are as varied as helping salespersons sell modular
factory-built homes to helping NASA plan the maintenance of a space shuttle in
preparation for its next flight.

Table no. 5.1 (Application of expert systems)

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Application Description

Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.

Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from observed

Medical Domain
data, conduction medical operations on humans.

Comparing data continuously with observed system or with

Monitoring Systems prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in long
petroleum pipeline.

Process Control Systems Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.

Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.

Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions, stock

Finance/Commerce
market trading, Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.

Applications tend to cluster into seven major classes:

● Diagnosis and Troubleshooting of Devices and Systems of All Kinds

This class comprises systems that deduce faults and suggest corrective actions for
a malfunctioning device or process. Medical diagnosis was one of the first
knowledge areas to which ES technology was applied (for example, see Shortliffe
1976), but diagnosis of engineered systems quickly surpassed medical diagnosis.
There are probably more diagnostic applications of ES than any other type. The
diagnostic problem can be stated in the abstract as: given the evidence presenting
itself, what is the underlying problem/reason/cause?

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● Planning and Scheduling

Systems that fall into this class analyze a set of one or more potentially complex
and interacting goals in order to determine a set of actions to achieve those goals,
and/or provide a detailed temporal ordering of those actions, taking into account
personnel, materiel, and other constraints. This class has great commercial
potential, which has been recognized. Examples involve airline scheduling of
flights, personnel, and gates; manufacturing job-shop scheduling; and
manufacturing process planning.

● Configuration of Manufactured Objects from Subassemblies

Configuration, whereby a solution to a problem is synthesized from a given set of

elements related by a set of constraints, is historically one of the most important of
expert system applications. Configuration applications were pioneered by
computer companies as a means of facilitating the manufacture of semi-custom
minicomputers (McDermott 1981). The technique has found its way into use in
many different industries, for example, modular home building, manufacturing,
and other problems involving complex engineering design and manufacturing.

● Financial Decision Making

The financial services industry has been a vigorous user of expert system
techniques. Advisory programs have been created to assist bankers in determining
whether to make loans to businesses and individuals. Insurance companies have
used expert systems to assess the risk presented by the customer and to determine
a price for the insurance. A typical application in the financial markets is in
foreign exchange trading.

● Knowledge Publishing

This is a relatively new, but also potentially explosive area. The primary function
of the expert system is to deliver knowledge that is relevant to the user's problem,
in the context of the user's problem. The two most widely distributed expert
systems in the world are in this category. The first is an advisor which counsels a
user on appropriate grammatical usage in a text. The second is a tax advisor that

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 accompanies a tax preparation program and advises the user on tax strategy,
tactics, and individual tax policy.

● Process Monitoring and Control

Systems falling in this class analyze real-time data from physical devices with the
goal of noticing anomalies, predicting trends, and controlling for both optimality
and failure correction. Examples of real-time systems that actively monitor
processes can be found in the steelmaking and oil refining industries.

● Dendral

The software program Dendral is considered the first expert system because it
automated the decision-making process and problem-solving behavior of organic
chemists. It consists of two sub-programs, Heuristic Dendral and Meta-Dendral,.
It was written in Lisp, which was considered the language of AI.

● Design and Manufacturing

These systems assist in the design of physical devices and processes, ranging from
high-level conceptual design of abstract entities all the way to factory floor
configuration of manufacturing processes.

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 CHAPTER 6

SCOPE OF EXPERT SYSTEMS

● As stated in the ‘approaches’ section, an expert system is able to do the work of a

professional. Moreover, a computer system can be trained quickly, has virtually
no operating cost, never forgets what it learns, never calls in sick, retires, or goes
on vacation. Beyond those, intelligent computers can consider a large amount of
information that may not be considered by humans.
● But to what extent should these systems replace human experts? Or, should they at
all? For example, some people once considered an intelligent computer as a
possible substitute for human control over nuclear weapons, citing that a computer
could respond more quickly to a threat. And many AI developers were afraid of
the possibility of programs like Eliza, the psychiatrist and the bond that humans
were making with the computer.
● We cannot, however, overlook the benefits of having a computer expert.
Forecasting the weather, for example, relies on many variables, and a computer
expert can more accurately pool all of its knowledge. Still a computer cannot rely
on the hunches of a human expert, which are sometimes necessary in predicting an
outcome.

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● In conclusion, in some fields such as forecasting weather or finding bugs in
computer software, expert systems are sometimes more accurate than humans. But
for other fields, such as medicine, computers aiding doctors will be beneficial, but
the human doctor should not be replaced. Expert systems have the power and
range to aid to benefit, and in some cases replace humans, and computer experts,
if used with discretion, will benefit human kind.

CHAPTER 7

SCOPE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

● According to many experts, faster than the majority of us think or are prepared
for. “we will have both the hardware and the software to achieve human level
artificial intelligence with the broad suppleness of human intelligence including
our emotional intelligence by 2029.” If that sounds like something from a scary
movie (“Terminator” may come to mind).
● Its not to worry, such super machines will also have morals and respect us as their
creators (the people in scary movies rarely think that anything bad will happen to
them either). He also believes that humans themselves will be smarter, healthier,
and more capable in the near future by merging with our technology. For example,
tiny robots implanted in our brains will work directly with our neurons to make us
smarter (this may call to mind some other movies).
● AI began as an attempt to answer some of the most fundamental questions about
human existence by understanding the nature of intelligence, but it has grown into
a scientific and technological field affecting many aspects of commerce and
society. Even as AI technology becomes integrated into the fabric of everyday
life, AI researchers remain focused on the grand challenges of automating
intelligence. Work is progressing on developing systems that converse in natural
language, that perceive and respond to their surroundings, and that encode and
provide useful access to all of human knowledge and expertise.

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 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION

It's now the time to sit and think upon for the future of artificial intelligence in expert
systems whether as to go with traditional technologies or to adapt the science of artificial
intelligence. The overall motivation behind this paper is to modernize our ancestral
methods so as to bring in a rapid change in the growth of highly developed expert systems
so as to cater the needs of growing population. The development process may be
incremental but the overall concept requires a paradigm shift in the way we think about
modernization of production that is based more on needs and novel ways of meeting them
rather than modifying existing techniques.

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 REFERENCES

▪ https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/artificial-intelligence

▪ https://www.tutorialspoint.com/artificial_intelligence/artificial_intelligence_overv
iew.htm

▪ https://blog.leanix.net/en/artificial-intelligence-expert-systems

▪ https://www.marshall.usc.edu/sites/default/files/doleary/intellcont/AI%

▪ https://www.britannica.com/technology/artificial-intelligence/Expert-systems

▪ https://www.researchgate.net/publication

▪ https://ieeexplore.ieee.org

▪ Artificial intelligence and intelligent systems. -N.P. Padhy

▪ Knowledge acquisition for Expert Systems. - Alison L. Kidd

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