Polymers:

A polymeric solid may be considered as one that contains very long molecular chains each is made of
many small repeating units. Polymeric materials for engineering applications include both naturally
occurring materials such as wood, latex rubber, cotton, silk, wool, skin and leather, and synthetic
ones such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and nylon

Types of polymers:

Elastomer: refers to a polymeric material that can display large and reversible elastic deformations

Thermoplastic: refers to a polymeric material that softens when heated and hardens upon cooling.
While in the softened state thermoplastics are formable and the resultant shape is retained after
cooling

Thermosets (also known as thermosetting plastics): refers to a polymeric material that, once having
been cured (or hardened) by a chemical reaction, will not soften or melt when subsequently heated.

Structures of Polymers

hydrocarbons; i.e. they are composed of hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) that are covalently bonded

Molecular Structure

Common molecular chain structures include linear, branched, cross-linked and network molecules as
schematically shown in Figure 6.3. Polymers with linear molecules are generally flexible whereas
network polymers are rigid and hard.

Polymer Crystallinity

Polymers often contain both crystalline and amorphous regions. The ratio of crystalline regions to
amorphous regions is known as the crystallinity

Deformation Behaviour of Polymers

Whilst the covalent bonds forming the backbone chains of polymer molecules are very strong,
bonding forces between the chains, different chains or different sections of the same chain, are of
the secondary type, i.e. van der Waals forces. This is the type of bonds that governs most
fundamentally the deformation behaviour of polymers

Viscoelasticity:

For a total elastic deformation, the strain is instantaneous, which means the strain occurs at the
instant the stress is applied. In other words, the strain is independent of time. Furthermore, when
the stress is released, the strain is totally recovered. (b) Illustrates this total elastic behaviour.

For a totally viscous behaviour, in contrast, the strain is not instantaneous in responding to the
applied stress. That is to say, the strain is time dependent. In addition, this deformation is not fully
recoverable after the stress is released. This total viscous behaviour is illustrated in (d).

The viscoelastic behaviour is an intermediate behaviour between the total elastic and total viscous
extremes. In this case, an applied stress will result in an instantaneous elastic strain, followed by a
viscous time-dependant strain. The viscoelastic behaviour for rubbery materials is shown in (c).
Macroscopic Deformation of polymers

Elastic deformation → necking (the start of plastic deformation) → propagation of necking with
stress increasing slowly until the neck spreads over the entire length of the specimen

Microscopic Deformation Sequence

Amorphous deformation → slight sliding of chains in crystalline regions → alignment of the folds →
breaking up crystalline regions into block segments → small segments aligned in one direction and
stretches the amorphous regions to their maximum lengths - fracture of the polymer chains

Corrosion:

Corrosion is the damage of the surface of matters caused by chemical or electrochemical reactions
with the environment

𝑴  → 𝑴𝒏+ + 𝒏𝒆 –

Forms of Metallic Corrosion

Uniform Corrosion

It proceeds by a chemical or electrochemical reaction over a large surface area, effectively thinning
and eventually consuming the entire thickness of the metal. Failure caused by uniform attack can be
easily and accurately predicted. Timely visual examination, if possible, of selected points at the
thinnest parts of a component or a structure is often sufficient, or some simple test.

Uniform attack may be prevented by selecting proper materials, surface coating, cathodic protection
and/or adding inhibitors into the corroding media.

Galvanic Corrosion

The understanding that this type of corrosion is caused by an electrochemical interaction between
the two dissimilar metals

Mechanism of galvanic corrosion:

Metal elements have different static electrical potentials, i.e., tendencies of losing electrons to
become cations. When two metals are electrically connected, either by direct contact or via a
conductor, an electric potential difference is established

Prevention of galvanic corrosion: 1) Select combinations of metals as close together as possible in

the galvanic series.

2) Avoid large cathode-to-anode area ratio.

3) Insulate dissimilar metal couples (e.g. rubber washers under bolt head and nut).

4) Add inhibitors to decrease environmental corrosivity.

5) Apply coatings to both the anode and cathode if possible.

6) Design for easily replaceable anode parts or make them thicker for longer service life.
7) Install a third metal that is anodic to both metals.

Crevice Corrosion

Crevice Corrosion is a localised attack occurring within crevices or other shielded areas where a
small volume of stagnated solution presents

Minimising Crevice Corrosion: 1) Eliminate crevice condition whenever possible: using welded joints
instead of riveted or bolted joints, for example; 2) Seal crevices by continuous welding or soldering if
rivets or bolting has to be used. 3) Regular and thorough cleaning or complete draining to remove
deposits or avoid stagnation. Avoid sharp corners and narrow gaps in design. 4) Filter or screen flow
to remove solids in suspension, minimising deposition. 5) Use non-absorbent gaskets, such as Teflon,
whenever possible.

Pitting

As the name suggests, pitting is an extremely localised attack that results in pits, i.e., holes of various
sizes.

Prevention of Pitting: 1) The methods suggested for combating crevice corrosion generally apply also
for pitting.

2) Materials that show pitting during corrosion tests should not be considered for use in the
application in question.

3) Type 316 18-8 stainless steel is much more resistant to pitting than type 304 due to the addition
of 2%Mo. For this reason type 304 is considered unsuitable for applications in seawater whereas
type 316 is sometimes recommended.

4) Ti has excellent resistance towards pitting attack

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a cracking failure of materials caused by the combined action of
tensile stresses and corrosive environments

Prevention of SCC: 1) Avoid the dangerous metal-environment combination by using a different

metal. Carbon steels sometimes are used in preference to stainless steels due to their higher
resistance to stress corrosion cracking. Inconel (nickel alloy) is used to replace type 304 steel for the
same reason.

2) Eliminate the tensile stress component whenever possible. More than often a tensile stress is
from residual sources; thus stress relieving heat treatment is commonly recommended.
Furthermore, creating a compressive surface residual stress condition is highly effective in
suppressing stress corrosion cracking. A compressive surface stress state may be achieved by various
means including thermal treatment, blasting and ion implantation.

3) Reduce the corrosivity of the environment, such as by changing the pH of a fluid or by eliminating
oxygen or chloride from a solution. Inhibition and design modification may also render the
environment less harmful.
4) Cathodic protection is effective. It may be applied either with an external power supply or
consumable anodes. Precautions must be taken when applying cathodic protection to guard against
hydrogen embrittlement.