Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres

Bread from composite cassava-wheat flour: I. Effect of baking time

and temperature on some physical properties of bread loaf
a,*
T.A. Shittu , A.O. Raji b, L.O. Sanni a,c

a
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Alabata Road, Abeokuta, Ogun, Nigeria
b
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
c
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria

Received 14 September 2006; accepted 23 October 2006

Abstract

The use of composite cassava-wheat (CCW) flour for commercial breadmaking purposes and consumption of CCW bread are rela-
tively new in Nigeria. This study investigated the effect of baking temperature and time on some physical properties of bread from com-
posite flour made by mixing cassava and wheat flour at ratio of 10:90 (w/w). A central composite rotatable experimental design was used
while the baking temperature and time investigated ranged from 190 to 240 C and 20 to 40 min, respectively. Loaf volume, weight and
specific volume varied significantly (p < 0.001) from 440 to 920 cm3, 162 to 183 g and 3.31 to 5.32 cm3/g, respectively. The tristimulus
color parameters such as L* (lightness) and brownness index (BI) of the crust varied significantly (p < 0.01) from 31 to 72 and 68 to
123, respectively. Moreover, Fresh crumb moisture, density, porosity and softness as well as the dried crumb hardness were also signif-
icantly (p < 0.01) affected by both the baking temperature and time with values ranging from 34% to 39%, 0.16 to 0.20 g/cm3, 0.69 to
0.80, 13.00 to 18.05 mm and 0.90 to 2.05 kgf, respectively. Due to the complex effect of temperature and time combination, most of
the measured properties could not be reliably predicted from the second order response surface regression equations except the loaf
weight and crumb moisture. Further studies are required to optimize the CCW bread baking process based on some storage and con-
sumption qualities.
 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Bread loaf properties; Composite flour; Cassava; Wheat; Response surface methodology

1. Introduction ensure the commercial success of this composite cassava-

Bread has become the second most widely consumed
non-indigenous food products after rice in Nigeria. Till
date, most Nigerians have not been introduced to other
types of bread apart from that made from 100% wheat
flour. To cut the nation’s expense on wheat importation
and find wider utilization for the increasingly produced
cassava roots, the Federal Government mandated the use
of composite cassava-wheat flour for baking by adding
minimum of 10% cassava flour to wheat for a start. To
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +234 803 538 8060.
E-mail address: staofeek0904@yahoo.com (T.A. Shittu).
wheat flour technology, systematic studies need to be con-
ducted to fully understand the best way to formulate prod-
uct and to determine the optimal processing conditions
required to realize high quality baked products.
Most of the previous studies conducted on the use of
composite flour for breadmaking purposes (Adeyemi &
Idowu, 1990; Dhingra & Jood, 2004; Hsu, Hurang, Chen,
Weng, & Cheng, 2004; Khalil, Mansour, & Dawood,
2000; McWatter et al., 2004) were devoted to determining
the effect of biological origin of flour and level of wheat
flour substitution on their bread making quality. The com-
posite flours used were either binary or ternary mixtures of
flours from some other crops with or without wheat flour.
They generally observed reduction in loaf volume and

0963-9969/$ - see front matter  2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2006.10.012
 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290
impairment of sensory qualities (e.g. appearance, texture,
and flavor) as the level of substitution of wheat with non-
wheat flour increased. Some varietal differences within
the same crop in terms of bread making potential were also
reported. In the works of Defloor, Nys, and Delcour (1993,
1994, 1995) and Khalil et al. (2000), it was specifically
reported that inclusion of CF into wheat flour up to about
30% could still give an acceptable fresh loaf depending on
the source of flour. Very few studies have also been con-
ducted on the effect of baking temperature on the quality
of bread from 100% wheat flour (Bloksma, 1990; Singh
& Bhattacharya, 2005; Therdthai, Zhou, & Adamzcak,
2002; Zhang & Datta, 2006) and virtually none has been
reported on composite cassava-wheat (CCW) bread.
The control of parameters like temperature and time
combination during baking is basically an engineering
problem that is critical to the successful implementation
of commercial composite flour baking technology. Pres-
ently, bread baking in Nigeria is mostly practiced at cot-
tage level with ovens that lack temperature-time control
devices. Fewer small and medium scale bakeries that use
automated devices exist presently in the country (Idowu,
Atanda, Bankole, Uzochukwu, & Olaewe, 2002). Baking
duration used varied widely while fueling of ovens and tem-
perature control is done using highly subjective means
developed by these bakers through long time baking expe-
rience; baking also spans over a period ranging from 20 to
60 min. At present, systematic studies to understand the
behavior of CCW dough under the prevalent processing
conditions encountered in these bakeries are lacking. Such
studies will assist in the design and development of appro-
priate process for making baked product from CCW flour
and also guide in the design of interim training program for
successful application of CCW flour technology by the
bakers in the country.
This study was devoted to determine how various
temperature–time combinations would influence the
physical properties of CCW bread using the government
approved 10% CF substitution into wheat flour as a
basis.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of composite flour
Cassava flour (CF) used was obtained from Cassava
Mosaic Disease (CMD) resistant clone (TMS 30572) of
the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA),
Ibadan. Hard red wheat flour was obtained from Honey-
well Flour Mill, Lagos, Nigeria. Composite flour was made
by mixing 10 parts of cassava flour (CF) and 90 parts
wheat flour as approved by the Federal Government of
Nigeria in November 2004. Other materials include granu-
lated sugar (Dangote Groups (Nig.) Ltd., Lagos Nigeria),
Fermipan baking yeast (DSM bakery ingredient, Dordr-
echt-Holland), baking fat (PT Intiboga Sejahtera, Jakarta,
Indonesia).
281
2.2. Baking experiment
All ingredients (Table 1) were initially dry mixed in a
Hobart mixing machine and later water was mixed with
the original dry mix until soft dough that can easily be han-
dled is produced. The straight dough method described in
Eggleston, Omoaka, and Arowosegbe (1993) was followed.
The whole mass was kneaded mechanically, divided into
equal sizes of 100 g and then manually kneaded before
molding into cylindrical shape, and placed in the bread
baking tin. Dough proofing was carried for 30 min in tin
in a thermostatically controlled chamber for 2 h under
ambient conditions (32 C, 78–80% RH) before baking.
2.3. Experimental design
The central composite rotatable design (Mason, Gunst,
& Hess, 1989), consisting of a two-factor five-level pattern
with 10 design points (8 combinations with two replication
of the center point) was used. The combination of the two
factors (baking temperature and time) studied in the
response surface experiment, their coded and actual values
are shown in Table 2. The bread samples were allowed to
cool for about 6 h prior to use in analysis. For each trial,
three samples were produced and analyzed separately.
2.4. Determination of physical properties
2.4.1. Loaf weight, volume and specific volume
The weights of bread samples were determined after suf-
ficient cooling using a digital balance (0.01 g accuracy) and
the loaf volumes were determined using rapeseed displace-
ment method. The specific volume of each loaf was then
calculated as
Loaf volume
Specific volumeðcm3 =gÞ ¼ : ð1Þ
loaf weight
2.4.2. Crumb moisture
The bread loaves were first cut into slices of 1.5 cm thick
using a slicing machine. The outer crust of bread samples
were carefully scrapped with kitchen type bread knife.
Samples of bread crumb were cut from five points along
the diagonal point of 3 separate slices. The 1 g cuts from
each point were combined to make a final weight of about
Table 1
Recipe used in dough formulation per loaf
Material Compositiona
Cassava flour 30.0 g
Wheat flour 270.0 g
Salt 1.5%
Sugar 6.0%
Yeast 5.0%
Vegetable oil 3.0%
EDC 0.3%
a
% values are based on the total flour weight (300 g).
282 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290
Table 2
Experimental design showing coded and actual values of baking temper-
ature and time used in the experiment
Trial Variable codes Actual values
X1 X2 Temperature (C)
1 1 1 233
2 1 1 197
3 1 1 197
4 1 1 233
5 0 0 215
6 1.414 0 240
7 0 0 215
8 0 1.414 215
9 0 1.414 215
10 1.414 0 190
5 g. The moisture content was determined by placing bread
crumb samples on Petri dishes that were placed in a digital
oven chamber. The oven temperature was thermostatically
set at 75 ± 2 C while the samples were dried for about 72 h
to allow for slow and non destructive drying process.
2.4.3. Crumb hardness (textural analysis)
The textural analysis was carried out to determine both
the dried crumb hardness and fresh crumb softness. The
softness of fresh crumb was determined using a bench
top cone penetrometer with a 35 g probe (Central Ignition
Company, UK), while the hardness of dried crumb was
also determined using a hardness tester (Kiya Seisakuso
Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). To determine the crumb softness,
5 cm thick bread slices were used in the analysis. Care
was taken to obtain very flat and undistorted surfaces on
the slices. The tip if the cone was brought to touch the
bread surface by adjusting the hanger position. The cone
was later released to fall under gravity and penetrate the
bread crumb. The extent of penetration (mm) was deter-
mined on the radial dial gauge attached to the instrument
after 3 s of penetration. Measurement was done at three
points along a diagonal line within the crumb.
To determine dried crumb hardness, about 2.5 · 2.5 ·
1.5 cm3 crumb slice was obtained from each loaf at the
crumb center. The slices were dried in laboratory oven at
about 35 C for about 48 h giving rise to samples with
moisture levels below 3.0%. Each slice was then placed in
the middle of a flat surfaced hardness tester receptacle.
The plunger head was brought to touch the surface of
the dried crumb slice. Thereafter, the plunger was driven
40 rpm into the crumb until it fractured. The maximum
force required to cause the failure (measured in g) was read
off the dial gauge attached to the instrument. Measurement
was done in quintuplicate.
2.4.4. Crust color
The tristimulus color parameters L* (Lightness), a*
(Redness to Greenness), b* (Yellowness to Blueness) of
the baked loaves crumbs were determined using a digital
colorimeter (Color Tec PCM, Accuracy Micro census
Inc., USA). The instrument has spot diameter view of
15 mm. To determine the color of bread crust, the top crust
was divided equally into three regions and the tristimulus
color parameters L*, a*, b* were determined within each
Time (min) region in duplicate. The brownness index (BI) was calcu-
41.0 lated according to Maskan (2001):
24.0
41.0
½100ðx  0:31Þ
BI ¼ ; ð2Þ
24.0 0:17
32.5 ða þ 1:75LÞ
32.5 x¼ : ð3Þ
32.5 ð5:645  L þ a  3:012bÞ
45.0
The means of each duplicate measurement was reported as
20.0
32.5 the crust color parameter.
2.5. Crumb density and porosity
A modified method of Saguy, Marabi, and Wallach
(2005) was used in determining crumb porosity. In prepara-
tion for the analysis, bread samples were kept in ambient
air (26–29 C, 72–75% RH) for 24 h to allow slow drying
for proper setting of loaf in order to prevent possible defor-
mation of loaf in subsequent handling, which can affect the
true values of crumb porosity. A portion of each bread
crumb [4.5 (length) · 4.5 (breadth) · 3.8 (thickness)] cm
was cut from the central portion of loaves with a razor
blade and dried at about 50 C for 12 h in an oven. The
moisture content of dried crumb samples used was found
to range between 2.0% and 3.0% while insignificant volu-
metric change (<0.5%) was observed due to shrinkage.
The dried crumb slices were then cooled and weighed
(W1) immediately using a sensitive balance (0.0001 g accu-
racy). The crumbs were ground in a laboratory sample mill
(Analysenmuhle A10, Janke and Kunkel, IKA Labortech-
nik, Germany). The milled samples were sieved to 100 mesh
size and the underflow was weighed (W2). The sample was
then poured into a 20 cm3 measuring cylinder (accu-
racy = 0.5 cm3) and tapped 10 times. The volume occupied
by the sample was determined (V2). The data were used to
determine the crumb (qc) and solid density (qs) as follows:
W1
qc ¼ ð4Þ
V1
V2
qs ¼ ð5Þ
W2
V1 (Volume of rectangular sample) = Length · Breadth ·
Thickness. The crumb porosity was calculated as:
q
ec ¼ 1  c : ð6Þ
qs
2.6. Rapid Visco-analysis of bread crumb
The bread crumb was dried at 35 C overnight in a lab-
oratory oven. The dried crumbs were carefully pulverized
with a mild force to small grits. To determine the RVA vis-
cosities, approximately 3 g of the grit were weighed into
RVA canister; about 25 mL of distilled water was added
 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290 283

to make slurry prior to viscosity analysis using a rapid
visco analyzer (RVA) (Newport Scientific Pty. Ltd., War-
riewood, Australia) to determine the peak, trough, break-
down, setback and final viscosities as well as the time to
reach peak viscosity.
2.7. Data analyses
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), correlations, and
descriptive data analysis were carried out using the SPSS
11.0 (Michigan State University, USA) while the response
surface regression was performed using S-PLUS 2000 Pro-
fessional Release I (Mathsoft Inc., Seattle, WA, USA) sta-
tistical softwares as guided by Anon (1999). The accuracy
of the response surface models developed for predicting
each property was verified by calculating the absolute aver-
age deviation (AAD) (Bas & Boyaci, 2007) defined as:
Pp jY i;exp Y i;cal j
i¼1 Y i;exp
AAD ¼ ; ð7Þ
p
where Yi,exp and Yi,cal are the experimental and calculated
responses, respectively, and p is the number of experimen-
tal run.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Loaf size
The results of size-related parameters of the cassava-
wheat bread are shown in Table 3. Loaf volume, weight
and specific volume ranged from 550 to 1125 cm3, 162 to
183 g and 3.0 to 6.6 cm3/g, respectively. These values var-
ied significantly (p < 0.001) with both baking time and tem-
perature. A quick way to compare the effect of baking
temperature and time on the loaf size from this experiment
is to determine linear response of sample by varying one of
the factors and making the other constant. Generally, Bak-
ing time had more significant linear effects compared to
that of baking temperature. Some of these effects are dis-
played in Figs. 1–3.
Higher loaf weight and volume have positive economic
effect on bread at the retail end. Therefore, loaf weight
reduction during baking is an undesirable economic quality
to the bakers as consumers often get attracted to bread loaf
with higher weight and volume believing that it has more
substance for the same price. The specific volume, which
is the ratio of the two properties, has been generally
adopted in the literature as a more reliable measure of loaf
size. Loaf volume is affected by the quantity and quality of
protein in the flour (Ragaee & Abdel-Aal, 2006) as well
as proofing time (Zghal, Scanlon, & Sapirstein, 2002).
Whereas loaf weight is basically determined by the quantity
of dough baked and the amount of moisture and carbon
dioxide diffused out of the loaf during baking. In this
study, higher temperature and longer baking period caused
reduction of loaf weight (Fig. 1) while the opposite effect
was shown on loaf volume and specific volume. Since the
bread samples studied here have been produced from the
same formulation, proofing time and dough size, the vari-
ation in loaf volume could be attributed mainly to different
rate of gas evolution and the extent of starch gelatinization
due to differences in baking temperature and time. It must
also be mentioned that baking temperature and time
parameters affects moisture retention capacity of bread
crumb (Eggleston et al., 1993).

Table 3
Effect of baking temperature and time on size-related and color characteristics of composite cassava-wheat loaf
Temperature (C) Time (min) Loaf weight Loaf volume Specific volume Crust L* Crust a* Crust b* Brownness
(g) (cm3) (g/cm3) index
190.00 32.50 175.87 560.00 3.41 56.45 13.12 31.51 95.55
190.00 41.00 172.69 920.00 5.32 52.32 13.97 31.80 108.36
197.00 24.00 181.98 640.00 3.52 67.45 4.76 32.27 68.18
197.00 41.00 169.35 760.00 4.72 48.07 14.45 29.38 111.51
215.00 20.00 182.17 440.00 2.42 71.20 3.18 21.47 38.44
215.00 32.50 173.32 600.00 3.56 54.08 13.73 31.41 101.72
215.00 32.50 176.06 640.00 3.52 57.58 12.93 31.90 86.49
215.00 45.00 167.35 800.00 5.02 46.58 14.22 29.195 115.22
233.00 24.00 178.05 840.00 4.72 47.20 14.90 30.94 122.47
240.00 32.50 162.04 560.00 3.31 31.76 6.68 15.18 78.79
Main effect:
*** *** *** *** *** *** ***
Temperature (T)
*** *** *** ** *** ***
Time (Tm) NS
Interaction:
*** *** *** ** *** * ***
T · Tm
Values are means of four replicate determinations.
*
Significant effect at p < 0.05.
**
Significant effect at p < 0.01.
***
Significant effect at p < 0.001.
284 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290

180 40.0

Crumb moisture (%)

39.0
Loaf weight (g)

175

170 38.0

165 37.0

160 36.0

155 35.0
190 215 240 190 215 240
Baking temperature (deg C) Baking temperature (deg C)

185 38

Crumb moisture (%)

180 37
Loaf weight (g)

175 36

170 35
34
165
33
160
32
155 20 32.5 45
20 32.5 45
Baking time (min)
Baking time (min)
Fig. 3. Effect of temperature (T) and time (Tm) on crumb moisture [Tm:
Fig. 1. Effect of temperature (T) and time (Tm) on loaf weight [Tm: r2 = 0.693; T: r2 = 0.333].
r2 = 0.978; T: r2 = 0.723].

60.0 respectively. The values fall within the range obtained in

previous works for various baked products. The crust color
Crust lightness, L

50.0
parameter L* reduced with increasing time and tempera-
40.0 ture (Fig. 2). This is expected because as the rate of brown
30.0 pigment formation increase with temperature and time.
20.0 The brownness index (BI) of the loaf crust ranged from
38.44 to 122.47. The BI was negatively affected by baking
10.0
time (p < 0.01) while temperature effect was less significant
0.0 (p > 0.05) (Table 3). The results also indicate that bread
190 215 240
crust color can essentially be described as a composite of
Baking temperature (deg C) red and yellow pigments.
Previous works have shown that instrumental measure-
80
ment of baked products’ color is an inevitable quality
Crust Lightness, L

60 check that could be used in determining the effects of ingre-

dient or product formulation, process variable as well as
40 storage conditions on baked products (Erkan, Celik, Bilgi,
& Koskel, 2006; Gallagher, Gormley, & Arendt, 2003a,
20 Gallagher, Kunkel, Gormley, & Arendt, 2003b; Sanchez,
Klopfenstein, & Walker, 1995). Most of these works
0
20 32.5 45
reported the tristimulus CIELAB color parameters (L*,
a*, b*) for the respective products’ crust and crumb. Since
Baking time (min)
the effect of baking formulation is not studied here, it is
Fig. 2. Effect of temperature (T) and Time (Tm) on crust lightness [Tm: assumed crumb color characteristics are not liable to differ
r2 = 0.960; T: r2 = 0.561]. significantly in the samples. Thus, emphasis is placed on
the changes in crust color characteristics. The crust color
3.2. Crust color characteristics and thickness are two most emphasized in literature. In a
very recent work by Jefferson, Lacey, and Sadd (2006) to
The values of the tristimulus color parameters L*, a* and understand the process of crust formation during bread
b* of the bread crust as affected by various temperature– baking, the effect of several process and product parame-
time combination in baking are shown in Table 3. These ters were studied as they affect crust thickness, proportion
values ranged between 31 and 72, 3 to 15 and 15 to 33, of loaf mass in the crust and the final density at the bread
 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290
surface. It was shown that 10% increase oven temperature
caused about 12% increase in surface density, 3% increase
in proportion of mass in crust and about 10% reduction
in crust thickness. However, the combined effect of oven
temperature and baking time was not studied.
3.3. Crumb properties
The results showing the effect of baking temperature and
time on crumb characteristics of composite cassava-wheat
bread are shown in Table 4. The moisture content of bread
crumbs ranged from 32% to 39%. It was found that effect
of temperature on the residual moisture content in the
loaves was more significant than that of time. The amount
of moisture in bread crumb has some implication on the
mechanical (Zghal et al., 2002) and keeping qualities
(Defloor et al., 1993). It is also determined by the extent
of gelatinization of starch in dough during baking. It was
found that higher crumb moisture had a positive correla-
tion with crumb softness. However, the relationship was
not significant (Table 5, r = 0.443, p > 0.05).
The crumb density is primarily affected by the volumet-
ric expansion of dough due to gas evolution during proof-
ing. However, early onset of gelatinization causes faster
plasticization of the starch–protein network on gas cell
walls formed and increases mechanical strength of dough
near the surface thereby making further expansion difficult
(Singh & Bhattacharya, 2005; Zhang & Datta, 2006). The
highest crumb density (lowest gas cell formation) was
found in bread baked at the highest baking temperature
(240 C) and relatively longer time (32.5 min). Such loaf
is characteristically heavy with ‘stony’ crumb. This is evi-
dent from the lowest porosity (0.634) of the same sample.
Apart from the direct consumption of bread, bread-
crumb is another bye-product of bread made by drying
fresh bread crumb usually with near ambient conditions
purposely to avoid further decomposition and gelatiniza-
tion of starch. The dried stuff is then gently milled to avoid
unwanted damage to starch granules. The particles may be
sieved to desired sizes. Breadcrumb has found many appli-
cations as ingredients in processing of some other food
products. For example, breadcrumb is used as breading
materials in fries and coating in confectioneries. After
appropriate drying, completely gelatinized crumb may be
so difficult to mill gently as it becomes tough. A recent
study (Ejiwumi, 2005) investigated the breadcrumb making
quality of some flour for use as breading material in Scotch
egg production. It was found that it is possible to replace
100% wheat breadcrumb with that made from maize–
wheat composite flour to produce scotch-egg with a better
overall acceptability. Similarly, breadcrumb from cassava-
wheat composite flour could be prospected. However, the
influence of baking condition on the ease of milling must
be established.
Since gas filled cellular foods like bread are known to
fail under mechanical force via brittle fracture (Warner,
Thiel, & Donald, 2000), hardness test was therefore used
285
to establish the amount of energy that may be required
to fracture a given volume of the dried crumb. It was found
that baking time had more significant positive effect on the
hardness of dried bread crumb (r = 0.611, p < 0.01). Dried
crumb hardness correlated positively with loaf volume (and
specific volume) (p < 0.01, Table 5). The presence of plasti-
cizing agent like water, known to affect mobility of the food
polymers, has also been reported to be responsible for dif-
fering mechanical behavior of solid foods (Luyten, Plijter,
& Vliet, 2004). Also, higher moisture content is known to
increase plasticization and reduce the tendency of solid
foods to fail under brittle fracture, implying increased
hardness. In order remove the effect of different crumb
moisture on the hardness test, the crumb samples were
dried under a slow and mild condition to moisture level
below 3.0%. Since it has been shown earlier that bread with
higher volume resulted from longer baking time, it is
expected that such bread will undergo higher level of poly-
meric plasticization which takes place at the cell wall. The
increased plasticization of the cell wall of bread crumb
combined with moisture removal as experienced in this
experiment, could have disposed the samples to higher brit-
tle fracture hence the reduced hardness. Results further
indicated that a soft crumb could give fairly brittle dried
crumb as fresh crumb’s softness correlated negatively with
dried crumb’s hardness as shown in Table 5 (r = 0.233,
p > 0.05).
The amylograph pasting viscosities (measured in RVU)
of the dried bread crumb generally reduced with increasing
baking temperature and time (Table 4). However, the sin-
gular effect of baking time and the interaction between tem-
perature and time was significant on all the viscosity
parameters. Lower peak and final viscosities directly indi-
cate higher heat damage to the starch granule due to gela-
tinization and plasticization of starch–protein structure
earlier mentioned. Specifically, the breakdown, final and
setback viscosities were not affected by the baking
duration.
3.4. Response surface models
Response surface methodology (RSM) is an effective
statistical technique which has been widely used to opti-
mize processes or formulations with minimal experimental
trials when many factors and their interactions may be
involved. RSM was applied in studying combined effect
of temperature and time on the physical properties of com-
posite cassava-wheat bread produced in this study. Con-
tour plots are 2D graphical outputs of RSM useful in
showing how dependent variables respond to varying inde-
pendent factors and identifying optimal points on a
response surface. In order to appreciate how the measured
bread properties respond to the process variable, contour
plots were first generated using raw experimental data.
Some of these plots are displayed in Figs. 4–9. Most of
the contours plots show multiple asymmetric saddling,
indicating a rather complex relationship between the
 286
Table 4
Effects of baking temperature and time on the CCW bread crumb properties

T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290

Temperature (C) Time (min) Moisture (%) Density Porosity Hardness (kgf)a Softness (mm)b PKV(RVU) TRGH(RVU) BKDV(RVU) FV(RVU) SBV(RVU) PKTM (min)
(g/cm3)
190.00 32.50 37.07 0.195 0.741 1.45 18.05 33.17 32.00 1.17 42.17 10.17 6.33
190.00 41.00 38.05 0.188 0.747 1.95 17.30 36.00 34.08 1.92 42.67 8.58 5.27
197.00 24.00 32.49 0.225 0.687 1.30 13.85 34.08 31.83 2.25 47.33 15.50 6.92
197.00 41.00 35.71 0.166 0.756 1.60 17.65 32.50 31.75 0.75 39.42 7.67 6.40
215.00 20.00 37.24 0.191 0.721 0.90 13.80 36.00 33.00 3.00 47.33 14.33 6.73
215.00 32.50 36.96 0.169 0.766 1.70 13.05 31.58 31.17 0.42 40.92 9.75 6.13
215.00 32.50 36.80 0.160 0.768 2.30 13.00 30.05 31.00 0.33 37.88 8.80 6.10
215.00 45.00 34.24 0.167 0.742 2.55 14.50 34.50 33.17 1.33 42.92 9.75 5.67
233.00 24.00 37.57 0.194 0.793 2.05 15.10 34.50 32.75 1.75 46.67 13.92 7.00
240.00 32.50 38.67 0.277 0.634 1.58 23.35 29.58 28.58 1.00 37.00 8.50 6.47
Main effects:
*** *** *** ** *** * ** *
Temperature (T) NS NS NS
** *** ** *** *** ** * *** *** *** ***
Time (Tm)
Interaction:
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ***
T · Tm
PKV, peak viscosity; TRGH, trough; BKDV, breakdown viscosity; FV, final viscosity; SBV, setback viscosity; PKTM, time to reach peak viscosity.
a
Dried crumb.
b
Fresh crumb.
*
Significant effect at p < 0.05.
**
Significant effect at p < 0.01.
***
Significant effect at p < 0.001; NS, Not significant.
Table 5
Pearson’s correlation matrix between bread properties measured
Properties LW LV LSV CM PD CD CP CH CS L a b CCS
Loaf weight (LW) 1.000
Loaf volume (LV) 0.227 1.000
Loaf specific volume (LSV) 0.358 0.990** 1.000
Crumb moisture (CM) 0.259 0.123 0.091 1.000
Particle density (PD) 0.006 0.055 0.074 0.502 1.000
Crumb density (CD) 0.311 0.457* 0.401 0.087 0.371 1.000
Crumb porosity (CP) 0.308 0.468* 0.406 0.098 0.051 0.945** 1.000
Crumb hardness (CH)a 0.405 0.646** 0.674** 0.047 0.233 0.441 0.404 1.000
Crumb softness (CS)b 0.680** 0.035 0.054 0.443* 0.395 0.686** 0.586** 0.146 1.000
Crust lightness (L) 0.787** 0.245 0.335 0.383 0.072 0.142 0.100 0.582** 0.564** 1.000
Crust Redness (a) 0.335 0.751** 0.764** 0.125 0.037 0.589** 0.649** 0.601** 0.012 0.287 1.000
Crust yellowness (b) 0.333 0.552** .481* 0.391 0.074 0.489* 0.529* 0.130 0.433 0.487* 0.607** 1.000
Brownness index (BI) 0.423 0.839** 0.858** 0.046 0.057 0.479* 0.559* 0.709** 0.073 0.462* 0.947** 0.518 1.000
a
Dried crumb.
b
Fresh crumb within 12 h after baking.
*
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Baking time (min) Baking time (min)

volume (cm3/g).

20
25
30
35
40
20
25
30
35
40

190
190

3 7 .2 37.
9
3 .3
3.9

36.

31.8
4.5

35 4
.6
4 .7
5.0

32.
4.2

5
5.3

200
200

3 3 .3
T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290

3 4 .1
3 4 .9
3 5 .6

210
210

3 6 .4
34.9
2 .7

3 .0

220
220

3 .3

Baking temperature
230
230
Baking temperature (deg C)
3 .6

4 .5

3 7 .9
4 .2
3 .6

4.7

37.2

ture and time to the resultant quality of the product.

how critical is a step change in setting of baking tempera-

the experimental data for each response variable were fitted

from the varying temperature and time used in baking,
To establish predictive models for the bread properties

eters for these equations are shown in Table 6. Most of the

properties during baking. This could have contributed to
the complexity of various changes that modified the bread

properties were poorly predicted by a second order model.

RSM studies (Bas & Boyaci, 2007). The regression param-
the low predictability of these properties. It also shows
dependent and independent variables. This directly reflects

to the usual quadratic regression equation applied in most

Fig. 5. Effect of temperature and time on the crumb moisture content (%).
Fig. 4. Combined effect of temperature and time on the loaf specific
287
288 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290

40 40
Baking time (min)

Baking time (min)

35 35

31.

2 3 . 7 2 2 . 6 2 1 .5 2 0 .3
8
35

0
.7

17.
30 30

9
15.
39
.6
25 18
25

.7
.1

14
17.
67 15. 0
51 4
59

.3 9

14
63

47
55

1 3 .6
.5

71.2
.4

.7
.3

.5
.

20
20
190 200 210 220 230
190 200 210 220 230
Baking temperature (deg C)
Baking temperature (deg C)
Fig. 6. Effect of baking temperature and time on L-value of loaf crust.
Fig. 8. Effect of temperature and time on fresh crumb softness.

2.2
2 .4
2.1

1 .9
40
40
Baking time (min)

Baking time (min)

35
0 .6

35

1 .7
3
0 .6
5
0 .6

30
6

0.
0 68 30
0 .7 .7 0
2

0 .7 0 .7 3
25 5
0 .7 7
25
0.78
0 .7

1.
3

0 .7
0 .7
0 .7

1 .2 3
0.68 0 0.80
1 .7 5

1 .9
1.
2

20 1.0
190 200 210 220 230 20
Baking temperature (deg C) 190 200 210 220 230
Baking temperature (deg C)
Fig. 7. Effect of temperature and time on the crumb porosity (%).
Fig. 9. Effect of temperature and time on dried crumb hardness.

Though some had r2 values greater than 80%, the AAD

values were extremely high (>50%). However, the crumb loaf weight, fresh crumb softness and crumb density while
moisture and weight could be reliably predicted by the qua- the least predictable was the crust lightness. Analysis of
dratic model. The r2 and AAD values were 0.677 and variance showed that baking temperature singularly had
3.51%, and 0.972% and 0.81%, respectively. It is worth not- significant effects (p < 0.001) only on loaf weight and crust
ing that despite the low r2 value of moisture equation, it lightness (L*). On the other hand, singular effect of baking
gave such an acceptable AAD value. We further tried to time was significant (p < 0.01) on all the properties except
fit the experimental data to some third order models with the bread crumb properties (moisture, density and poros-
a view to improving the predictability of the properties. ity). This result is not unexpected since previous studies
We got equations with higher coefficient of determination have shown that bread crumb properties are particularly
(r2). However, the equations were too complex and their more affected by pattern of starch gelatinization and pro-
invalidity was established from the extremely higher values cess of cell formation, which are all time limited changes.
of AAD for all the dependent variables. Moreover, (Therdthai et al., 2002) have shown that the
The statistics showing the singular and interactive effects internal temperature of dough reaches a maximum at a
of the independent factors as well as the predictive powers time during baking. After this period the microstructure
of each regression equation have also been indicated (Table changes in the crumb will no longer be due to temperature
6). The properties having the highest predictability are the changes but time.
 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290 289

4. Conclusions
Crust lightness

5.92E02*
7.89E03
(r2 = 0.832
SE = 5.96)
This study has been able to show that varying tempera-

2.85***

6.48***

0.0000

5.6470
34.09%
0.832
8.37*
83.63
ture–time combination during baking leads to significant
differences in the quality of composite cassava-wheat bread
produced. The results clearly reflect complex polymeric
changes caused by the changing temperature–time combina-
Crumb density (g/

tion in baking, which may be peculiar with the use of CCW

cm3)(r2 = 0.797,

flour in breadmaking. Consequently, it was found that most

1.22E04***

2.44E04***
SE = 0.005)

5.94E02

5.90E02

of the measured properties could not be reliably predicted

1.06E04

>100%
with the usual quadratic model generally used for response

0.0002

0.0191
0.797
7.40

surface model studies. The influence of baking temperature

was specifically more significant on loaf volume and crumb
moisture while baking time had more significant influence
(kgf) (r2 = 0.575,

on loaf weight, dried crumb hardness and density. There-

Crumb hardness

fore, further studies are required to accurately determine

SE = 0.230)

1.07E03
6.46E04
5.43E0

the response of sensory and storage properties of the CCW

Response surface regression equations predicting the effect of the independent baking factors on some cassava-wheat bread loaf properties

32.06

>100%
0.0223

0.3674

bread to changing baking temperature and time as they are

0.25**

0.575
0.26

more important for optimizing consumer acceptability.

References
Crumb porosity

3.51E04***
1.34E04*
SE = 0.017)

2.35E04
(r2 = 0.695,

Adeyemi, I. A., & Idowu, M. A. (1990). Evaluation of pregelatinized

6.81E02

8.98E02

>100.0%

maize in the development of maissa-a baked product. Nigerian Food

0.0027

0.0297
7.88

0.695

Journal, 8, 63–73.
Anon (1999). S-PLUS 2000 guide to statistics (vol. I). Seattle, Washintgon:
Mathsoft Inc., p. 187–190.
Crumb softness (mm)

Bas, D., & Boyaci, I. H. (2007). Modeling and optimization I: usability of

response surface methodology. Journal of Food Engineering, 78,
836–845.
3.21E02***
SE = 4.398)
(r2 = 0.847,

Bloksma, A. H. (1990). Rheology of the bread making process. Cereals

4.38E02
10.21**
5257.94

14.3100

Foods World, 35, 226–236.

47.22

>100%
0.0000
0.847

Defloor, I., Nys, M., & Delcour, J. A. (1993). Wheat starch, cassava
0.11

starch, and cassava flour impairment of the bread making potential of

wheat flour. Cereal Chemistry, 78, 525–530.
Defloor, I., De Geest, C., Schellekens, M., Martens, A., & Delcour, J. A.
Crumb moisture (%)

(1994). Impact of genotype and cropdage on the breadmaking and

AAD = 2.78%)

physiochemical properties of flour produced from cassava (Manihot

1.12E02*

1.15E02*
7.00E04

esculenta Crantz) planted in the dry season. Journal of the Science of

(r2 = 0.605,

0.0141

1.4020

Food and Agriculture, 66, 193–202.

3.57%
0.605
29.85
0.11

3.15

Defloor, I., Leijskens, R., Bokanga, M., & Delcour, J. A. (1995). Impact of
genotype, crop age and planting season on the breadmaking and
gelatinization properties of flour produced from cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 68,
Specific volume (g/cm3)

167–174.
Dhingra, S., & Jood, S. (2004). Effect of flour blending on the functional,
AAD = 51.65%)

baking and organoleptic characteristics of bread. International Journal

of Food Science and Technology, 39, 213–222.
4.32E03*

Regression factor is significant at p < 0.001.

3.88E03
3.53E04
(r2 = 0.677,

Regression factor is significant at p < 0.05.

Regression factor is significant at p < 0.01.

Eggleston, G., Omoaka, P. E., & Arowosegbe, A. U. (1993). Flour starch

0.75***

0.0040

0.7447
51.65%
0.677

and composite breadmaking quality of various cassava clones. Journal

8.03
0.01

of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 62, 49–59.

Ejiwumi, M.O. (2005). Comparative study of bread crumb making quality
of different flours for making Scotch egg. Unpublished Postgraduate
7.90E03**

Diploma Thesis Submitted to the Department of Food Science and

AAD = 0.81%)

3.93E03
1.06E03

Technology, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta.

(r2 = 0.927,

3.50***

1.29***
Weight (g)

0.0000

1.9580
0.81%

Erkan, H., Celik, S., Bilgi, B., & Koskel, H. (2006). A new approach for
0.927
185.82

the utilization of barley in food products: barley tarhana. Food

Chemistry, 97, 12–18.
Gallagher, E., Gormley, T. R., & Arendt, E. K. (2003a). Crust and crumb
characteristics of gluten free breads. Journal of Food Engineering, 56,
Temperature

Time (Tm)
Regression

Regression

153–163.
p-value
Constant
Table 6

Gallagher, E., Kunkel, A., Gormley, T. R., & Arendt, E. K. (2003b). The
T · Tm
factor

(T)

AAD

RSE

effect of dairy powder addition on loaf and crumb characteristics, and

Tm2

R2

***
T2

*
**

on shelf life (intermediate and long term) of gluten-free breads stored

290 T.A. Shittu et al. / Food Research International 40 (2007) 280–290
in a modified atmosphere. European Journal of Food Research, 218,
44–48.
Hsu, C. L., Hurang, S. L., Chen, W., Weng, Y. M., & Cheng, C. Y. (2004).
Qualities and antioxidant properties of bread as affected by incorpo-
ration of yam flour in the formulation. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 39, 231–238.
Idowu, M. A., Atanda, O. O., Bankole, M. O., Uzochukwu, S. V. A., &
Olaewe, O. O. (2002). An assessment of the status and product quality
of some breadmaking industries in Abeokuta. ASSET Series B, 1(1),
61–68.
Jefferson, D. R., Lacey, A. A., & Sadd, P. A. (2006). Understanding crust
formation during baking. Journal of Food Engineering, 75, 515–521.
Khalil, A. H., Mansour, E. H., & Dawood, F. M. (2000). Influence of malt
on rheological and baking properties of wheat-cassava composite
flours. Lebensmittel Wissenchaf und Technologie, 33, 159–164.
Luyten, H., Plijter, J. J., & Vliet, V. V. (2004). Crispy crunchy crust of
cellular solid foods: a literature review with discussion. Journal of
Texture Studies, 35, 445–492.
Maskan, M. (2001). Kinetics of color change of kiwi fruit during hot air
and microwave drying. Journal Food Engineering, 48, 169–176.
Mason, R. L., Gunst, R. F., & Hess, J. L. (1989). Statistical design and
analysis of experiments-with application to engineering and science. New
York, USA: John Wiley and Sons.
McWatter, K. H., Philips, R. D., Walker, S. L., McCullough, S. E.,
Mensah-Wilmot, Y., Saalia, F. K., et al. (2004). Baking performance
and acceptability of raw and extruded cowpea flour breads. Journal of
Food Quality, 27, 337–351.
Ragaee, S., & Abdel-Aal, E. S. M. (2006). Pasting properties of starch and
protein in selected cereals and quality of their products. Food
Chemistry, 95, 9–18.
Saguy, S. I., Marabi, A., & Wallach, R. (2005). Liquid imbibition during
rehydration of dry porous foods. Innovative Food Science and
Technologies, 6, 37–43.
Sanchez, C., Klopfenstein, C. F., & Walker, C. E. (1995). Use of
carbohydrate fat substitute and emulsifying agents in reduced-fat
shortbread cookies. Cereal Chemistry, 72, 25–29.
Singh, A. P., & Bhattacharya, M. (2005). Development of dynamic
modulus and cell opening of dough during baking. Journal of Texture
Studies, 36, 44–56.
Therdthai, N., Zhou, W., & Adamzcak, T. (2002). Optimization of the
temperature profile in bread baking. Journal of Food Engineering, 55,
41–48.
Warner, M., Thiel, B. L., & Donald, A. M. (2000). The elasticity and
failure of fluid-filled cellular solids. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Science, 97(4), 1370–1375.
Zghal, M. C., Scanlon, M. G., & Sapirstein, H. D. (2002). Cellular
structure of bread crumb and its influence on mechanical properties.
Journal of Cereal Chemistry, 36, 167–176.
Zhang, J., & Datta, A. K. (2006). Mathematical modeling of bread baking
process. Journal of Food Engineering, 75, 78–89.