New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics

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Telescoped porphyry‐style and epithermal veins

and alteration at the central Maratoto valley
prospect, Hauraki Goldfield, New Zealand

Mark P. Simpson , Jeffrey L. Mauk & Ross G. Kendrick

To cite this article: Mark P. Simpson , Jeffrey L. Mauk & Ross G. Kendrick (2004) Telescoped
porphyry‐style and epithermal veins and alteration at the central Maratoto valley prospect, Hauraki
Goldfield, New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 47:1, 39-56, DOI:
10.1080/00288306.2004.9515036

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New Zealand Journal of Geology & Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47: 39-56
0028-8306/04/4701-0039 © The Royal Society of New Zealand 2004
Telescoped porphyry-style and epithermal veins and alteration at the central
Maratoto valley prospect, Hauraki Goldfield, New Zealand
MARK P. SIMPSON*
JEFFREY L. MAUK
Geology Department
The University of Auckland
Private Bag 92 019
Auckland, New Zealand
*email: ma.simpson@auckland.ac.nz
ROSS G. KENDRICK
Harrison Grierson Consultants Limited
P.O. Box 5760
Auckland, New Zealand
Abstract At the central Maratoto valley prospect, southern
Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand, andesite flows and
dacite breccias host rare porphyry-style quartz veins that are
telescoped by widespread epithermal veins and alteration.
Early porphyry-style quartz veins, which lack selvages of
porphyry-style alteration, host hypersaline fluid inclusions
that contain several translucent daughter crystals, including
halite and sylvite. Overprinting epithermal veins and
alteration are divided into two stages. Main-stage epithermal
alteration and veins are characterised by the successive
deposition of pyrite, quartz, and ankerite-dolomite veinlets
coupled with intense alteration of the wall rock to quartz,
illite, interlayer illite-smectite (<10% smectite), chlorite,
pyrite, ankerite, and dolomite. Late-stage epithermal veins
and alteration are characterised by the formation of calcite
and siderite veinlets, coupled with overprinting of the wall
rocks by both these minerals.
Multiphase fluid inclusions in a porphyry-style quartz
vein formed at temperatures >400°C and trapped hypersaline
magmatic fluid. Lower temperature secondary liquid-rich
inclusions in the porphyry-style quartz vein homogenise
between 283 and 329°C and trapped a dilute fluid with
<1.8wt% NaCl equivalent. Inclusions in later epithermal
quartz and calcite veins homogenise between 240 and 280°C
(av. 260°C) and trapped a dilute fluid with apparent salinities
of <2.9 wt% NaCl equivalent. Based on homogenisation
and salinity data, secondary inclusions in porphyry-style
quartz veins may have formed 700-950 m deeper than
telescoping epithermal veins.
Main-stage epithermal ankerite and dolomite have
δ18O(VSMOW) values of 13.5-18.1‰, whereas late-stage
epithermal calcite has δ18O(VSMOW) values of 3.1-5.1‰.
Calculated isotopic compositions for the fluid in equilibrium
with ankerite-dolomite and calcite at 260°C, averages 6 and
G03001; Online publication date 25 February 2004
Received 23 January 2003; accepted 10 November 2003
39
-3‰, respectively. The enriched value for main-stage
ankerite-dolomite suggests formation from waters that
underwent significant water-rock exchange, whereas
isotopically lighter water that formed late-stage calcite
underwent little water-rock interaction.
We propose a three-stage model to explain telescoped
veins and alteration styles at the central Maratoto valley
prospect area. Porphyry-style quartz veins were the first to
form from hot hypersaline multi-cation magmatic fluids.
These are telescoped by later widespread epithermal veins
and alteration following descent of the paleowater table
possibly due to rapid erosion or sector collapse of a volcanic
edifice. Main-stage epithermal alteration and deposition
produced quartz, chlorite, illite, interlayered illite-smectite,
pyrite, and isotopically heavy ankerite-dolomite from deeply
circulating upwelling alkali chloride waters. Late-stage
collapse of the hydrothermal system resulted in the formation
of overprinting calcite and siderite from isotopically lighter
descending marginal steam-heated CO2-rich waters.
Keywords central Maratoto valley; Coromandel Volcanic
Zone; porphyry deposit; epithermal deposit; telescoping;
hydrothermal alteration; carbonates; fluid inclusions; oxygen
and carbon isotopes
INTRODUCTION
The Coromandel Peninsula of the North Island of New Zealand
has long been recognised as a classic locality for epithermal
Au-Ag deposits (Lindgren 1933). Scattered sub-economic
occurrences of porphyry-style mineralisation also occur in the
western part of the peninsula, where regional faulting has
uplifted the area to expose deeper crustal levels (Brathwaite
et al. 1989). There is wide acceptance that low sulfidation
epithermal Au-Ag deposits form in the shallow levels of
volcanic-hydrothermal systems, whereas porphyry deposits
form at depth in these systems (Hedenquist & Lowenstern
1994). In some classic localities, low sulfidation epithermal
deposits crosscut or telescope earlier formed porphyry
mineralisation (Sillitoe 1994). In the Coromandel Peninsula,
however, telescoping has previously been described only at
Ohio Creek (Brathwaite et al. 2001), in the vicinity of the
Thames bonanza goldfield, which may be surprising given
the alleged close spatial and temporal association of porphyry-
and epithermal-style hydrothermal systems.
Epithermal deposits also commonly show a complex
sequence of vein formation, which reflects the complex
structural regimes that favour their formation. In the
Coromandel Peninsula, a common sequence is early sulfide
veins, followed by main-stage quartz-carbonate veins, and
followed by late calcite veins (e.g., Maratoto Mine, Christie
1982; Golden Cross, Simpson et al. 2001; Favona, Hollinger
& Mauk 2002). These late calcite veins are typically barren,
and can significantly dilute ore grades of earlier veins
40 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47

(Simmons et al. 2000). However, in the absence of diorite and quartz diorite locally intrude both the andesite and
crosscutting relations, field geologists may have difficulty the greywacke, and have associated porphyry Cu-Mo-Au
distinguishing whether veins are main-stage and potentially mineralisation (Christie & Brathwaite 1986; Brathwaite et al.
mineralised, or late-stage and likely barren. Here, we report 2001). The NNW trend of the CVZ along the Coromandel
on an occurrence of epithermal mineralisation in the central Peninsula is inherited from a greywacke basement horst, with
Maratoto valley of the Coromandel Peninsula that has the overlying volcanic succession block faulted along NNW
overprinted earlier porphyry-style mineralisation. We also and NNE-ENE-trending normal faults (Skinner 1986). Most
describe the major element and isotopic composition of the of the NNE-ENE-trending faults are down thrown to the south,
carbonates in both main-stage and late-stage veins, and resulting in a thickening of the volcanic sequence and lowering
speculate on how field and laboratory studies could be used of the greywacke basement in this direction.
to help distinguish between main-stage, potentially The CVZ contains over 50 separate low-sulfidation
mineralised veins, and late-stage barren veins. epithermal Au-Ag deposits, with Au and Ag ore mostly
restricted to steeply dipping quartz veins hosted mainly within
andesites and dacites of the Coromandel Group (Christie &
REGIONAL GEOLOGY Brathwaite 1986; Brathwaite et al. 1989). Mining of these
The central Maratoto valley prospect is at the southern end of deposits from 1862 to 1952, and more recently from 1988 to
Coromandel Peninsula (Fig. 1), the subaerial expression of a the present, has produced >330 470 kg Au and 1 440 255 kg
200 km long by 35 km wide continental volcanic arc known Ag.
as the Coromandel Volcanic Zone (CVZ). The CVZ has a
Jurassic greywacke basement that is unconformably overlain
by Miocene-Pliocene (c. 18-9 Ma) andesitic and dacitic LOCAL GEOLOGY
volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Coromandel Group
The central Maratoto valley low sulfidation epithermal Au-
and late Miocene-Pliocene (c. 10-2.5 Ma) rhyolitic volcanic
Ag prospect was explored in 1999 by Delta Gold New
and pyroclastic rocks of the Whitianga Group (Skinner 1986;
Zealand Ltd, with 33 shallow rotary air blast (RAB) and three
Adams et al. 1994). Subvolcanic dikes and small stocks of
250 m long diamond drillholes (DDH1, DDH2, and DDH3).
The prospect (Fig. 2) contains volcanic rocks of the Waipupu
Formation, the Kapukapu Andesite, and locally the Maratoto
Rhyolite (Brathwaite & Christie 1996). The oldest of these
is the Waipupu Formation (c. 7.89-6.68 Ma), which consists
of two-pyroxene andesitic lava flows, with localised
intercalations of volcanic breccias and lithic-crystal tuffs
GREAT BARRIER (Brathwaite & Christie 1996). This is flanked to the west by
ISLAND andesitic tuff breccias of the Kapukapu Andesite (c. 7.78-
6.96 Ma) that are locally intercalated with andesitic tuffs and
thin lava flows (Brathwaite & Christie 1996). These are both
overlain and intruded by rhyolitic lava flows and dikes of
the younger Maratoto Rhyolite (generally confined between
COROMANDEL
PENINSULA
7 and 6 Ma based on stratigraphic relations) that form dome
complexes with peripheral pyroclastics (Brathwaite &
Christie 1996). Drillholes DDH1 and DDH2 intercepted
andesite flows and minor volcanic breccias of the Waipupu
Formation, whereas DDH3 intersected dacitic breccias and
minor dacite that are interpreted to represent a subvolcanic
porphyry (Fig. 2, 3). Most aerial photograph lineations in
the central Maratoto valley prospect trend northeast-
southwest, with some oriented northwest-southeast (Fig. 2).
37'0S-
Drilling at the central Maratoto valley prospect
commenced following encouraging assay results of up to
14 g/t Au and 60 g/t Ag for thin quartz-pyrite veinlets in
andesite boulders exposed along a road slip. RAB drilling
(33 holes) identified a broad elongated arsenic anomaly
i / f 1 Golden Cross
(values up to 1350 ppm) trending to the NNW around the
area; however, gold and silver values from both RAB and
vi.ii•••.•! Hill G r o u p
(Jurassic) rangahahe -*
Karsngi
vVaih ir-xtisiM the later diamond drillholes were low (<0.05 g/t Au). The
best intercept was a 1 m wide zone of irregular quartz veinlets
/ Ha)or fauil
with disseminated base metal sulfides that averaged 8.4 g/t
X Low sulfidation epithenmal Au-Ag deposits Ag (Grieve 2000). After these disappointing results,
O Porphyry CU+ALJ+MO occurrences exploration of the prospect was abandoned.
The central Maratoto valley prospect is 4.7 km northwest
Fig. 1 Geologic map of Coromandel Peninsula showing the
of the Maratoto Mine, where production between 1887-1937
location of central Maratoto valley prospect and other significant and 1968-73 yielded 288 000 ounces of Au-Ag bullion with
deposits. Inset: Location of the Coromandel Peninsula, North Au:Ag ratios of 1:1.3 to 1:130 (Downey 1935; Brathwaite &
Island, New Zealand (after Brathwaite et al. 1989). Christie 1996). Silver and gold were extracted from a quartz
Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley 41

In the XRD study, we prepared clay mineral separates by

dispersing the crushed rock in distilled water that contained
a de-flocculent; the <2 (Am fraction was extracted using a
centrifuge. Oriented clay mounts were air dried, ethylene
glycol solvated (glycolated), and heated (550°C for 1 h)
before analysis. X-ray diffraction patterns were collected
using a Philips PW 1050/25 diffractometer.
Carbonate mineral compositions and abundances were
estimated in the field using the staining method of Dickson
(1966), which uses 0.2 g of alizarin red S per 100 ml of 1.5%
HCl solution, and 2.0 g of potassium ferrocyanide per 100
ml of 1.5% HCl solution. These are mixed in a ratio of three
parts alizarin red S solution to two parts potassium
ferrocyanide solution. The combined solution stains ankerite
blue and calcite purple. Calcite fizzes weakly in the 1.5%
HCl solution because it is more reactive than ankerite or
siderite. Siderite will not react with the stain, but is readily
recognisable in hand sample by its distinctive orange-brown
colour.
We analysed carbonates using a Cameca Camebax
electron microprobe at the University of Michigan. An
accelerating voltage of 15 kV and beam current of 5 nA were
used with the electron beam rastered over an area of
.'.-\\ Alluvial sediments Airphoto linealions 3 x 3 (Am, to 15 x 15 (Am to minimise volatilisation of the
carbonate. The samples were analysed quantitatively for Ca,
Kapukapu Andesit"
• andesile bnacaas Mg, Fe, Mn, Sr, Ba, and Na, using calcite, dolomite, siderite,
rhodochrosite, celestite, sanbornite, and albite as standards.
n Waipupu Formation
andesita \
Cross-section The concentration of CO 2 was calculated from stoichiometry.
SEM studies, combined with energy dispersive X-ray
I Waipupu Formation
I dacite analyses (EDS), helped identify minerals, textural
J relationships, and provided qualitative mineral compositions.
Fig. 2 Surface geologic map of the central Maratoto valley Fluid inclusion measurements were made on doubly
prospect area displaying the location of the three drillhole and polished sections (c. 100 (Am thick) of quartz, sphalerite, and
interpreted photo lineations. The position of the cross-section line calcite. Microthermometric measurements were made using
in Fig. 5 is also shown. a Fluid Inc.-adapted USGS heating and freezing stage with
the thermocouple calibrated at 0.0° and -56.6°C using Syn
Flinc fluid inclusion standards. The data are reproducible to
±2.0°C for homogenisation temperatures and ±0.2°C for final
vein system composed of 10 main subparallel veins (Payrock, ice melting temperatures.
Maratoto, United, Golden Spur, Gordan, Royal, Corbetts,
Julia, Silver Queen, and Camoola) that occur in an area of Stable isotope analyses were collected at the University of
c. 4 x 3 km. The quartz veins have a strike length of up to Michigan. Micro-samples of powdered carbonates were drilled
2.8 km (Maratoto and Payrock), and are on average <3 m from rock chips using a microscope coupled to a mounted
wide. They dip steeply (65-90°) to the east and west, drill assembly. Carbonate samples weighing at least 10 (Ag
extending to a depth of 100 m (Main 1979; Brathwaite et al. were placed in stainless steel boats. The amount of material
1989). The veins consist of quartz, calcite, rhodochrosite, used was dictated by the amount of carbonate in the samples,
and siderite gangue with minor pyrite, marcasite, sphalerite, and several milligrams of sample were required for some
galena, and chalcopyrite. The main Ag- and Au-bearing samples. Calcite, siderite, ankerite, and dolomite samples were
minerals are hessite, native Ag, acanthite, seleniferous roasted at 380°C in vacuo for 1 h to remove volatile
acanthite, and rare electrum (Main 1979; Christie 1982). contaminants. Samples were then placed in individual
Potassium-argon dating of three vein adularia samples from borosilicate reaction vessels and reacted at 76 ± 2°C with three
the Maratoto Mine gave dates of 6.2, 5.6, and 5.2 ±0.1 Ma drops of anhydrous phosphoric acid for 8 min (12 min for
(Adams unpubl. data in Skinner 1986). dolomites) in a Finnigan Kiel preparation device coupled
directly to the inlet of a Finnigan MAT 251 triple collector
isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Isotopic enrichments were
corrected for acid fractionation and 17O contribution by
SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES calibration to a best fit regression line defined by two NBS
We logged and collected samples from the three diamond standards, NBS-18 and NBS-19. Data are reported in the per
drillholes and limited surface exposures (Fig. 2). Several mil notation relative to PDB for carbon and VSMOW for
techniques were used to study vein and alteration minerals oxygen. Precision of data was monitored through daily analysis
including hand specimen examination, carbonate staining, of a variety of powdered carbonate standards. At least six
transmitted and reflected light microscopy, X-ray standards were reacted and analysed daily, bracketing the
diffractometry (XRD), electron microprobe, scanning sample suite at the beginning, middle, and end of the day's
electron microscopy (SEM), fluid inclusion, and stable run. Measured precision is maintained at better than 0. 1‰ for
isotope analyses. both carbon and oxygen isotope compositions.
42 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47

•—_____jMTiing Early Late

Fig. 3 Three-stage paragenetic
sequence of veins and alteration
Mineralisation style Porphyry formation at the central Maratoto
Low sulfidation epithermal
Fluid type valley prospect. (1) Porphyry-style
Mineral" " ___ Magmatic fluids Alkali chloride water Steam-heated waters
quartz veins were the first to form.
(2) Main-stage epithermal veins
Veins and alteration is characterised by
coeval formation of quartz,
Porphyry-style Quartz chlorite, illite, and pyrite.
Pyrite Ankerite-dolomite veinlets cut
early pyrite veinlets and are locally
Quartz (± BMS) intergrown with, although mostly
cut by quartz veinlets. (3) Late
Ankerite-Dolomite calcite veinlets, with rare selvages
Calcite ± Siderite
of siderite, cut all the above
veinlets and are themselves cut by
Siderite monomineralic siderite veinlets,
which were the last to form.
Replacement

Pyrite

Quartz

Chlorite

Illite

Illite-smectite

Ankerite

Dolomite

Calcite

Siderite

Kaolinite

HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION AND VEINS of <1 mm wide monomineralic pyrite veinlets with irregular
or planar geometry were the first to form and are cut by later
At the central Maratoto valley prospect, alteration and veins quartz veins (Kendrick et al. 1999). Epithermal quartz veins
formed during three distinct spatially overlapping stages at the central Maratoto valley prospect are rare, with several
involving (1) early porphyry-style quartz veins, (2) main- exposed in surface outcrops and even fewer seen in drill core.
stage epithermal quartz, ankerite, and dolomite veins with Those exposed at the surface are up to 12 cm wide and consist
associated quartz-illite-pyrite alteration, followed by (3) of medium to coarse grained, subhedral to euhedral
overprinting late-stage epithermal calcite, siderite, and interlocking quartz with numerous cavities lined by comb
kaolinite (Fig. 3). quartz (typically 5-10 mm in length). Rare veins contain casts
and quartz-pseudomorphed blades after platy carbonate.
Early porphyry-style quartz veins
Outcrops of quartz veins lack sulfides or sulfosalts and
The andesite and dacite host rare 1-5 mm wide dark grey are stained by iron oxyhydroxides, except for thin quartz-
quartz veinlets (Fig. 4A) in DDH2 and DDH3 (Fig. 5), which pyrite veins in andesite boulders that contain up to 15 g/t Au.
closely resemble in appearance quartz veins found in Most veins intersected in drill core also lack sulfide minerals.
porphyry copper deposits (Lowell & Guilbert 1970; However, a 1 m wide zone of irregular 2 cm wide branching,
Gustafson & Hunt 1975). These porphyry-style veins consist coarsely crystalline quartz veinlets (DDH2 at 245 m) contains
of medium-grained interlocking mosaic-textured quartz that c. 1% disseminated base metal sulfide minerals and grades
hosts rare multiphase fluid inclusions containing liquid, 8.4 g/t Ag. The sulfides consist of sphalerite and galena with
vapour, and a variety of translucent daughter crystals. The lesser pyrite and chalcopyrite, which form grains up to 5 mm
quartz also contains rare acicular crystals of an unidentified in diameter (Fig. 4B). Sphalerite contains abundant minute
mineral and finely disseminated minute pyrite grains, but is inclusions of chalcopyrite and is also zoned with a pale
also cut by later hairline fractures that are discontinuously yellow-brown core and dark brown rims, suggesting higher
filled by pyrite. No discernible alteration selvages occur concentrations of iron towards the rims. Neither native silver
adjacent to the veinlets, so if formerly present, porphyry- nor silver-bearing sulfosalts were observed.
style alteration minerals have subsequently been replaced
Some comb quartz veinlets are centrally filled by ankerite
by overprinting epithermal alteration.
and dolomite, with several quartz crystals hosting numerous
minute inclusions of carbonate, indicating that quartz and
Main-stage epithermal quartz, ankerite, and dolomite carbonate deposition locally overlapped in time (Fig. 4C).
Epithermal veins and associated widespread alteration Ankerite and dolomite typically form multiple generations
overprint the porphyry-style quartz veins. Multiple generations of 0.1-3 cm wide veinlets that cut both the pyrite and quartz
Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley 43

\.
* «\

if •
•

• o 10 20
I
30 mm
I

Fig. 4 A, 1-2 mm wide early dark grey porphyry quartz vein. B, Late quartz veinlet hosted in altered andesite and containing disseminated
grains of pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite (up to 5 mm). C, 8 mm wide ankerite-dolomite vein containing euhedral quartz
crystals. D, E, Scanning electron microscope back-scattered electron images of an ankerite-dolomite vein with micrometre sized bands
of intricately intergrown ankerite (light grey) and dolomite (dark grey). F, Siderite and calcite veinlets with selvages of siderite that cut
early pyrite veinlets.

veinlets. These ankerite-dolomite veinlets are most abundant
in drillholes DDH2 and DDH3 (Fig. 5) and consist of
intricately intergrown bands of alternating ankerite and
dolomite (Fig. 4D,E). Electron microprobe analyses show
that dolomite and ankerite contain only limited amounts of
manganese (Fig. 6).
Hydrothermal alteration associated with the formation
of pyrite, quartz, and ankerite-dolomite veinlets is
widespread, with volcanic rocks completely replaced by
quartz, illite, interlayered illite-smectite, chlorite, carbonates,
and pyrite. Neither hydrothermal adularia nor albite have
been observed in any of the wall rocks, even though these
44 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47

Fig. 5 Subsurface distribution of:

NW SE
I I Illite (A) replacement illite and inter-
layered illite-smectite with <10%
I I-S with <10% smectite
smectite; (B) open space and
replacement ankerite-dolomite and
calcite. Siderite is not shown but
has a near-identical distribution
pattern as calcite.

B NW SE
| Ankerite and Dolomite
FT7] Calcite

minerals are common in other epithermal deposits of the CVZ measurable inclusions were found in ankerite or dolomite.
(Brathwaite et al. 1989). Replacement quartz forms up to Three inclusion types are recognised, based on phase
50% of the rock by volume and occurs as microscopic relationships at room temperature: (1) multiphase with liquid,
interlocking anhedral grains that replace the groundmass and vapour, and various daughter crystals; (2) two-phase (liquid
are intergrown with chlorite, illite, and disseminated pyrite. and vapour), liquid-rich; and (3) two-phase, vapour-rich
Chlorite further replaces mafic phenocrysts and is a common inclusions (Fig. 7). The rare multiphase inclusions in the
mineral in DDH1, but it is sparse towards DDH3. Illite is porphyry-style quartz vein contain liquid and minor vapour,
the predominant clay and is locally interlayered with 10% and they are crowded by up to four translucent daughter
or less smectite (Fig. 5). Both illite and interlayered illite- crystals with or without hematite (Fig. 7). Subhedral
smectite replace plagioclase phenocrysts and the groundmass, translucent daughter crystals display cubic, tabular, or
and are overprinted by ankerite and dolomite. Replacement hexagonal morphologies and possibly consist of halides
ankerite and dolomite have the same distribution as ankerite- (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2), anhydrite, or carbonate. Two-phase
dolomite veinlets, occurring throughout drillholes DDH3, (liquid and vapour), liquid-rich inclusions that contain
DDH2, and locally in DDH1 (Fig. 5). 80-85 vol.% liquid are the most abundant, whereas two-
phase, vapour-rich inclusions are comparatively rare and
Late-stage epithermal calcite, siderite, and kaolinite contain >98 vol.% vapour.
Late-stage epithermal calcite and siderite veinlets crosscut Microthermometric measurements were made on
ankerite-dolomite veinlets and are abundant in DDH1, but multiphase and liquid-rich inclusions. No vapour-rich
are sparse elsewhere (Fig. 5). The calcite veinlets are typically inclusions were measured because of the difficulty in
<3 mm wide and commonly have thin selvages of siderite, observing the homogenisation of small amounts of liquid
although siderite also forms irregular, branching 1 mm wide (cf. Sterner 1992). Homogenisation temperatures (Th) were
monomineralic veinlets that cut the calcite veinlets (Fig. 4F). determined for 183 inclusions, with the temperature of final
Electron microprobe analyses reveal that calcite and siderite ice melting (Tm) measured for 58 of these same inclusions
contain minor amounts of manganese and magnesium, (Table 1).
respectively (Fig. 5). Replacement calcite and siderite, which
have similar distributions as the veins, overprint illite-altered Porphyry-style quartz vein
plagioclase phenocrysts and locally flood the groundmass. The rare isolated occurrence of the multiphase inclusions in
Rare kaolinite fills cavities, where it overgrows ankerite and the porphyry-style quartz vein suggests that they are primary
dolomite; however, the relationship between kaolinite and in origin, even though they do not occur within discrete
late-stage calcite has not been observed. growth zones (Roedder 1984). They also appear to co-exist
with rare vapour-rich inclusions, suggesting the possible
trapping of an immiscible (boiling) fluid (Bodnar et al. 1985).
FLUID INCLUSIONS These multiphase inclusions did not homogenise either by
Fluid inclusions occur in a porphyry-style quartz vein and vapour bubble disappearance or salt dissolution on heating
epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite. However, no to 400°C (the upper limit of our heating runs). Even though
Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley

Fig. 6 Microprobe analyses of MnCO

ankerite, dolomite, calcite, and
siderite portrayed on the CaCO3-
MgCO 3 -FeCO 3 ternary. All
carbonates contain only limited
amounts of manganese.

Explanation
• 49310
+ 49305
A 49298
X 49312
• 49294

MgCO, FeCO

Fig. 7 Fluid inclusion photomicrographs. A, Porphyry-style quartz vein hosting multiphase inclusions with vapour, several translucent
daughter crystals, and hematite. B, Co-existing secondary liquid-rich and vapour-rich inclusions in epithermal quartz.

Table 1 Summary of fluid inclusion Th and Tm results for a porphyry-style quartz veinlet and epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite
veins from the central Maratoto valley prospect.

Sample Thrange Tm range Wt% NaCl

number Mineral Type (°C) n Av. (°C) n Av. equiv.1 Comments
Early porphyry-style quartz vein
49305 Quartz P? >400 (7) 400+ -55 to -57 (3) -55.6 >21.6 Hypersaline multiphase
Quartz S 283-329 (9) 323 -0.9 to -1.0 (5) -0.9 1.6-1.7 Overprinting 2nd inclusions

Main-stage epithermal quartz and sphalerite

49310 Quartz P ? & S 243-280 (20) 255 -0.4 to -0.6 (5) -0.5 0.7-1.0
49311 Quartz P ? & S 235-313 (32) 271 -0.6 to -0.8 (4) -0.7 1.0-1.4
49311 Sphalerite s 248-269 (7) 260 -0.5 (2) -0.5 0.9
49312 Quartz P ? & S 281-283 (3) 282 -0.8 (1) -0.8 1.4
49318 Quartz s 250-258 (5) 254 -0.6 to -0.8 (3) -0.7 1.0-1.4
49320 Quartz s 253-261 (6) 256 -0.5 to -0.6 (3) -0.5 0.9-1.0 Co-existing L>V and V>L
49321 Quartz s 243-258 (7) 252 -0.5 to -0.6 (3) -0.5 0.9-1.0 Co-existing L>V and V>L
49324 Quartz s 263-272 (5) 267 -0.3 to -0.6 (4) -0.4 0.5-1.0 First generation
Quartz s 169-227 (8) 190 -0.3 to -0.4 (3) -0.4 0.5-0.7 Second generation
49327 Quartz s 201-248 (7) 216 -0.6 to -0.7 (3) -0.6 1.0-1.2 Co-existing L>V and V>L
49329 Quartz s 257-277 (10) 263 -0.3 to -0.4 (4) -0.4 0.5-0.7 Co-existing L>V and V>L
49333 Quartz s 221-263 (30) 229 -0.3 to -0.5 (8) -0.4 0.5-0.9 Co-existing L>V and V>L

Late-stage epithermal calcite

49293 Calcite s 240-278 (23) 258 -0.9 to -1.7 (10) -1.4 1.2-2.9
49294 Calcite s 225-267 (3) 253 ND
Th = Homogenisation temperature; Tm = ice melting temperature; P = primary fluid inclusions; S = secondary fluid inclusions; L =
liquid; V = vapour; L>V = liquid-rich inclusions; V>L = vapour-rich inclusions; ND = not determined.
1
Wt% NaCl equivalent calculated from Bodnar (1993).
46 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47

Fig. 8 Fluid inclusion plot of:

(A) Th versus frequency and (B)
Quartz p"ta»j] Porphyry Th versus Tm for individual
secondary inclusions in porphyry-
EA
Quartz style quartz and primary and
O • Sphalerite Epithermal secondary inclusions in main-stage
I/I epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and
o D Calcite date) - late-stage epithermal calcite.
c Primary fluid inclusions in the
porphyry-style quartz (not plotted)
I homogenise at temperatures
>400°C and have trapped
hypersaline multi-cation fluids.
The shaded area represents Tm
values that can be accounted for
by up to 3.6 wt% CO2, the
maximum concentration before
clathrate formation.
150 200 250 300 350 400
D
Temperature of homogenisation ( C)

-2.0
Multiphase hypersaline inclusion!
o o Q u a r t z (Z"ary)~ Porphyry in porphyry-style qjartz
o
-1.6- • Quartz -i

A Sphalerite Epithernnal

-1.2-
O Calcite fate; I
to
f
O
-0.8-
x

1
I • •
•0.4-

0.0-
100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Temperature of homogenisation (°C)

the daughter crystals did not fully dissolve on heating, the
final ice melting temperature of -55 to -56°C substantiate
that the trapped fluid is hypersaline (Roedder 1984).
Late secondary liquid-rich inclusions along healed
fractures in the porphyry-style quartz vein have a Th range
of 283-329°C (av. 323°C). They are significantly cooler than
the >400°C homogenisation temperature for multiphase
inclusions, but are on average 40-60°C hotter than inclusions
in epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite (Fig. 8A). Final
ice melting temperatures for these inclusions range from
-0.9to-1.0°C(Fig. 8B).
Epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite
Fluid inclusions in epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite
are mainly secondary, and occur along healed fractures or in
random arrays, although rare possible primary inclusions are
present in growth zones (Roedder 1984). Several quartz veins
exposed at the surface contain co-existing secondary liquid- STABLE ISOTOPES
rich and vapour-rich inclusions (Fig. 7; Table 1) that were We analysed seven samples to determine the stable isotope
likely trapped under boiling conditions (Roedder 1984; values of their carbonate minerals (Table 2). Each analysis
Bodnar et al. 1985). The inclusions in quartz, sphalerite, and
calcite have a wide homogenisation temperature (Th) range
of 169-295°C (Fig. 8A). However, most inclusion
populations within individual crystals have a relatively
narrow Th range of <40°C (Table 1). Liquid-rich inclusions
in main-stage quartz show the widest Th range of 169-295°C,
with a major broad temperature peak at c. 262°C and a sharp,
narrow peak at c. 227°C; the latter corresponds to inclusions
in a single surface sample (Fig. 8A). Fluid inclusions in main-
stage sphalerite have a narrow Th range of 248-269°C, an
average value of 260°C, and overlap with those in later stage
calcite which homogenise at 240-271°C and average 259°C
(Fig. 8A). Final ice melting temperatures for quartz,
sphalerite, and calcite overlap and range from -0.3 to -1.7°C
(Fig. 8B).
Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley 47

Table 2 Summary of 518O and 513C values for ankerite, dolomite, and calcite.

Sample number Mineral Comment 5 13 C (VPDB) 5 18 O SMOW

49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.76 15.60
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -3.15 14.43
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -3.17 14.29
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin inward -1.54 15.27
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin inward -1.24 14.87
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin inward -1.59 15.35
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -2.96 13.70
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -2.86 13.48
49310 ankerite/dolomite 7 -1.97
49310 ankerite/dolomite 7 -2.51 16.23
49310 ankerite/dolomite 7 -2.09 15.33
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.25 16.71
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.52 15.76
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.90 15.44
49310 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.72
49312 ankerite/dolomite dol/ank pocket -2.63 15.52
49312 ankerite/dolomite dol/ank pocket -2.92 14.96
49312 ankerite/dolomite dol/ank pocket -2.60 15.47
49312 ankerite/dolomite dol/ank pocket -2.71 15.18
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.57 15.85
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.65 15.58
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.67 15.57
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.57 15.68
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -4.41 15.24
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -4.13 15.49
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre 4.20 15.28
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -5.25
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -2.23 15.91
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -2.10 15.91
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -1.92 16.04
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein centre -2.31 15.94
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.25 15.96
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -3.00 15.98
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.83
49312 ankerite/dolomite vein margin -2.70 16.17
49294 calcite vein centre -5.83 3.28
49294 calcite vein centre -5.31 4.43
49294 calcite vein centre -5.29 4.28
49294 calcite vein centre -5.35 4.20
49294 calcite vein centre 4.93 3.76
49294 calcite vein centre -5.07 3.39
49294 calcite vein centre -5.27 3.14
49294 calcite vein centre 4.92 3.85
49306 ankerite/dolomite ankerite vein -3.06 15.41
49306 ankerite/dolomite ankerite vein -3.21 15.04
49306 ankerite/dolomite ankerite vein -3.09 15.29
49306 ankerite/dolomite ankerite vein -3.12 15.03
49306 ankerite/dolomite ankerite vein -3.17 14.98
49306 ankerite/dolomite ankerite vein -3.12 15.15
49298 ankerite/dolomite calcite vein 4.83 17.20
49298 ankerite/dolomite calcite vein 4.87 17.16
49298 ankerite/dolomite calcite vein -5.04 17.20
49298 ankerite/dolomite calcite vein 4.83 17.37
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim -1.53 17.42
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim -1.88 16.88
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim -1.18 18.11
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim inward -5.07 15.50
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim inward -5.02 15.64
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim inward (more) 4.64 16.33
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein rim inward (more) 4.86 15.66
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein core? -3.74 16.69
49302 ankerite/dolomite vein core? 4.04 16.35
49293 calcite -5.18 3.93
49293 calcite -5.58 4.88
49293 calcite -5.54 4.70
49293 calcite -5.39 5.05
49293 calcite -5.69 5.01
49293 calcite -5.89 3.67
Dol/ank = dolomite / ankerite.
48 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47
0-
-1 •
Dolomite
and
-2
ankerite /
g -3.
a.
Calcite
-5-
-7
12
..1B
5 0 (VSMOW)
listed in Table 2 was checked by 2-4 repeat analyses to test
for reproducibility of the isotopic values. Oxygen isotope
values show a maximum range of 1.3‰ in a single sample
(AU49310, vein margin), and an average range of values of
0.6‰. Carbon isotope values exhibit much less variability,
with a maximum variation of 0.8‰, and an average range
of0.3‰.
To test for isotopic variability within each vein, we
collected micro-samples from different locations in the veins,
typically obtaining values from the vein margins and centres
(Table 2). Oxygen isotope values vary up to 2.4‰ in a single
vein (AU49310), and carbon isotope values vary up to 3.5‰
in one vein (AU49302).
The most significant variability among samples correlates
with mineralogy, because calcite samples have relatively
depleted 818O values of 3.1—5.1‰, whereas ankerite and
dolomite have more enriched 818O values of 13.5-18.1‰
(Fig. 9). Carbon isotope values show less pronounced
differences that also correlate with mineralogy, as calcite
samples have relatively depleted 813C values of -4.9 to
-5.9‰, and ankerite and dolomite have more variable 813C
values of-1.2 to -5.1‰ (Fig. 9).
DISCUSSION
Alteration minerals, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope data
can be used to interpret the chemical and physical conditions
prevailing during hydrothermal alteration and vein deposition
using active hydrothermal systems as examples (e.g., White
1981; Henley & Ellis 1983; Henley 1985; Reyes 1990;
Simmons & Browne 2000). In the following discussion, these
physicochemical interpretations are integrated to develop a
model of the magmatic-hydrothermal system and its
evolution with time.
Temperatures of vein formation and alteration
Hypersaline fluid inclusions in the early porphyry-style quartz
vein formed at temperatures >400°C, whereas secondary
liquid-rich inclusions in healed fractures of the same vein
homogenised at cooler temperatures of 283-329°C. Both
Fig. 9 Stable isotope values of
ankerite, dolomite, and calcite
from veins at the central Maratoto
valley prospect.
f
/
•
*
-
*
•
\
• 49310
•
• 49312
A49294
X493O6
x4929a
•49302
+49293
14 16 18 20
generations of inclusions record a hotter event that preceded
the formation of epithermal veins and alteration. Fluid
inclusions in epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite
homogenise between 221 and 285 °C, and average around
260°C. Even though most inclusions are secondary, rare
inclusions of possible primary origin have similar Th values,
suggesting that some secondary inclusions may reflect the
temperature of vein formation. Even though we did not obtain
fluid inclusion data for the ankerite-dolomite veins, we infer
that they formed at c. 260°C, because their formation partly
overlaps with the quartz veins and predates the calcite veins
(Fig. 3), which both have average Th values of 260°C.
Furthermore, carbonate microprobe analyses (Fig. 6) are
roughly consistent with phase relations in the CaCO3-MgCO3-
FeCO3 ternary at 250°C, as inferred from natural assemblages
and thermodynamic calculations (Annovitz & Essene 1987).
In geothermal systems, illite and interlayered illite-
smectite form at temperatures >220 and 220-150°C,
respectively (Steiner 1977; Reyes 1990). The widespread
occurrence of illite at the central Maratoto valley prospect
would therefore suggest temperatures >220°C, which is
consistent with fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures.
By contrast, clay mineral geothermometry would suggest that
interlayered illite-smectite with 10% or less smectite in
DDH1 to the southeast may have formed at temperatures
slightly cooler than 220°C. However, this temperature is at
odds with Th values for inclusions in quartz and later formed
calcite veins that are 40-60°C hotter than suggested by the
interlayered clay. Lower temperatures could have resulted
from either an influx of cooler fluids or rapid erosion followed
by burial; however, both possibilities seem unrealistic
because the temperature before and after interlayered clay
formation remained consistent at c. 260°C. The simplest
explanation is that clay minerals are not reliable geo-
thermometers (Essene & Peacor 1995).
Stable isotopes
We used published fractionation factors for calcite-water and
dolomite-water (Friedman & O'Neil 1977) to calculate the
818O composition of water that would be in equilibrium with
the measured carbonates at their estimated formation
Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley
temperature of 260°C. Unfortunately, fractionation factors for
ankerite-water do not exist. However, our analyses of co-
existing ankerite and dolomite showed that both phases have
relatively uniform and similar isotopic compositions,
suggesting that the ankerite analysed in this study has similar
fractionation factors to dolomite. Furthermore, microprobe
results show that the ankerite in this study has variable but
low amounts of iron, with various samples showing a
continuum of Fe:Mg ratios ranging from 0:1 (dolomite) to
0.57:1, which is the most iron-rich ankerite analysed in this
study. Analysed ankerite has an average Fe:Mg ratio of 0.15:1,
demonstrating the low iron content of most ankerite at the
prospect (Fig. 6), and further suggesting that the ankerite in
this study may have fractionation factors similar to dolomite.
Consequently, we use dolomite-water fractionation factors to
evaluate both dolomite and ankerite data.
The above calculations indicate that calcite formed from
water with a 818O value of c. -3‰. This value is consistent
with those calculated from other low sulfidation epithermal
deposits in the Hauraki Goldfield, such as the Golden Cross
(de Ronde & Blattner 1988; Simmons et al. 2000) and Waihi
deposits (Panther et al. 1995; Brathwaite & Faure 2002). In
contrast, ankerite and dolomite would have formed at 260°C
from water with a 818O value of c. 6‰. This value is
significantly more enriched than the calculated value of the
water that was in equilibrium with the late-stage calcite.
Alternatively, the ankerite/dolomite veins may have
formed from water with an isotopic composition similar to
the water that formed the late-stage calcite. If so, published
fractionation factors (Friedman & O'Neil 1977) indicate that
dolomite with an isotopic composition of 16‰ would have
formed from water with a 818O value of -3‰ at a temperature
of c. 150°C. This temperature is over 100° cooler than that
inferred above for both main-stage quartz and late-stage
calcite. In order to cool the hydrothermal system by this
amount, either (1) the system would have had to experience
a lowering of the water table due to uplift or a change in the
shallow hydrology, or (2) there would have had to have been
significant input of cooler fluids, such as meteoric water.
However, because the hydrothermal system apparently
returned to c. 260°C during deposition of the late calcite
veins, both scenarios seem unreasonable. In the first case,
exhumation of the geothermal system would have to be
followed by comparable burial and reheating before
deposition of the late-stage calcite veins. The second case
also seems unlikely, because late-stage calcite veins form
from descending CO2-rich steam-heated water, which is
heated as it descends into former upflow zones (Simmons &
Christenson 1994; Simmons et al. 2000). Lowering the
temperature of the system during precipitation of the ankerite/
dolomite veins would then necessitate another mechanism
to elevate the temperature, with no alteration or vein minerals
forming to record this event. Finally, we consider cooling of
the hydrothermal system to 150°C unlikely because the
relatively high rank clay minerals in the altered wall rocks
are consistent with much higher temperatures. Therefore,
although possible, we consider formation of the ankerite/
dolomite veins at low temperatures to be highly unlikely,
and we prefer the simpler hypothesis that they formed at c.
260°C from water with a 818O value of c. 6‰.
Boiling produces only minor changes in the isotopic
composition of fluids in geothermal systems (Giggenbach
1992), so the two main explanations that could be invoked
to account for the enriched isotopic values of the water that
49
formed the ankerite-dolomite veins are fluid mixing and
water/rock interaction. Primary magmatic water has a 818O
value of 6-10‰, and andesitic water has a 818O value of
7-1 1‰ (Giggenbach 1992). Mass balance calculations
indicate that to obtain the calculated 818OH2o value of 6‰,
20% meteoric water with a composition of-3‰ would have
to mix with 80% primary magmatic water. The resulting fluid
would likely be hypersaline and acidic (Hedenquist 1995;
Giggenbach 1997), yet we observe no evidence of daughter
crystals in the ankerite-dolomite veins, nor are these veins
associated with acid alteration. Consequently, although some
input from magmatic or andesitic water cannot be discounted,
we conclude that this cannot be the primary cause for 818O
enrichment of the fluids that formed the ankerite-dolomite
veins. An alternative explanation, and the one that we prefer,
is that the ankerite-dolomite veins formed from meteoric
water that had undergone significant isotopic exchange with
wall rocks, thereby becoming enriched in 18O in a rock-
dominated environment (e.g., Taylor 1979; Criss & Taylor
1986). This suggests that hydrothermal fluids that formed
ankerite, dolomite, and quartz in the Maratoto region
underwent deep circulation that led to significant isotopic
exchange.
Composition of magmatic and hydrothermal waters
The liquid trapped in fluid inclusions provides the only direct
samples of waters from which the porphyry-style quartz and
epithermal quartz, sphalerite, and calcite veins were
deposited. Multiphase fluid inclusions in early porphyry-style
quartz veins are typical of those in porphyry copper deposits
(Nash 1976; Roedder 1984; Beane & Bodnar 1995). Final
ice melting temperatures of-55 to -56°C suggest the trapping
of a multi-cation hypersaline fluid (Crawford 1981; Goldstein
& Reynolds 1994). However, the salinity of these inclusions
could not be determined because the salts did not completely
dissolve on heating. Even if dissolution temperatures were
known, the salinity still could not be determined because
they have trapped a multi-cation solution, in which KCl,
CaCl2, and MgCl2 would decrease the solubility of NaCl
and consequently result in an overestimation of the NaCl
content (Sterner et al. 1988). These hypersaline inclusions
in porphyry copper deposits often originate through
immiscibility (boiling) of the primary magmatic fluid that
results in a highly saline brine and vapour (Beane & Bodnar
1995). Late secondary liquid-rich inclusions along healed
fractures in the porphyry-style quartz vein have trapped dilute
fluids with apparent salinities of < 1.8 wt% NaCl equivalent.
In addition, the broad composition of the different
hydrothermal waters can be indirectly determined from
alteration mineral assemblages (Browne 1978). The main-
stage epithermal alteration mineral assemblage of quartz,
chlorite, illite, interlayered illite-smectite, ankerite, dolomite,
and pyrite likely formed from a near-neutral pH alkali
chloride water, which is the dominant fluid type in many
geothermal systems (Henley & Ellis 1983). Final ice melting
temperatures for inclusions in quartz indicate that the trapped
fluids are dilute with apparent salinities of < 1.4 wt% NaCl
equivalent (Bodnar 1993). However, the abundance of
carbonates and lack of calcium silicates such as wairakite
and epidote further suggest that these chloride waters contain
appreciable concentrations of dissolved CO2 (Browne & Ellis
1970). Assuming that the trapped inclusion fluids consist only
of water and aqueous CO2, then Tm values of-1.5°C or higher
can be accounted for by up to 3.6 wt% aqueous CO2
50 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47

Fig. 10 Fluid inclusion homo-

\ Paleowater table at 1550 m a.s.l.
genisation temperature histograms
- 400 plotted as a function of sample
300 -
Paleowater table at 700 m a.s.l.
depth. Hydrostatic boiling point
for depth curves (Haas 1971) are
positioned to intersect secondary
inclusions in quartz that show
evidence of boiling. The solid
hydrostatic boiling point for depth
- 300 curve for pure water is constrained
400 - for a surface epithermal quartz
Amount of erc$ian vein, with a Tt average of 267°C.
(-575 to 640 m epithermal quartz) The second dashed hydrostatic
(-1515 to 1580 m porphyry-style quartz)
boiling point for depth curve for
2.0 wt% NaCl equivalent is
positioned to intersect secondary
- 200
inclusions in the porphyry-style
500 - quartz vein based on the highest
Th of 329°C and assuming for-
mation under boiling conditions.

a.s
Present surface
elevation with - 100 §
75 m relief
| 600 -

ion
"re
(U
a)

Preser
CD
_ Sea
700 - level
t

Secondary inclusions
in porphyry-style quart
-inn
800 -
Inclusion
histogram

Inclusions hosted in: - -200

900 -
[O Quartz (2~ary> ] Porphyry-style
• Quartz -i
LJ Sphalerite Epithernnal
• Caldteo*.) -I

•300
I I
100 150 200 250 300 350

Temperature (°C)

(Fig. 8B), the maximum concentration permissible before
gas hydrate formation (Hedenquist & Henley 1985).
The late-stage epithermal assemblage of calcite and
siderite presumably formed from steam-heated CO2-rich
water (Hedenquist 1990; Simmons & Browne 2000;
Simmons et al. 2000). These waters originate from the
condensation and absorption of CO 2 loss during boiling into
cool groundwaters on the margins of the geothermal system
(Hedenquist & Stewart 1985). If the CO2-rich waters are close
to calcite saturation, slight heating will result in the
precipitation of calcite due to its retrograde solubility
(Simmons & Christenson 1994).
By contrast, the late-stage overprinting kaolinite likely
formed from steam-heated acid-sulfate waters that form
above the water table by oxidation of H2S gas. No other
minerals indicative of this water type, such as alunite,
cristobalite, or native sulfur (Schoen et al. 1974; Simmons
& Browne 2000), were found in the prospect area.
Formation depth below the paleowater table
The formation depth of veins below the paleowater table was
estimated from the trapping temperature (Tt) and apparent
composition of fluid inclusions. These calculations require
that the fluids were boiling at the time of their entrapment,
Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley
otherwise the pressure determination is a minimum estimate
(Hass 1971; Roedder & Bodnar 1980). Co-existing secondary
liquid-rich and vapour-rich fluid inclusions in several
epithermal quartz veins (Table 1) suggest trapping during
boiling and consequently obviates the need for these pressure
corrections. However, these data must be interpreted with
caution because these inclusions are secondary, so the results
do not reflect the temperature during quartz precipitation,
but rather the temperature of subsequent fracturing.
Nonetheless, rare inclusions of possible primary origin with
similar Th values suggest that the secondary inclusions could
reflect the temperature of vein formation. Under hydrostatic
conditions, similar to those measured in geothermal systems
(Henley 1985), secondary inclusions in epithermal quartz
sample AU49324, with the hottest average Th of 267°C and
dilute apparent salinity (<1 wt% NaCl equiv.) would have
formed below a paleowater table at 700 m above sea level
(a.s.l.). This corresponds to a minimum of 575 m of erosion
to reach the present ground surface (Fig. 10). The position
of the paleowater table is even higher when the effect of
CO2 is taken into account (Haas 1971). Even though we have
not quantified the amount of CO 2 in inclusion fluids by either
crushing or gas chromatography studies, the abundance of
carbonates and lack of calc-silicate minerals, such as zeolites
or epidote, imply that the trapped fluids likely contain
aqueous CO2 (Browne & Ellis 1970). If we assume that the
final ice melting temperature for inclusions in epithermal
quartz sample AU49324 is due only to aqueous CO2, then
0.3 molal CO 2 based on Henry's law (PTotal = PCO2 + PH2O)
would result in a paleowater table at 950 m a.s.l. and at least
825 m of erosion.
The formation depth of the porphyry-style quartz vein
could not be determined because the homogenisation
temperatures of its hypersaline inclusions are not known.
Secondary liquid-rich inclusions in the porphyry-style quartz
vein plot to the right of the boiling point for depth curve
defined for epithermal quartz veins (Fig. 10), suggesting that
they formed under a different thermal regime. If we assume
that these secondary inclusions were trapped under near-
boiling hydrostatic conditions, then the maximum homo-
genisation temperature of 329°C and dilute apparent salinity
(c. 2 wt% NaCl equiv.) suggest a paleowater table at a
minimum elevation of 1650 m a.s.l. and at least 1500 m of
erosion (Fig. 10).
In the above calculations for the epithermal and the
porphyry-style quartz veins, the paleowater elevations are
based on secondary inclusions that were trapped at some time
after vein formation. If this region was tectonically active
during vein formation, secondary fluid inclusion tempe-
ratures may vary significantly from the original temperature
of vein formation. Nonetheless, the available data suggest
that the paleowater table may have dropped 700-950 m
between the trapping of secondary inclusions in the porphyry-
style vein and those in later epithermal quartz veins.
Telescoped veins and alteration
The origin of the fluids that formed porphyry-style quartz
veins at the central Maratoto valley prospect is uncertain.
The fluids may have exsolved from deeper levels of the
subvolcanic dacite intersected in drillhole DDH3.
Alternatively, the fluid may have been derived from a large
buried intrusion, such as that suggested by a large positive
magnetic anomaly (c. 8 x 2 km trending northwest) situated
<1 km to the southeast of the prospect (Stagpoole et al. 2001).
51
In either case, the occurrence of porphyry-style quartz veins
with high temperature hypersaline fluid inclusions
overprinted by extensive lower temperature epithermal
alteration and veins indicates telescoping. Fluid inclusion
data suggest that the paleowater table could have descended
700-950 m during the transition from porphyry-style to
epithermal-style veins and alteration.
This juxtaposition of porphyry copper and later low
sulfidation epithermal-style mineralisation is seen in many
volcanic-plutonic arcs of the circum-Pacific region (Sillitoe
1994), and is mainly attributed to the syn-hydrothermal
degradation of the volcanic paleosurface due to either rapid
uplift coupled with rapid erosion (e.g., Acupan, Philippines;
Cooke et al. 1996), or catastrophic unroofing by sector
collapse of a volcanic edifice (e.g., Ladolam in Lihir Island,
Papua New Guinea; Moyle et al. 1990). In New Zealand, the
telescoping of the Ohio Creek porphyry Cu-Mo-Au system
by adjacent advanced argillic alteration and later epithermal
veins and associated illite, pyrite, and carbonate alteration
at Thames (Fig. 1) appears to be due to the shallow formation
depth of porphyry mineralisation coupled with uplift and
erosion (Brathwaite et al. 2001). At the central Maratoto
valley prospect, it appears that the telescoping is due mainly
to a lowering of the water table by either rapid uplift and
erosion or catastrophic sector collapse of a volcanic edifice.
Evolution of the central Maratoto valley prospect
hydrothermal system
Early magmatic-hydrothermal activity produced rare
porphyry-style quartz veins (Fig. 11 A), which formed at
temperatures >400°C from hypersaline magmatic fluids
presumably derived from a subvolcanic to plutonic stock.
Lower temperature secondary liquid-rich inclusions in the
porphyry-style quartz vein formed at c. 320°C from dilute
meteoric fluids (<2 wt% NaCl equiv.) and reflect a change
from predominantly magmatic to meteoric waters.
Porphyry-style quartz veins are overprinted by wide-
spread epithermal-style alteration and veins that formed as a
result of a descending (>700 m) water table with telescoping
developed in response to either rapid uplift and erosion or
sector collapse of a volcanic edifice. The epithermal-style
alteration formed from a large convecting hydrothermal
system (Fig. 1 1B) analogous to geothermal systems of the
Taupo Volcanic Zone. Based on this analogy, the heat source
driving convection was likely a magma body at depth
(>5 km). Pyrite veinlets were deposited first, followed by
quartz and later ankerite-dolomite veins. Secondary fluid
inclusions in quartz and sphalerite formed at c. 240-280°C,
and trapped dilute fluids (2.9 wt% NaCl equiv.). Intense wall-
rock alteration adjacent to veins is characterised by the
assemblage of quartz, chlorite, illite, ankerite, dolomite, and
pyrite, which reflects formation from deeply derived 18O-
rich near-neutral alkali chloride waters that likely contained
appreciable amounts of dissolved gasses, mainly CO 2 and
H 2 S. These gases exsolved during localised boiling, as
evidenced from fluid inclusions and rare quartz
pseudomorphed platy calcite. The exsolved gases ascended
with steam to shallow depths where they condensed into
peripheral groundwater to form CO2-rich and locally acid-
sulfate steam-heated waters. Eventual thermal collapse
permitted peripheral steam-heated CO2-rich and local acid-
sulfate waters to invade the former upflow and outflow zones
(Fig. 11C). Conductive heating of descending isotopically
lighter steam-heated CO 2 -rich waters resulted in the
52 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47

Fig. 11 Conceptual model for

Early porphyry magmatic-hydrothermai activity the evolution of hydrothermal
Water lable?
alteration and veins at the central
Maratoto valley prospect.
A, Shallow emplacement of a
crystallising subvolcanic-plutonic
_Epjtherma|wa.ter table stock that exsolved hot hypersaline
magmatic fluids that were trapped
in porphyry-style quartz veins.
B, Telescoping lower temperature
r1km
Approximate position of the
epithermal alteration and veins
central Maratoto valley prospect formed within a large convective
Hot hypersaline hydrothermal system. Deeply
magmatic fluids >400°C derived alkali chloride waters
reacted with the rock producing
1km
the assemblage of quartz, illite,
pyrite, chlorite, ankerite, and
Approximate scale dolomite, and deposited quartz,
ankerite, and dolomite in veins.
Crystallising
\ Porphyry-style quartz veins s ubm I can ic- p I uton ic
Steam-heated CO2-rich and
stock acid-sulfate waters formed con-
temporaneously on the margins.
C, Cooling resulted in
Main stage epithermal alteration and veins the collapse of the convecting
hydrothermal system and permitted
peripheral steam-heated CO2-rich
waters to invade the former
Q uartz- illite- py rite-c hlorite- zone of alkali chlorite water.
ankerile-doiomile alteration Steam-heated CO2-rich waters
that descended fractures heated
to produce late barren calcite
veins with local siderite. Local
steam-heated acid-sulfate waters
produced overprinting kaolinite.

Collapsing late-stage epithermal alteration and veins

Water table

Calcite t siderite t kaolinite

alteration

r 1 km

1 km
Steam-heated Steam-heated
Approximate scale CO..-rich water acid-sulfate water

Qjartz-BMS vein Ankerite + dolomite veins Calcite + siderite veins

Simpson et al.—Telescoped veins and alteration, Maratoto valley 53

formation of late calcite and siderite veinlets coupled with
wall-rock alteration to both these minerals. By contrast, the
late overprinting kaolinite is interpreted to have formed from
descending steam-heated acid-sulfate waters. Based on the
distribution of calcite, siderite, and kaolinite it appears that
the steam-heated CO2-rich waters were predominant to the
south, whereas steam-heated acid-sulfate waters were most
abundant in the north.
Comparison with other deposits
Porphyry-style quartz veins and widespread epithermal veins
and alteration at the central Maratoto valley prospect are
similar to other deposits of the Coromandel Peninsula. Here
we present a brief comparison with the nearby Maratoto Mine
and the Thames Bonanza Goldfield (Table 3; Fig. 1); we
choose the latter because it is the most similar with respect
to wall-rock alteration.
Alteration at both the central Maratoto valley prospect
and Thames Bonanza Goldfield is characterised by the simple
assemblage of quartz, illite, and pyrite (Merchant 1986;
Brathwaite et al. 2001). Both locations lack adularia or albite,
which are common minerals in other epithermal deposits of
the Coromandel Peninsula (e.g., Golden Cross, Simpson et
al. 2001; Waihi, Brathwaite & Faure 2002) and also occur at
the Maratoto Mine. By contrast, the rare quartz and carbonate
veins coupled with fluid inclusion Th and Tm results are more
similar to those reported for the Maratoto Mine, although
those at the mine are significantly more abundant and contain
base metal sulfides, silver sulfosalts and electrum (Main
1979; Christie 1982). By contrast, the high temperature
hypersaline inclusions found here are remarkably similar to
those observed in stockwork veins of the Ohio Creek
porphyry Cu-Au-Mo system, located 3 km northeast of the
Thames Bonanza Goldfield (Brathwaite et al. 2001).
Despite widespread epithermal alteration, the quartz veins
at the central Maratoto valley prospect are narrow, sparse,
and largely devoid of electrum and silver sulfosalts. Low
gold-silver grades could simply reflect the limited exploration
of the prospect and that the potential area of significant gold
and silver-bearing veins has not been intersected. However,
if the area of study represents the main upflow zone, then
the low gold grades could be a function of poor structural
dilation, as indicated by narrow vein widths, and possibly
temperature. In the case of temperature, fluid inclusion data
suggest quartz veins formed at c. 240-280°C, which is just
below the upper limit of c. 300°C for epithermal deposits
(Hedenquist et al. 2000). Although gold is deposited at these
high temperatures, most gold deposition in epithermal
deposits occurs at lower temperatures of 190-250°C (Cooke
& Simmons 2000; Hedenquist et al. 2000), which is below

Table 3 Comparison of hydrothermal minerals, fluid inclusions, and stable isotopes for the central Maratoto valley prospect, Maratoto
Mine, and the Thames Bonanza Goldfield.

Alteration minerals/fluid Central Maratoto Thames Bonanza

inclusions/stable isotopes valley prospect Maratoto Mine1 Goldfield2

Minerals
Quartz P P P
Adularia N P N
Albite N ? P
Epidote N P P
Calcite P P P
Ankerite P ? P
Dolomite P 7 P
Siderite P P P
Rhodochrosite N P P
Chlorite P P P
Illite P P P
Interstratified illite-smectite P 7 P
Kaolinite P P P

Fluid inclusion data

Porphyry quartz Th range >400°C - 450 to >600°C
Salinity NaCl + KCl equiv. >21 - 50-84
Epithermal quartz Th range 169-329°C (262°C) 172-323°C (263°C) 211-326°C(294°C)
Salinity wt% NaCl equiv. 0.5-1.4 (0.9) 0.2-3.3 (0.8) 0.9-2.6 (1.4)
Epithermal calcite-Th range 240-271°C (259°C) 195-306°C (258°C) -
Salinity wt% NaCl equiv. 1.6-2.9 (2.4) 0.2-2.8 (1.2) -
Epithermal sphalerite Th range 248-269°C (260°C) - 250-314°C(306°C)
Salinity wt% NaCl equiv. 0.9 - 1.1-2.1 (1.6)
Depth below paleowater table* 1050 – 1570 m*) 590-880 m (1050-1570 m*) 780 m (1930 m*)

Stable isotope data

Calcite + 3 . 1 t o + 5 . 0 ‰ (+4.1‰)+0.9to+17.5‰(+3.7‰)– +0.9 to +17.5‰ (+3.7‰)– -
Ankerite/dolomite +13.5 to +18.1‰ (+15.7‰) - -
1
Data from Main (1979), Robinson & Christie (1980), and Christie (1982).
2
Data from Fraser (1910), Merchant (1978, 1986), and Brathwaite et al. (2001).
P = present, N = not present, ? = possibly present, but poorly documented.
*Calculated depth below the paleowater table in brackets take into account the effect of CO2.
54 New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2004, Vol. 47
the temperature established here for veins of the central
Maratoto valley prospect.
The presence of the porphyry-style quartz veins at the
central Maratoto valley prospect could be evidence for a
previously unknown and potentially mineralised porphyry
system in the area. Several low-grade porphyry copper-gold-
molybdenum prospects occur on the western edge of the
Coromandel Peninsula at Paritu, Manaia, Puru, and Ohio
Creek (Fig. 1) (Christie & Brathwaite 1986; Brathwaite et
al. 2001). If these veins represent part of a porphyry system,
then this occurrence represents the most southerly known
porphyry system of the Coromandel Peninsula.
CONCLUSIONS
At the central Maratoto valley prospect, rare early porphyry-
style quartz veins that host hypersaline fluid inclusions with
trapping temperatures >400°C are overprinted by widespread
epithermal-style alteration and local epithermal-type veins
with low salinities and trapping temperatures around 260°C.
The change from porphyry-style to epithermal-style
mineralisation developed in response to a descending
paleowater table that was due to either rapid uplift and erosion
or sector collapse of a volcanic edifice. Although both styles
of mineralisation occur in the central Maratoto valley, neither
appears to be particularly prospective at this stage given the
current level of information.
Main-stage epithermal-style quartz and ankerite-dolomite
veins are crosscut by late-stage epithermal-style calcite veins;
the 818O values of carbonates in the main-stage veins are
significantly greater than the 818O values of late-stage calcite.
Available data are consistent with the main-stage veins
forming from upwelling fluids and the late-stage veins
forming from down-welling fluids. Oxygen isotope data from
the carbonates suggest that main-stage fluids underwent
significant water-rock exchange, whereas late-stage fluids
experienced little water-rock interaction. Therefore, in some
places, stable isotope analyses may provide a useful tool to
help distinguish between (1) main-stage epithermal veins
with carbonates that are relatively enriched in 18 O, which
form from upwelling fluids and are potentially mineralised,
and (2) late-stage veins with carbonates that are relatively
depleted in 18 O, which form from down-welling fluids and
are likely barren. Simple isotopic analyses may therefore
assist with prospectivity analysis in some places, although
more rigorous analysis would be required to demonstrate that
isotopic differences are not due to other factors, such as
differences in temperature of the mineralising fluids.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper grew out of an MSc thesis by Ross Kendrick. We thank
Delta Gold New Zealand Ltd for providing unlimited access to the
prospect area and permission to publish. We thank Peter Grieve
and Vivienne Bryner (Delta Gold New Zealand Ltd) for help in the
field, geologic reports, and for useful discussions. We thank the
divine Lora Wingate at the University of Michigan for analytical
insight, supreme technical skill, and providing stable isotope
analyses, and Carl Henderson at the University of Michigan for
his genius in helping with electron microprobe analyses. The
electron microprobe at the University of Michigan was purchased
with funds from the National Science Foundation, NSF EAR-82-
12764. Peter Grieve and Stuart Simmons provided constructive
reviews that helped improve this paper. Financial support was
provided by Delta Gold New Zealand Ltd, and the Foundation for
Research, Science and Technology (FRST). Finally we thank Rob
Lynch, Steve Rowins, and an anonymous referee for constructive
reviews that have improved the paper.
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