Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

3.1: Introduction
Solar drying is a proper and competent system of utilizing solar energy [1-3]. The
tropics and subtopics have rich source of solar energy. Thus natural convection drying
is a promising option for drying of fruits and vegetables [4, 5]. Consequently, many
researchers have reported their work on optimization and simulation on drying the
foodstuffs [6-9]. Owing to lower investment, reduced cost, ease of operation and very
less maintenance, the natural convection solar drying systems are advantageous over
forced circulation and is classified as direct, indirect and mixed mode drying. The
cabinet solar dryer is of a natural convection type solar dryer, based on solar
radiations as it does not require mechanical or electrical power. The researchers [10-
12] have reported that, the working of cabinet solar dryer strongly depend on
temperature difference and pressure drop inner and outer side of the cabinet hence
cabinet solar dryers are designed according to temperature and density gradient.
Cabinet solar dryers are available in number of designs, with or without chimney;
however, the dryers with a chimney have an enhanced temperature gradient [13-17].

3.2: Design of cabinet solar dryer

Let T i and T f be the inlet and outlet temperatures of chimney of cabinet solar dryer.
Temperature difference ΔT between these temperatures is given by
ΔT = T f -T i
3.1
The researchers [18-21] have reported the energy gain in the cabinet solar dryer as

Qu = ṁ Cp ΔT
3.2
Where, ṁ: Air flow rate
C p : Specific heat of air
ΔT: Temperature difference
For fixed width and breadth of the collector, area of the collector, height (H) and
width (W) of the chimney are related as:
A=W×H 3.3
A
H=
W 3.4

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

This equation enables the estimate height of the chimney for the desired collector area
(A).
Mass flow rate of air is given as:
ma = Vaρa
3.5
V a = Volumetric air flow rate, ρ a = Density of air
Inertial force
Re =
Viscous force
ρvD
Re = 3.6
µ
vD
Re = 3.7
V
Where,
R e : Reynolds number for laminar or streamline flow of air
v: Velocity of air (m/s), µ: Dynamic viscosity (Pa.s or N.s/m2 or kg/ms)
V: Kinematic viscosity (V= µ/ρ) ( m2/s), ρ: Density of air
µ
V=
ρ
and

bT 3 / 2
µ= 3.8
T +S
Where,
b, s are constant and T is temperature
for air b = 1.458×10-6 kg/m.s.k1/2 and s = 110.4K
The physical dimension of collector is computed as:
L = 0.92m, W = 0.55m, A = 0.506 m2

Chimney
The chimney boosts the quantity of air flow throughout the solar dryer by speeding
up the flow of the exhaust air. Thus the effects of natural convection will be improved
by appending a chimney in which existing air is heated even more and enhance
buoyant flow of air. This plays an important role to overall design of solar dryers. A
variety of study illustrated that, the installation of three small fans and a photovoltaic
cell is comparable to the effect of 12 m chimney. However, due to air passing through
the drying foodstuff picks the moisture and it possess a high relative humidity, its

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

temperature may reach equal or lower than ambient. In such case the generation of
buoyancy force will be insignificant [18].

No flow condition
In this condition the air temperature and humidity inside the chimney and outside i.e.
the ambient is similar. In this case there is no density difference and there will be no
flow through the chimney.

Flowing condition
In flowing condition, the temperature inside the chimney is relatively higher than
cabinet, temperature of cabinet is higher than the ambient air. Hence the density
gradient developed inside the chimney of solar dryer and ambient air. As a result,
there exists a pressure head which creates an upward air flow. Therefore the relation
between the buoyancy force that is the pressure drop that creates the air flow, the
height, density difference of the ambient air and chimney is related as:

Pb = g × H× (ρ a -ρ ch )
3.9

During designing of chimney of a cabinet solar dryer, the most essential emphasis
should be on keeping the air temperature inside the chimney relatively higher than the
cabinet and cabinet is higher than ambient. However the pressure drop due to the wall
friction is commonly negligible. Hence an efficient solar chimney is designed to have
higher inside temperature than that of ambient temperature during the operation. Thus
under clear sunshine circumstances, a tall chimney proved to be more advantageous.

Table 3.1: Design assumptions of cabinet solar dryer

Parameters Assumptions
Geographical Location Sangamner (India)
Air flow mode Natural circulation
Drying Temperature for leafy vegetables 50 0C to 55 0C
Drying Temperature for fruity vegetables 55 0C to 60 0C
Temperature of ambient 34-38 0C
Density of air (Surrounding) 1.29 kg/m3
Density of air (Chimney) 1.067 kg/m2

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Transfer fluid Air

Quantity of material to be dried per batch 1.kg
Type of flow (air) Streamline flow
Drying Period February –May
Nature of vegetables Leafy as well as fruity

Table 3.2: Design Configuration of cabinet solar dryer

Parameters Specifications
Length of the cabinet 0.92 m
Width of the cabinet 0.55 m
Area of cabinet 0.506 m2
Height of cabinet 0.30 m
Angle of inclination of glass cover to cabinet 200
Length of transparent glass cover 0.98 m
Width of transparent glass cover 0.65 m
Inclination height 0.33 m
Thickness of transparent glass cover 0.004 m
Height of chimney from glass cover 0.57 m
Width of chimney 0.65 m
Open width of chimney 0.62 m
Height of chimney 0.92 m
Number of mesh placed One
Length of mesh 0.82 m
Width of mesh 0.61 m
Area of mesh 0.90 m×0.53 m
Open length at bottom of cabinet 0.15 m
Total supporting legs to the cabinet 04
Length of each leg from ground 0.25 m
Total height of cabinet dryer from ground up to chimney 1.45 m
Transmittance of glass cover 0.82
Absorbing material Blackened Copper sheet
Type of tray Mesh tray

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Material of mesh Steel mesh

Pressure drop 2.01 Pa
Reynolds number 150
Mass flow rate 0.041 kg/s
Tracking mechanism No
Type of solar radiation utilised Global

3.2.1: Construction
The cabinet solar dryer used in present research work is shown in following Fig. 3.1.
It consists of mainly two parts viz. cabinet and the chimney. The left, right and back
side of the cabinet were erected with water proof plywood (Mr. Hero) whereas, the
top side was fitted up with a transparent glass cover of transmittance 0.82 % inclined
at an angle of 200, latitude of the place. A perforated tray made from iron mesh and
plywood and painted black, was placed midway from the top. An opening at the
bottom of the cabinet facilitated as an inlet for air. In order to clutch maximum
energy, inner side of the cabinet was polished black. The cabinet was given a certain
height from the ground level by means of four studs at the bottom. The four studs are
further connected to the wheels which help to move the cabinet solar dryer softly on
ground. The entire cabinet, except the top side, was covered with a waterproof
Formica.
Furthermore, the flattened chimney that enhances the natural circulation was attached
to the cabinet. The three sides of chimney, i.e. left, right and back were made from
waterproof plywood whereas the front side was fastened with a transparent glass
cover of transmittance 0.82 %. Inner sides of chimney were painted black. As the
temperature requirement for drying of fruits and vegetables is different, width of the
chimney was kept adjustable, which allows to set the desire temperature inside the
dryer, to enhance the natural circulation through the dryer. The natural circulation
further helps to improve the drying rate and drying efficiency of fruits and vegetables.
The whole assembly was made using locally available materials.

3.2.2: Working

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The cabinet solar dryer is composed of mainly two parts. The cabinet where the air is
heated by solar radiations and the samples were exposed and the chimney that
facilitates exhaust of moist air using buoyancy effect [19-25]. The latent heat of
vaporization used to remove the moisture from the sample is provided by the hot air
inside the cabinet [26, 27]. The air flow in the cabinet solar dryer plays an a vital role
in the drying process and is responsible for moisture transport by enhancing
convective transfer of water vapour from the sample to the surrounding air [28-30].
The moist air located just above the fruits and vegetables is carried away by the air
flow. As considering moisture leaving the sample is equal to the moisture entering the
air stream by convection [31, 32].

ρ f ∆M G∇H
=−
∆t ∇X 3.10
Where,
ρ f = density of dry matter of food (kg/m3)
M: moisture content (d.b.)
t: time (hr)
G: air flux (kg/m2 hr)
H: humidity (kg/kg) and
X: depth of bulk (m).
The researchers [33-35] have given an energy balance equation for evaporation of
water from given quantity of sample is given by the following equation.

Mw Lv = ma Cp (T i -T f )
3.11
Where,
M w : mass of water evaporated from the sample (kg)
L v : latent heat of vaporisation (kJ/kg)
m a : mass of drying air (kg)
C p : specific heat of air at constant pressure (kJ/kg 0k)
T i and T f initial and final temperatures of the drying air respectively.

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Due to green house effect, the temperature inside the cabinet solar dryer increases as
compared to surrounding. Since temperature of chimney is always greater than the
temperature of cabinet and that the cabinet is greater than the surrounding, the natural
convection current is set up in the dryer [36-38]. This is the working principle of the
cabinet solar dryer. The schematic diagram was shown in following Fig. 3.1. The
temperature inside the cabinet can be set according to drying temperature of
vegetables by adjusting width of the chimney. The temperature required for drying of
leafy vegetables is 49 0C to 60 0C and for fruity vegetables is 60 0C to 70 0C [39-41].
This is the special facility given to the cabinet solar dryer which was not observed in
other cabinet solar dryers.

(Moist air exit)

Fig. 3.1 Cabinet Solar Dryer

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Fig. 3.2 Cabinet with open cover

Fig. 3.3 Pictorial view of cabinet solar dryer

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Fig. 3.4 Loading of sample in CSD

3.3: Methodology
3.3.1: Drying flow chart
The complete drying methodology of present research work is represented in
following flow chart.

Sample Collection

Sorting

Washing

Installation

Open Sun Drying Cabinet Solar Drying

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Dry Powder
Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Sample collection and sorting

Investigations on drying under Cabinet solar drying (CSD) and Open sun drying
(OSD) were carried out using the samples coriander, fenugreek, onion and garlic.
Two kilogram samples were collected from the same farm only to ensure the
uniformity and to avoid the effect of soil variation on the nutrient content of the
sample. The samples were then selected for further process. The fresh green coriander
and fenugreek leaves were selected and discoloured, as well as wilted leaves were
removed to avoid awful odour and loss of nutrients after dehydration. Similarly fresh,
dirt free onions and garlic were also processed.

Washing
Part–I: The coriander and fenugreek leaves were cut from main stem to ensure the soil
and dirt free samples. The leaves were washed with ample of fresh and clean water;
number of times. After washing, the leaves were air dried at room temperature to
eliminate the residual moisture in the sample. Any non leafy part present in the
sample was then removed to get a homogenous collection of each sample which was
then separated in two equi-weighted quanta for open sun drying and cabinet solar
drying.

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Part-II: The onions and garlic samples were washed by sufficient water to remove soil
and dirt. The outer wilted thin layer of onion and garlic samples were removed and
cut into small slices of averagely same size. The sample weights were recorded on
electronic balance before the commencement of actual experimental drying.

Installation of open sun drying and cabinet solar drying

The samples were spread over identical mesh installed in north south direction in
either cases i.e. CSD and OSD. The experiment were carried out in an open space at
an elevated surface with GPS location 190 35' at North latitude and 740 11' at East
longitude. For open sun drying, the samples were uniformly spread on a mesh kept at
a certain height from the ground, to avoide any heat exposure from the ground surface
and to keep them free from any contamination due to dust. In open sun drying, the
temperature and the heat content depends solely upon the amount of incident radiation
from the sun. The leaves were kept in open sun from morning to evening till the
samples were sufficiently dried up to the required moisture content.
For cabinet solar drying, the samples were uniformly placed over the mesh which had
same dimensions as used for open sun drying. Cabinet solar drying was also carried
from morning to evening till the samples were sufficiently dried up to the required
moisture content. Weight of the samples, cabinet temperature, surrounding
temperature, humidity and insolation were measured periodically in either system.
The specifications of measuring instruments are given in following Table 3.3

Table 3.3: Specifications of measuring instruments with their rated accuracy

Instrument Model Accuracy Company
Digital Balance GF 3000 1 gm A and D Japan
Digital Surya mapi Soloron 1Watt/m2 Soloron, India
Temperature Sensor LM 35 0.10C India
Relative Humidity sensor Capacitive 1% India

3.4: Drying rate

Drying rates were calculated at an interval of one hour under all experimental
conditions throughout the drying in both; cabinet solar drying and open sun drying.
The drying rate was then calculated using following relation [42-45].

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

dM M 0 − M t
= 3.12
dt t
Where,
dM
: Drying rate, M 0 : Initial moisture content
dt
M t : Final moisture content, T: time

3.5: Drying efficiency

The quantity of heat energy required to evaporate the moisture inside the product is
referred as drying efficiency. Drying efficiencies for the samples under consideration
were calculated using following relation.
Efficiency of OSD
ML
η d (%) = × 100
Ac × Ic × t 3.13
Where,
M: Mass evaporated (kg), L: Latent heat of vaporisation of water (kJ/kg)
I c : Insolation (Watt/m2),
A c : Collection area (m2)
T: Time(s)
Efficiency of CSD
ML
η d (%) = × 100
Ac × Ic × t × τ 3.14
Where, τ: Transmittance of the glass cover

3.6: Nutritive tests

The coriander leaves, fenugreek leaves, onion and garlic slices are dried by OSD and
CSD, were powdered using a grinder and were sieved by a fine mesh. Powdered
samples were then analysed by nutritive tests to investigate the effect of drying on
nutritional contents in the samples. The tests were carried out at National Agriculture
and Food Analysis and Research Institute, Tilak Road, Pune (NAFARI). The details
of tests are given below.

3.6.1: Fat content [46]

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

Weight of an empty thimble was taken and a filter paper was placed in it. About 10 –
15 gm of the sample was extracted with petroleum ether in a soxhlet extractor. The
extraction period was varied from 4 hr at a condensation rate of 5-6 drops per second
to 16 hr at 2-3 drops per second. The extract was dried on a steam-bath for 30 min
followed by cooling in desiccators. Weight of the extracted sample was recorded. The
sample was then dried in an oven at 95 0C to 100 0C for 30 minutes. The alternate
drying and weighing was continued till the difference between two successive
weighing was less than 1 mg.
The thimble was dried and sample was removed. Weight of the dried thimble was
then recorded. Now the fat content in the sample was determined using the relation.
100 (M 1 − M 2 )
Fat (percent by mass) =
m 3.15
Where,
M 1 : Mass of the extraction flask with dried extract (gm)
M 2 : Mass of the empty extraction flask (gm)
m: Mass of the sample taken for the test (gm).

3.6.2: Protein Content [47]

Sample of weight about 0.7-2.2 gm was taken into the digestion flask and 0.7 gm of
mercuric oxide, 15 gm of anhydrous sodium sulphate and 25 ml of sulphuric acid
were added to it. The flask was then placed in inclined position on a heater and was
heat gently until foaming ceases. The sample was boiled vigorously till the solution
became clear. The boiling was continued for 1 – 2 hrs. On cooling, about 200 ml of
distilled water, 25 ml of sodium thiosulphate solution and a pinch of zinc dust was
then added to the sample. Also, 60 ml of 40 % NaOH solution was added without any
agitation. The flask was connected to the water condenser using a connecting bend
with tip of the condenser well dipped into the measured quantity of standard sulphuric
acid; in the collecting beaker. The flask was then stirred to mix the contents
thoroughly and was then heated until all the ammonia gets distilled over (150 ml
minimum).
The collecting beaker was lowered before distillation is stopped and tip of the
condenser was washed with distilled water. The excess acid was then back titrated
with standard sodium hydroxide solution using methyl red as an indicator. The end
point was from orange red to yellow. The blank determination in reagents was then

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

corrected. Blank was conducted by following the same procedure with 2 gm of sugar
in place of sample. The protein and nitrogen contents in the sample were calculated
using following relation.
Protein content (% by mass) = Nitrogen (%) × Conversion factor
(B − S) × N × 14 × 100
Nitrogen content (% by mass) =
W × 100 3.16
Where,
B: Volume of the standard NaOH required for blank titration (ml)
S: Volume of the standard NaOH required for sample titration (ml),
N: Exact normality of the NaOH used for titration and W = Weight in gm of
the sample taken for test.

3.6.3: Carbohydrates and Energy value

The total carbohydrates were calculated using following formula, after
determining the percentage of moisture, ash, fat and protein.
Total carbohydrates = 100 – (A+B+C+D) 3.17
Where,
A: moisture content in the given sample (%),
B: ash content in the given sample (%)
C: fat content in the given sample (%) and
D: protein content in the given sample (%).

By knowing the value of Protein, Carbohydrates and fats, the energy value is given as:

Energy (kcal) = (P × 4) + (C× 4) + (F × 9) 3.18

Where,
P: Protein content (gm), C: Carbohydrates (gm) and
F: Fat content (gm)

3.6.4: Vitamin A Content

The retinal acetate of 4 gm (Purity 98.50%) was taken and the volume was made 10
ml with ethanol. About 20 ml ethanol, 1 ml 50 % KOH, 5 ml ascorbic acid was then
added to 1.3 ml of the above solution and was refluxed for 1 hr on boiling water bath.
The content was then transferred into separating funnel. The flasks were washed with
10 ml of ethanol and water each. About 150 ml pet ether was then extracted in three
portions and pet ether layer was then collected, washed till it is alkali free. The pet

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

ether layer was passed through sodium sulphate and was kept on water bath to dry
which reconstituted in IPA to volume of 10 ml. About 20 micro liters solution was
injected on HPLC.
50.0 gm of homogenized sample was taken in a 500 ml flask to which, 200 ml
ethanol, 2 ml ascorbic acid, 50 ml 50 % KOH was then added and the content was
well mixed. The solution was reflux on water bath for one hour with frequent
swirling. The content was then transferred into separating funnel. 180 ml pet ether
was extracted in three portions and pet ether layer was then collected, washed till it is
alkali free. The pet ether layer was passed through sodium sulphate and was kept on
water bath to dry and reconstituted in IPA to10 ml. About 20 micro liters solution was
injected on HPLC. At this stage, the vitamin A content of the sample being
investigated was determined using the relation.
A × C × E × F × G × 100
Vitamin A content (%) =
B × D × 100 3.19
Where,
A: Area of sample (mm), B: Area of Vitamin A Acetate Standard (mm)
C: Concentration of retinal acetate standard in (gm)
D: Mass of sample taken (gm), E: Sample diluted volume (ml)
F: Purity of Vitamin A Acetate Standard.
G: 1000 mg of retinol Acetate corresponding to 2906976.7 IU of Vitamin A.
3.6.5: Vitamin C Content [48]
5 to 10 gm of the sample was ground in a mortar using meta phosphoric acid and was
transferred into a 100 ml-graduated flask. The 100 ml volume was made up using
meta phosphoric acid. It was then filtered through a fluted filter paper No.1. About 10
ml of the filtrate was titrated rapidly with the indophenol solution. The end point was
faint pink in colour. Readings were noted and the vitamin content was calculated
using following formula.
A × B × 1000
Vitamin C =
W 3.20
Where,
A: volume of the indophenol solution used for titration (ml)
B: weight the ascorbic equivalent to one millilitre of the indophenol solution (mg),
W: weight of the sample taken for the test (mg).

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

3.6.6: Dietary fiber [49]

Initially, the sample was weighed and its pH was adjusted to 1.5. Now 0.05 gm of
pepsin and 0.2 ml chloroform were added to the solution and were incubated at 37 0C
for 18 hours. Further pH of the solution was raised 6.0 and 25 ml of phosphate buffer,
0.1 gm of pancreatin, 1 ml of amyl glycosidase, few crystal of thymol were added.
The solution was then incubated at 37 0C for 18 hours. Warm 95 % ethanol was added
3 times and precipitates were kept for drying for 1 hour. The filter paper was dried
and weight was recorded. Now, the solution was filtered through oven dried filter.
After complete filtration, the solution was washed by 5 ml acetone, 5 ml ethanol and 5 ml
diethyl ether. Again filter paper was dried in oven for 70 0C, cooled and weight was taken. By
measuring the following parameters, the dietary fiber was calculated.
Let,
a 1 : weight of dried filter paper (mg)
a 2 : weight of the filter paper after cooling (mg), e: total dietary fiber on dry basis
b 1 : weight of crucible previously oven dried (gm)
b 2 : weight of crucible after ashing (gm)
b 3 : Ash and a 3 = Residue (dietary fiber) and a 3 : (a 2 - a 1 ) and b 3 : (b 2 - b 1 )
Now,
b3
c = Ash (%) = × 100
a3
c
d = Ash in gm =
100 × a 3

a3 − d
e= × 100
Weight of sample
Total solid × e
Total dietary fiber (%) =
100 3.21

3.6.7: Mineral content [50]

About 5-10 gm sample was ash in muffle furnace at 550 0C. After ashing, the crucible
was cooled and 6N HCL was added to it. This solution was boiled and cooled and was
filtered using filtering paper (whatman No.1) repeatedly. Then 100 ml solution was
made with distilled water. The blank solution was prepared in similar manner without
taking any sample. The absorbance of the test solution and blank solution were

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Chapter –3 Design and fabrication of Cabinet solar dryer

measured on atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). The absorbance versus

concentration curve was plotted from the collected data.

Concentration of mineral (%) = Concentration of sample (ppm)× Total volume ×100

Sample weight (gm)
3.22
3.7: Conclusions
Cabinet solar dryer is simple to fabricate and it requires semi-skilled person to
fabricate. It is economic and user friendly. Due to flattened chimney, the cabinet
temperature can be changed as per the requirement for leafy or fruity vegetables.
Drying rate, drying efficiency and loss of mass decides the effective system of drying.
The nutritive tests give the percentage retention of nutrients after dehydration of
sample in either of the drying system (CSD/OSD) which also decides the quality of
drying system.

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Ph.D. Thesis: Sainath R. Navale 78