An-Najah National University

Faculty of Engineering
Telecommunication Engineering Department
Graduation Project Report 1

Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET)

Prepared by Ikhlas Abuzreq

Meenas Faqeeh

Supervisor Dr. Saed Tarapiah

Presented in Partial fulfilment of the requirements for Bachelor

degree in ‘’Telecommunication Engineering ‘’

I
Acknowledgment

First, we would like to thank God! Without Him, we wouldn't be where we are today.
We would like to express our gratitude for everyone who helped us during our
graduation project. Our supervisor Dr. Saed Tatapiah and all other amazing doctors.
Thanks for our families who were there for us every single time, our friend and
colleagues.

II
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1 : Introduction to VANET .............................................................................. 2
1.1: Ad hoc network and MANET ............................................................................. 2
1.2 What is VANET? ................................................................................................. 3
1.3: VANET Characteristics ...................................................................................... 4
1.4: VANET communication types ............................................................................ 5
1.4.1: Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V) ............................................................................. 5
1.4.2: Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I) ..................................................................... 6
1.4.3: Hybrid ........................................................................................................... 8
1.5: VANETs Standards (Standards for Wireless Access in VANETs) .................... 8
1.5.1 Long Range Communications ....................................................................... 8
1.5.2 Medium Range Communications ................................................................ 10
1.5.3 Short Range Communication....................................................................... 15
Chapter 2 : Routing Protocol ....................................................................................... 18
2.1: Topology-based Ad-hoc Routing Protocols ...................................................... 19
2.1.1 On-Demand Distance Vector routing (AODV) ........................................... 19
2.1.2 The Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) ................................................ 20
2.1.3 Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) ....................................... 20
2.1.4 Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)................................................... 21
2.2 Position-based Routing Protocol ........................................................................ 21
2.2.1 Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) .............................................. 21
2.2.2 Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM) ...................... 22
2.2.3 Reliability Improving Position-based Routing (RIPR) ............................... 22
2.2.4 Hybrid Location-based Ad-hoc Routing Protocol (HLAR) ........................ 22
2.3 Broadcast Routing Protocol ............................................................................... 23
2.3.1 BROADCOMM........................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Distributed vehicular broadcast protocol (DV-CAST) ................................ 23
2.3.3 Edge-aware epidemic protocol (EAEP) ...................................................... 23
2.4 Cluster-based Routing Protocols ........................................................................ 24
2.4.1 Cluster Based Location Routing (CBLR) .................................................... 24
2.4.2 Cluster-Based Directional Routing Protocol (CBDRP) .............................. 24
2.4.3 Hierarchical Cluster Based Routing (HCB) ................................................ 24
2.5 Geocast Based Routing Protocol ........................................................................ 25

III
 2.5.1 Location Based Multicast (LBM) ................................................................ 25
2.5.2 GeoGrid ....................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3 Chapter 3: Network Simulator .................................................................... 26
3.1 What is NS3?...................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Advantages of ns3 .............................................................................................. 26
Chapter 4 NS3 simulation for VANET routing protocols performance evaluation .... 27
4.1 AODV Routing Protocol .................................................................................... 27
4.2 OLSR Routing Protocol ..................................................................................... 28
4.3 DSDV Routing Protocol..................................................................................... 28
4.4 DSR Routing Protocol........................................................................................ 28
4.5 GPSR Routing Protocol ..................................................................................... 29
4.6 NS3 Simulation results. ...................................................................................... 30
Chapter 5 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 34
References .................................................................................................................... 35

IV
List of Figures
Figure1 Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) ........................................................................... 2
Figure2 : V2V Communication ................................................................................................. 5
Figure3 : V2I Communication................................................................................................... 7
Figure4 : VANET Communication types .................................................................................. 7
Figure5 : Hybrid Communication ............................................................................................. 8
Figure6 :Cellular Technology.................................................................................................... 8
Figure7 :WIMAX Technology .................................................................................................. 9
Figure8 : DSRC frequency allocation in the US ..................................................................... 10
Figure9 : Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE), IEEE 1609, IEEE 802.11p
and the OSI Reference Model ................................................................................................. 12
Figure10 : WI-FI Technology ................................................................................................. 13
Figure11 : 802.11b Wi-Fi Technology ................................................................................... 14
Figure12 : 802.11a Wi-Fi Technology .................................................................................... 14
Figure13 : Wi-Fi and WiMAX in VANET ............................................................................. 14
Figure14 : Average throughput for AODV ............................................................................. 30
Figure15 : Overhead for AODV .............................................................................................. 31
Figure16 : NS3 Code to obtain Packet loss ............................................................................. 32
Figure17 : AODV Packet loss VS Number of nodes .............................................................. 33
Figure18 : Packet loss Vs Total time simulation ..................................................................... 33

V
Abbreviation
VANET: Vehicular Ad-hoc Network
MANET: Mobile Ad-hoc Network
GPS: Global positioning system
V2V: Vehicle to Vehicle
V2I: Vehicle to Infrastructure
RSU: Road side Unit
OBU: On-Board Unit
OBE: On-Board Equipment
DSRC: Dedicated Short-Range Communications
HMI: Human Machine Interface
WAVE: Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments
GSM: Global System for Mobile communications
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
TDMA: Time division multiple access
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
WIMAX: Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
DSL: Digital subscriber line
FCC: Federal Communications Commission
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
CCH: Control channel
SCH: service channel
ARIB: Association of Radio Industries and Businesses
CEN: European Committee for Standardization
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying
PSK: Phase Shift Keying
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
MAC: Media Access Control
IP: Internet Protocol
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

VI
UDP: User Datagram Protocol
Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity
ISM: industrial, Scientific and Medical
PAN: personal Area Network
WSN: Wireless Sensor Network
QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
VoIP: Voice Over IP
UWB: Ultra-Wide Band
WPAN: Wireless Personal Area Network
QoS: Quality of Service
DGPS: differential Global positioning System
AODV: Ad-hoc on-Demand Distance Vector Routing
OLSR: The Optimized Link State Routing
LAN: Local Area Network
MPR: Multi-point Relay
DSDV: Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
DSR: Dynamic Source Routing Protocol
GPSR: Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
DREAM: Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
LAR: Location Aided Routing
GLS: Grid Location Service
RIPR: Reliability Improving Position-based Routing
HLAR: Hybrid Location-based Ad-hoc Routing Protocol
DV-CAST: Distributed vehicular broadcast protocol
EAEP: Edge-aware epidemic protocol
CBLR: Cluster Based Location Routing
Cluster-Based Directional Routing Protocol
HCB: Hierarchical Cluster Based Routing
LBM: Location Based Multicast

VII
Abstract

The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology that uses moves cars as
nodes in a network to create a mobile network. VANET has taken enormous attention
in the recent years so lot of research have been done for using VANETs in many
applications including accident prevention, real time safety alerts, improved navigation
system, media and entertainment in vehicles.
VANET is a sub form of Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) that provides
communication between vehicles and between vehicles and road-side base stations with
an aim of providing efficient and safe transportation.
A vehicle in VANET is considered to be an intelligent mobile node capable of
communicating with its neighbors and other vehicles in the network. It turns every
participating car into a wireless router or node, allowing cars approximately 100 to 300
meters of each other to connect and, in turn, create a network with a wide range.
VANET introduces more challenges aspects as compare to MANET because of high
mobility of nodes and fast topology changes. Researches have introduced many routing
protocols for VANET considering the major challenges involved using the network
simulator NS3
The existing routing protocols for VANET are not efficient to meet every traffic
scenarios. Thus, design of an efficient routing protocol has taken significant attention.
So, it is very necessary to identify the pros and cons of routing protocols which can be
used for further improvement or development of any new routing protocol. This project
presents VANET routing protocols for vehicle communication. Chapter 1 is
introduction to Ad hoc network and MANET in general, also introduces VANET, its
types, standards. Chapter 2 introduces different types of routing protocols. chapter 3 is
about the used network simulator NS3, and finally chapter 4 compares the performance
of the different routing protocols.

1
Chapter 1 : Introduction to VANET
1.1: Ad hoc network and MANET
An ad hoc network is a type of temporary computer-to-computer connection. In ad hoc
mode, you can set up a wireless connection directly to another computer without having
to connect to Wi-Fi or router. Many ad hoc networks are local area networks thus the
computers need to be within 100 meters of each other.
Ad hoc network is useful since files or other data are directly shared between computers
with no need for a centralized access point. More than one laptop can be connected to
the ad hoc network, as long as all of the adapter cards are configured for ad-hoc mode
and connect to the same SSID (service state identifier).but if the computer that sets up
the ad hoc network is disconnected, then all other connected users will disconnect.
MANET is a type of ad hoc network that can change locations and configure itself on
the fly. Because MANETS are mobile, they use wireless connections to connect to
various networks. This can be a standard Wi-Fi connection, or another medium, such
as a cellular or satellite transmission. MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the
network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as they forward
traffic to other specified node in the network.

Figure1 Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET)

As advantages of MANET is that mobile nodes are separated from central

network administration, each node can do both roles as a server and as a host, also
the mobiles are self-configuring and self-healing nodes. But in MANET,
Resources are limited due to some constraints such as noise, interference
conditions, authorization facilities are lack, also more prone to attacks due to
limited physical security.

2
1.2 What is VANET?

The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology that uses moves cars as
nodes in a network to create a mobile network. VANET turns every participating car
into a wireless router or node, allowing cars approximately 100 to 300 meters of each
other to connect and, in turn, create a network with a wide range.
Earlier, drivers were using their voice, gestures, horns, and observation of each other’s
trajectory to manage their behavior and communicate between each other, but when the
number of vehicles increased, roads couldn't be managed by these traditional methods,
in the second half of the 19th century, traffic police took charge of controlling and
managing the traffic using hand signals, semaphores and colored lights. In 1930's and
1940's, the automation of traffic signals and car indicators were spread widely,
Variable-message signs were introduced in the 1960s to provide information to the
drivers to adapt according to the current circumstances. However, information that are
shared via all of these methods are very less and restricted.
Recently, drivers can exchange more information, such as traffic information and
directions, to each other via car phones or citizen band radio.
the concept of VANET came into limelight which has opened new possibilities to avail
the use of safety applications and the ability to contact over a wireless medium and
exchange useful information between vehicle and another. this information can be
categorized into four types of messages:
1. Emergency and warning messages:
Emergency messages can include any type of critical emergency such as
accidents, passing of ambulance, fire or police vehicles. Warnings regarding
repair on roads, traffic congestion come under the category of warning
messages.

2. Inter-personal messages:
Messages related to the profile of a driver and other passengers on the vehicle
come under this category.

3. Routing and Safety messages:

This category comprises of messages about the information used by various
routing protocols and current driving conditions. Safety messages take the
information related to vehicle’s speed, position, direction and identity etc. for
safe communication.

4. Information and Entertainment messages:

These messages are related to the resources and services available on the
roadside infrastructure, and/or the services offered by other participating
vehicles on the road. The types of messages in this category are the information
about nearby food point, gas or petrol filling stations, nearby points of interest
and so on.

3
A small network is created at the same moment with the vehicles and other devices
behaving as nodes in the network. Whatever information the nodes possess is
transferred to all other nodes. Similarly, all the nodes after transferring their set of data
receives the data being transmitted by other nodes. After accumulating all of such data,
nodes then work to generate useful information out of the data and then again transmit
the information to other devices, the communication between devices expands in such
as way where nodes are free to join and leave the network since it's an open network.
Car manufacturer these days are lunching cars with equipped on board sensors which
make it easy for the vehicle to easily join and merge in the network and leverage the
benefits of VANET.
One big difference between MANET and VANET is that MANET consists of nodes
that communicate with no central network and nodes are equipped with networking
capabilities, where nodes in VANET are free to enter or leave the network. That’s
require different routing protocols than MANETs.

1.3: VANET Characteristics

VANET characteristics that make it different than MANET and in the same time,
challenging to be designed are:
1. High dynamic topology
The speed and direction of vehicles changes constantly thereby resulting in
high dynamic topology. Suppose two vehicles are moving at the speed of
20m/sec and the radio range between them is 160 m. Then the link between the
two vehicles will last 160/20 = 8 sec.

2. Frequent disconnected network

Since there is high dynamic topology, Connection between devices changes
very frequently, if two devices are exchanging information, their connection
can disconnect at any time.

3. Mobility modeling
A large section of vehicles follows a certain pattern to move which is generally
a function of traffic signals, speed limits, highways, streets, road conditions etc.
These patterns when observed help in the creation of routing protocols for
VANET

4. Battery power and storage capacity:

It is assumed that the nodes in VANET are capable of possessing an unlimited
amount of power as well as storage capacity. Therefore, the nodes are free to
exchange the data without the foundations of power consumption or storage
wastage.

4
 5. Onboard sensors
onboard sensors like GPS device helps for effective communication and
routing decisions, since the current position and nodes movement can be sensed
easily.

1.4: VANET communication types

In VANET, there is no one architectures or topology to be followed, instead,
VANET architecture3 falls within three categories: Vehicle to Vehicle
(V2V), Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I), and Hybrid.

1.4.1: Vehicle to Vehicle (V2V)

V2V is designed to allow automobile to talk to each other. The system will use
a region of 5.9GHz band using wireless protocol standard 802.11p for various
public safety services.
vehicles act as both, server and host as they receive information from other
vehicles in the network and distribute that information to other vehicles. So,
both receiving and transmitting of data are done within the network for faster
delivery of messages, that may include a vehicle’s position, speed, steering
angle, brake status, turn signal status, number of people in vehicle et.
V2V communication does not rely on fixed infrastructure for data exchange to
happen and it helps in dissemination, safety and security applications. That’s
way it can be classified as Ad-hoc architecture.

Figure2 : V2V Communication

Advantages of V2V communication:

• Allows short and medium range communication.
• It does not need any roadside infrastructure.
• Less cost.
• It supports short message delivery.
• It minimizes latency in communication link.
• It is fast and reliable and provides real time safety.
• Protect vehicles from potential road hazards and improve safety.

5
Disadvantages of V2V communication:
• Frequent topology partitioning due to high mobility.
• Problems in long range communication.
• Using traditional protocol is challenging.
• Problem in broadcasting messages in high traffic & environmental forces.

Applications of V2V
Applications are classified into 3 categories
a. Road safety applications
• Preventing collisions.
• Preventing obstacles, it can be fixed or mobile
• Distributing whether information
b. Driver assistance applications
• Helps in vehicle passing.
• Prevention of straight or carved lane exists
c. Comfort applications:
• Mobile access to the Internet.
• Electronic messaging.
• Inter-vehicle chat.
• Network games, etc.

1.4.2: Vehicle to Infrastructure (V2I)

In vehicle to infrastructure, infrastructure like Road Side Unit (RSO) is used to
collect information from vehicles and provide that information to other vehicles
When there is no direct connection between them, a dedicated routing protocol
is used to forward data between vehicle s until it reaches the destination point,
forming multi-hop vehicle to vehicle communication. V2I provides updates
related to environmental sensing and monitoring such as real time traffic update
or weather update. This architecture may resemble wireless local area networks
(WLAN).

V2I system should contain the following parts

• Vehicle On - Board Unit or Equipment (OBU/OBE)
• Road Side Unit or Equipment (RSU/RSE)
• Safe communication channel

6
 Figure3 : V2I Communication

OBUs are vehicle side of V2I system. OBUs are logically composed of radio
transceiver (typically DSRC), a GPS system, an applications processor and
interfaces to vehicle systems and vehicle’s human machine interface (HMI)
communications network. OBUs provide communications between both
vehicles and RSUs and between the vehicles and other nearby vehicles. The
OBUs transmits status messages regularly to other OBUs to support safety
applications between vehicles. At intervals, the OBUs gather data to support
public applications. The OBUs will accommodate storage of many snapshots
of data, depending upon its memory and communications capacity. After some
period of time, the oldest data is overwritten. The OBUs also assemble vehicle
data together with GPS data as a series of snapshots for transmission to RSU.
RSUs located at intersections and other locations providing the interface to
vehicles within their range.
An RSU is composed of radio transceiver (DSRC or WAVE), an application
processor, and interface to V2I communications network. It also has a GPS unit
attached. Through an additional interface, it may support local infrastructure
safety applications. The RSU is connected to V2I communications network.
Using its interface to V2I communications network, it can send private data to
and from the OEMs. The RSU manage the prioritization of messages to and
from the vehicle. OBU also has priorities set within its applications and
prioritization must also be set within the RSU to ensure that available
bandwidth is not exceeded. Local and vehicle to vehicle safety applications
have highest priority, messages associated with various public and private
network applications have lower priority. Entertainment messages have lowest
priority.

Figure4 : VANET Communication types

7
1.4.3: Hybrid
This is combination of both V2V and V2I architectures. some of the vehicles
can communicate with each other directly while others may need some RSU to
communicate.

Figure5 : Hybrid Communication

1.5: VANETs Standards (Standards for Wireless Access in VANETs)

Standards simplify product development, help reduce costs, and enable users to
compare competing products. Only through the use of standards can the requirements
of interconnectivity and interoperability be guaranteed and the emergence of new
products be verified to enable the rapid implementation of new technologies. There are
many standards that relate to wireless access in vehicular environments. These
standards range from protocols that apply to transponder equipment and
communication protocols through to security specification, routing, addressing
services, and interoperability protocols.

1.5.1 Long Range Communications

1.5.1.1 Cellular Technologies

Figure6 :Cellular Technology

8
Cellular technology is what mobile phone networks are based on, and it’s the
technology that gave mobile phones the name “cell phones”. Cellular technology
basically refers to having many small interconnected transmitters as opposed to one big
one.
The other main concept of cellular technology was that they were “multiple access”,
meaning that they placed multiple voice or data connections into a single radio channel.
Global system for Mobile (GSM) uses both frequency division multiple access
(FDMA) and time division multiple access (TDMA) schemes. Two frequency bands
are available for GSM 890– 915 MHz for uplink and 935–960 MHz for downlink; these
frequency bands are divided into channels and the capacity of each channel is 200 kHz.
IEEE 802.11 standards can be applied to provide wireless connectivity; IEEE802.11a
works at 5GHz and provides a data rate of 54Mbps with a communication range of at
least 38m indoor and a 140m range for outdoor use. Another standard for IEEE 802.11
is IEEE 802.11g, which provides the same data rate and covers the same range as
IEEE802.11a but working at 2.4GHz.
The strengths of cellular communication include wide coverage, small mobile units,
low cost, high functionality, and the ability to integrate voice and data on the same
network.

1.5.1.2 WIMAX Technology

Figure7 :WIMAX Technology

WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. WiMAX

technology is a telecommunications technology that offers transmission of wireless
data via a number of transmission methods; such as portable or fully mobile internet
access via point to multipoint links. The WiMAX technology offers around 72
Mega Bits per second without any need for the cable infrastructure. WiMAX
technology is based on Standard that is IEEE 802.16, it usually also called
as Broadband Wireless Access. WiMAX Forum created the name for WiMAX
technology that was formed in Mid-June 2001 to encourage compliance and
interoperability of the WiMAX IEEE 802.16 standard. WiMAX technology is
actually based on the standards that making the possibility to delivery last mile
broadband access as a substitute to conventional cable and DSL lines.

9
1.5.2 Medium Range Communications
1.5.2.1 DSRC
Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) is a short to medium range
communications service that was developed to support vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-
to-roadside communications. Such communications cover a wide range of applications,
including vehicle-to-vehicle safety messages, traffic information, toll collection, drive-
through payment, and several others. DSRC is aimed at providing high data transfers
and low communication latency in small communication zones. In 1999, the United
States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allocated 75 MHz of spectrum at
5.9 MHz to be used by DSRC. In 2003, The American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) approved the ASTM-DSRC standard which was based on the IEEE 802.11a
physical layer and 802.11 MAC layer. This standard was later published as ASTM
E2213-03. In February 2004, the report issued by the FCC established service and
licensing rules that govern the use of the DSRC band. DSRC is a free but licensed
spectrum. It is free since the FCC does not charge for usage of that spectrum but it is
licensed which means that it is more restricted in terms of its usage. For instance, the
FCC requires the use of specific channels and all radios developed should conform to
the standard. The DSRC spectrum is organized into 7 channels each of which is 10
MHz wide. One channel called the control channel (CCH) and it is restricted for safety
communications only while two other channels called the service channel (SCH) are
reserved for special purposes (such as critical safety of life and high-power public
safety). All the remaining channels are service channels which can be used for either
safety or non-safety applications. Safety applications are given higher priority over non-
safety applications to avoid their possible performance degradations and at the same
time save lives by warning drivers of imminent dangers or events to enable timely
corrective actions to be taken.

Figure8 : DSRC frequency allocation in the US

10
 Table 1 compares recent regional standards for DSRC in Japan, Europe and USA:
Feature Japan Europe USA
(ARIB) (CEN) (ASTM)
Communication Half-duplex (OBU) / Half-duplex Half-duplex
Full-duplex (RSU)
Radio Frequency 5.8 GHz 5.8 GHZ band GHz band
Band 80 MHz bandwidth 20 MHz 75 MHz bandwidth
bandwidth
Channels Downlink: 7 4 7
Uplink: 7
Channel Separation Down/Uplink 5 MHz 10 MHz
1 or 4 MBits/s
Data Transmission Down/Up-link Down-link Down/Up-link 3-27
rate 1 or 4 MBits/s 500 Kbits/s Mbits/s
Up-lin 250 Kbits/s

Coverage 30 meters 15-20 meters 1000 meters(max)

Modulation 2-ASK, 4-PSK RSU: 2-ASK OFDM
OBU: 2-PSK

ARIB: Association of Radio Industries and Businesses

CEN: European Committee for Standardization
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
OBU: On-Board Unit
RSU: Road Side Unit
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying
PSK: Phase Shift Keying
OFDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

1.5.2.2 WAVE
Wireless connectivity between moving vehicles can be provided by existing 802.11a
compliant devices with data rates of up to 54 Mbps being achieved with 802.11a
hardware. However, vehicular traffic scenarios have greater challenges than fixed
wireless networks, caused by varying driving speeds, traffic patterns, and driving
environments. Traditional IEEE 802.11 Media Access Control (MAC) operations
suffer from significant overheads when used in vehicular scenarios. For instance, to
ensure timely vehicular safety communications, fast data exchanges are required. In
these circumstances the scanning of channels for beacons from an access point along
with multiple handshakes required to establish communication are associated with too
much complexity and high overheads (for example, in the case of a vehicle
encountering another vehicle coming in the opposite direction, the duration for possible
communication between them is extremely short making it difficult to establish

11
communications). To address these challenging requirements of IEEE MAC
operations, the DSRC effort of the ASTM 2313 working group migrated to the IEEE
802.11 standard group which renamed the DSRC to IEEE 802.11p
Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE). In contrast to the regional
standards of DSRC, by incorporating DSRC into IEEE 802.11, WAVE will become a
standard that can be universally adopted across the world. As illustrated in figure 9, it
is worth noting that IEEE 802.11p is limited by the scope of IEEE 802.11 which strictly
works at the media access control and physical layers. The operational functions and
complexity related to DSRC are handled by the upper layers of the IEEE 1609
standards. These standards define how applications that utilize WAVE will function in
the WAVE environment, based on the management activities defined in IEEE P1609.1,
the security protocols defined in IEEE P1609.2, and the network-layer protocol defined
in IEEE P1609.3. The IEEE 1609.4 resides above 802.11p and this standard supports
the operation of higher layers without the need to deal with the physical channel access
parameters.

Figure9 : Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE), IEEE 1609, IEEE 802.11p and the OSI
Reference Model

ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

DSRC: Dedicated Short-Range Communication
IP: Internet Protocol
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
UDP: User Datagram Protocol

12
1.5.2.3 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
When you’re looking to buy new wireless networking gear or a mobile device, you’re
faced with an array of choices and abbreviations. Since Wi-Fi was first released to
consumers in 1997, its standards have been continually evolving – typically resulting
in faster speeds and further coverage. As capabilities are added to the original IEEE
802.11 standard, they become known by their amendment (802.11b, 802.11g, etc.).

Figure10 : WI-FI Technology

• 802.11 b
802.11b uses the same 2.4 GHz frequency as the original 802.11 standard. It supports
a maximum theoretical rate of 11 Mbps and has a range up to 150 feet. 802.11b
components are cheap, but the standard has the slowest maximum speed of all the
802.11 standards. And since 802.11b operates in the 2.4 GHz, home appliances or other
2.4 GHz Wi-Fi networks can cause interference. Today, routers that only support
802.11n are no longer manufactured.

• 802.11 a
The ‘a’ amendment to the standard was released at the same time as 802.11b. It
introduced a more complex technique, known as OFDM (orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing) for generating the wireless signal. 802.11a offers a few advantages over
802.11b: it operates in the less crowded 5 GHz frequency band, making it less prone to
interference. And its bandwidth is much higher than 802.11b, with a theoretical max of
54 Mbps.
You probably haven’t encountered many 802.11a devices or routers. This is because
802.11b devices were cheaper and became more popular in the consumer market.
802.11a was mainly used in business applications.

13
 • 802.11 g
The 802.11g standard uses the same OFDM technology introduced with 802.11a. Like
802.11a, it supports a maximum theoretical rate of 54 Mbps. But like 802.11b, it
operates in the crowded 2.4 GHz (and thus is subject to the same interference issues as
802.11b). 802.11g is backward compatible with 802.11b devices: an 802.11b device
can connect to an 802.11g access point (but at 802.11b speeds).
With 802.11g, consumers enjoyed a significant advance in Wi-Fi speeds and coverage.
At the same time, consumer wireless routers were getting better, with higher power and
better coverage than earlier generations.

Figure11 : 802.11b Wi-Fi Technology Figure12 : 802.11a Wi-Fi Technology

Figure13 : Wi-Fi and WiMAX in VANET

14
1.5.3 Short Range Communication
1.5.3.1 BLUETOOTH
The ISM (industrial, Scientific and Medical) radio bands-based Bluetooth (IEEE
802.15.1) protocol is used to transfer data at the rate of up to 1 Mbps to 4 Mbps over a
distance of 10m. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz band and uses it uses Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum technique to overcome signal interference. Bluetooth
Version 3 can work on 6 GHz to 9 GHz frequency band, it uses 2.4 GHz band to
communicate with other devices. Bluetooth 4.0 uses low energy for transmission; it is
not compatible with earlier versions. It is predominantly used to create a Personal Area
Network (PAN). Bluetooth technology can be used to support both V2V and V2I
applications. As compared to other Wi-Fi standards, it requires low power. However, it
cannot be used to build safety applications because of slow transfer rate, short coverage
area and vulnerability to air inferences. It is not suitable for bandwidth intensive
infotainment applications such as VoIP and web browsing.

1.5.3.2 ZIGBEE
The ZigBee or ZigBee/IEEE 802.15.4 protocol is a specification created for wireless
networking. It includes hardware and software standard design for WSN (Wireless
sensor network) requiring high reliability, low cost, low power, scalability and low data
rate.
ZigBee uses the license-free 2.4 GHz band to transfer data at the rate of 250 Kbps up
to 70 meters. It also uses lower frequency bands 915 MHz (US) and 868 MHz (Europe)
to supports data transmission rates of 40 Kbps and 20 Kbps respectively. This
technology uses low powered radio signals to transfer data up to 100m using Offset
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (O-QPSK) modulation. Since it uses low-power and
low-latency, it is widely used in PANs, remote controls, transport monitoring, and
sensor networks. It is simpler and cheaper than Wi-Fi and Bluetooth standards.
Moreover, it can support more mobile nodes simultaneously and has self-healing
capability. Like Bluetooth, it can be used to support V2V and V2I applications.
However, it is not suitable for bandwidth intensive infotainment applications such as
VoIP, web browsing. Bhargav et al used ZigBee to track the vehicular positional
coordinates during rescue missions of vehicular accidents.

15
1.5.3.3 Ultra-Wideband (UWB)
UWB is designed to replace cables with short-range, wireless connections, but it offers
much higher bandwidth needed to support huge amounts of data streams at very low
power levels.
IEEE 802.15.3 is the IEEE standard for high data rate (20Mbit/s or greater) Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPAN) to provide Quality of Service (QoS) for real time
distribution of multimedia content. IEEE 802.15.3 is accomplished by the IEEE
P802.15.3 High Rate (HR) Task Group (TG3). The task group is charged with defining
a universal standard of ultra-wideband radios capable of high data rate over a distance
of 10 meters using the 3.1GHz to 10.6GHz band for TVs, cell phones, PCs, and so forth.
Besides a high data rate, the new standard will provide for low power, low cost solutions
addressing the needs of portable consumer digital imaging and multimedia
applications. In addition, ad hoc peer-to-peer networking, security issues are
considered. When combined with the 802.15.3 PAN standard, UWB will provide a very
compelling wireless multimedia network for the home.
In VANET, it can be used for collision avoidance. This standard and differential GPS
(DGPS) together were used to determine the relative position of a vehicle.

communication
tecchnology

Short Rang Medium Rang Long Rang

Cellular
Wi-FiI Bluetooth
Technology

WIMAX DSRC ZigBee

WAVE UWB

16
 The following table summarizes the differences between the different technologies:

Wireless Max Suitable for Suitable for

Standard signal Cost Security Mobility safety non-safety
coverage Km/h application application

Cellular
technology 50 km High High 100-250 No Yes

WIMAX802.16 50 km High High 60-250 No Yes

Wi-Fi 802.11a 100 m High Low 40-120 No No

Wi-Fi 802.11b 100 m Moderate Low 40-150 No No

Wi-Fi 802.11g 140 m Moderate Low 40-120 No No

Bluetooth 100 m Low Low 20-30 No No

ZigBee 100 m Low High 10-20 No No

UWB 10 m Low High 10-20 No No

17
 Chapter 2 : Routing Protocol

History of VANET routing protocols starts from MANET protocols like Ad-hoc on-
Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR).
Vehicular Ad-hoc networks nodes are a dynamic nature and challenging for finding and
maintaining routes. In Vehicular Ad-hoc networks, different protocols were proposed
for routing and they provide routing the different messages for different purposes. In
Vehicular Ad-hoc networks there are different routing strategies have been defined
based on architecture and need of applications or scenarios. In VANET, the routing
protocols are categorized into five types: Topology, Position, broadcasting, Clustering,
and infrastructure routing protocol. These protocols are characterized based on area /
application where they are most suitable.
The all MANET protocols are not useful in VANET but various types of protocols used
in VANET.

Routing
Protocols

Topology-based Ad- Position-based Broadcast Routing Cluster-based Geoast Routing

hoc Routing Protocol Routing Protocol Protocol Routing Protocol Protocol

AODV GPSR BROADCOMM CBLR LBM

OLSR DREAM DV-CAST CBDRP Geogrid

DSDV EAEP
RIPR
HCB
DSR GLS

18
2.1: Topology-based Ad-hoc Routing Protocols
Topology based routing protocols use link’s information within the network to send the
data packets from source to destination. Topology based routing approach can be
further categorized into proactive (table driven) and reactive (on-demand) routing.
Proactive routing protocols are mostly based on shortest path algorithms. They keep
information of all connected nodes in form of tables because these protocols are table
based. Furthermore, these tables are also shared with their neighbors. Whenever any
change occurs in network topology, every node updates its routing table.
Pros

• No route discovery is required.

• Low latency for real time applications.
Cons

• Unused paths occupy a significant part of the available bandwidth.

Reactive routing protocol is called on demand routing because it starts route discovery
when a node needs to communicate with another node thus it reduces network traffic.
Pros

• To update routing table not require periodic flooding the network. Flooding
requires when it is demanded.
• Beaconless so it saves the bandwidth.
Cons

• For route finding latency is high.

• Excessive flooding of the network causes disruption of nodes communication.
Some of topology-based Routing protocols are presented such as AODV, OLSR,
DSDV and DSR.
2.1.1 On-Demand Distance Vector routing (AODV)
An Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) is a routing protocol designed for
wireless and mobile ad hoc networks. This protocol establishes routes to destinations
on demand and supports both unicast and multicast routing. The AODV protocol was
jointly developed by Nokia Research Center, the University of California, Santa
Barbara and the University of Cincinnati in 1991.
The AODV protocol builds routes between nodes only if they are requested by source
nodes. AODV is therefore considered an on-demand algorithm and does not create any
extra traffic for communication along links. The routes are maintained as long as they
are required by the sources. They also form trees to connect multicast group members.
AODV makes use of sequence numbers to ensure route freshness. They are self-starting
and loop-free besides scaling to numerous mobile nodes.

19
In AODV, networks are silent until connections are established. Network nodes that
need connections broadcast a request for connection. The remaining AODV nodes
forward the message and record the node that requested a connection. Thus, they create
a series of temporary routes back to the requesting node.
A node that receives such messages and holds a route to a desired node sends a
backward message through temporary routes to the requesting node. The node that
initiated the request uses the route containing the least number of hops through other
nodes. The entries that are not used in routing tables are recycled after some time. If a
link fails, the routing error is passed back to the transmitting node and the process is
repeated.

2.1.2 The Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)

The protocol is an optimization of the classical link state algorithm tailored to the
requirements of a mobile wireless LAN. The key concept used in the protocol is that of
multipoint relays (MPRs). MPRs are selected nodes which forward broadcast messages
during the flooding process. This technique substantially reduces the message overhead
as compared to a classical flooding mechanism, where every node retransmits each
message when it receives the first copy of the message. In OLSR, link state information
is generated only by nodes elected as MPRs. Thus, a second optimization is achieved
by minimizing the number of control messages flooded in the network. As a third
optimization, an MPR node may choose to report only links between itself and its MPR
selectors. Hence, as contrary to the classic link state algorithm, partial link state
information is distributed in the network. This information is then used for route
calculation. OLSR provides optimal routes (in terms of number of hops). The protocol
is particularly suitable for large and dense networks as the technique of MPRs works
well in this context.

2.1.3 Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)

The Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) protocol is a table-driven routing
protocol based on the improved version of classical Bellman-Ford routing algorithm.
DSDV is based on the Routing Information Protocol (RIP). With RIP, a node holds a
routing table containing all the possible destinations within the network and the number
of hops to each destination. DSDV is also based on distance vector routing and thus
uses bidirectional links. A limitation of DSDV is that it provides only one route for a
source/destination pair.

20
2.1.4 Dynamic Source Routing Protocol (DSR)
In Dynamic Source Routing, each source determines the route to be used in transmitting
its packets to selected destinations. There are two main components, called Route
Discovery and Route Maintenance. Route Discovery determines the optimum path for
a transmission between a given source and destination. Route Maintenance ensures that
the transmission path remains optimum and loop-free as network conditions change,
even if this requires changing the route during a transmission.

2.2 Position-based Routing Protocol

Position based routing protocol utilizes position information to locate the exact
locations of destination node as well as its neighbor node It uses position information
to provide more reliable as well as efficient routing for certain applications and this
information is generally obtained via Global Positioning System (GPS) and location
services. By the use of location services and forwarding strategies its performance is
much better than topology-based routing protocol. It exhibits better scalability,
robustness against frequent topological changes. These routing protocols are designed
to improve efficiency and performance of the network. Routing is done in a hop-by-
hop fashion to forward the data packets. It is designed to handle networks that have
many nodes. One advantage of this kind of routing is that it is totally based on local
information to forward the data packet, rather than to keep the network wide
information. This will lead to much reduced routing overhead and increase the packet
delivery rate. Position information of each node is determined by the use Location
Services and Forwarding strategies are used to forward the data packets. Several
routing-based algorithms have been presented including GPSR, DREAM, RIPR and
HLAR.

2.2.1 Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR)

GPSR is typical routing protocol based on geographical position which is suitable for
VANET network, different from AODV, DSDV, or DSR. GPSR obtains neighbor
vehicle node information by GPS positioning equipment, etc. rather than getting a large
number of routing information in order to maintain the information in neighbor table as
well as the information in routing table. The protocol is put forward by Brad Kard and
H.T Kung in 2000, the forwarding strategy of which combines greedy forwarding
strategy with perimeter forwarding strategy.
In GPSR routing protocol, each node periodically broadcasts its own location
information to the neighbor node the information is stored in neighbor table after
neighbor information has been received. The forwarding node chooses the next hop
forwarding node according to the both neighbor location information and destination
location. Before one node sending data packets, firstly, the id of destination node is
inquired through location-based service information in order to gain the real location of
the destination node. Then the data grouping ready for sending is attached with the

21
above obtained geographic information and send to the destination node in accordance
with greedy forwarding method or perimeter forwarding method.

2.2.2 Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility (DREAM)

GPS is used by every node in DREAM to determine its location. After that, nodes
locations are exchanged and stored in a location table. Furthermore, the frequency of
updates and exchanges of locations is linked to changes in topology due to nodes
mobility. Hence, when an update is required, every node generate location packet and
floods the network with it in order to disseminate its location information. DREAM is
based on two algorithms. The first algorithm is based on flooding and is used to
distribute location packets, while the second one is used to disseminate data packets.

2.2.3 Reliability Improving Position-based Routing (RIPR)

a position-based routing algorithm, was created to be used in vehicular ad hoc network
routing. RIPR algorithm tries to solve the problem of link failures which are found
during routing process. This protocol determines the vehicle speed and direction in
which it moves on the roads. Here, the source selects a nearby node to send the data
determining the mobility for the intermediate nodes. The source node creates a routing
table storing positions with mobility speeds of neighboring nodes. This algorithm is
used to select the forwarding node that aids in choice of next intermediate node, is done
using characteristics of the route and therefore the position of node after the exchange
of message is done. The protocol therefore, helps in avoiding the problem that does not
allow a node to select its neighbor node as intermediate node which arises when no
nearer node to the destination exists. Two types of techniques are used by RIPR
protocol: greedy technique and perimeter technique similar to GPSR protocol. RIPR
also uses characteristics of the route and considers the position of the nodes. The
advantages of the RIPR protocol are that it reduces link failure drawback that occurs
due to storage of the data of wrong intermediate node.

2.2.4 Hybrid Location-based Ad-hoc Routing Protocol (HLAR)

HLAR [1] is an efficient position-based routing protocol is a scalable protocol that uses
the positional information and helps in reduction of the routing control overhead in
comparison to on-demand routing. HLAR protocol can act as on-demand routing
protocol when either information of position is limited or is not sufficient enough and
can overcome the problem where no nearer neighboring nodes to the destination node
exist. HLAR also works as reactive routing protocol and helps in route discovery
process. When we do not get a route to the destination node, then the source node adds
the data packet of its position and position of destination node to route request message
to search for the nearest node existing to the destination. If any such node exists, then
a route request message is further forwarded to it and if a closest node to the destination
is found, then the source node broadcasts a request message to all of its neighboring
nodes. The mechanism is then repeated by the source node until the destination node is

22
reached. Since the intermediate node does not have backward link to the source node,
HLAR does not ensure if a reliable route exists.

2.3 Broadcast Routing Protocol

Broadcast Routing Techniques are based on flooding and are considered as traditional
techniques that are used to route information in VANET. These protocols are used when
there is a need to share information with vehicles that are outside the source node range
when exchanging information regarding road conditions and in emergency situations.
In all cases packets are sent and forwarded to all the nodes in the network. An examples
of broadcast routing protocol are ROADCOMM, DV-CAST and EAEP.

2.3.1 BROADCOMM
BROADCOMM is based on dividing the region into cells. After that, a cell reflector is
selected by the cell members. Consequently, the cell reflector will be responsible for
collecting messages from neighbors. In other words, the cell reflector will be acting as
a base station for all other nodes within the cell. Therefore, a cell reflector will forward
messages to other vehicles in the cell.

2.3.2 Distributed vehicular broadcast protocol (DV-CAST)

It uses local topology information by using the periodic hello messages for broadcasting
the information. Each vehicle uses a flag variable to check whether the packet is
redundant or not. This protocol divides the vehicles into three types depending on the
local connectivity as well connected, sparsely connected, totally disconnected
neighborhood. In well-connected neighborhood it uses persistence scheme (weighted p
persistence, slotted 1and p persistence). In sparsely connected neighborhood after
receiving the broadcast message, vehicles can immediately rebroadcast with vehicles
moving in the same direction. In totally disconnected neighborhood vehicles are used
to store the broadcast message until another vehicle enters into transmission range,
otherwise if the time expires it will discard the packet. This protocol causes high control
overhead and delay in end to end data transfer.

2.3.3 Edge-aware epidemic protocol (EAEP)

It is reliable, bandwidth efficient information dissemination based highly dynamic
VANET protocol. It reduces control packet overhead by eliminating exchange of
additional hello packets for message transfer between different clusters of vehicles and
eases cluster maintenance. Each vehicle piggybacks its own geographical position to
broadcast messages to eliminate beacon messages. Upon receiving a new rebroadcast
message, EAEP uses number of transmissions from front nodes and back nodes in a
given period of time to calculate the probability for making decision whether nodes will
rebroadcast the message or not. But EAEP does not address the intermittent
connectivity issue. Specifically, a node does not know whether it has missed any

23
messages to its new neighbors or its neighbors have missed some messages. EAEP
overcomes the simple flooding problem but it incurs high delay of data dissemination.

2.4 Cluster-based Routing Protocols

Cluster Based Routing protocols are based on dividing the nodes in the network into
groups called clusters. Thus, nearby nodes form a cluster with one vehicle being
selected as a cluster head. The size of the cluster varies depending on the criteria used
to form the cluster. In other words, the number of vehicles, the geographical position
of vehicles or movement direction and velocity can be used as metrics to divide the
network into clusters. After that, nodes within a cluster elect a cluster head which will
be responsible for managing the cluster in order to accomplish inter cluster
communication. Hence, the best neighbor cluster is selected to forward data in inter
cluster communication. Some of cluster-based routing protocols are CBLR, CBDRP an
HCB.

2.4.1 Cluster Based Location Routing (CBLR)

Cluster Based Location Routing (CBLR) algorithm enables a dynamic, self-starting,
and multi-hop routing between nodes. It forms clusters with vehicles which are moving
in the same direction. The link will be maintained only if there is at least one header in
the intermediate cluster. Since, only the header needs to find the destination path, the
routing overhead is less and it is proportional to the number of clusters.

2.4.2 Cluster-Based Directional Routing Protocol (CBDRP)

CBDRP is designed for vehicles which are moving in same direction. Source node
sends packet to cluster header then it is the responsibility of the cluster header to
forward the packet which is in the same cluster. It has an advantage of solving Link
stability problem in VANET, also it has a reliable and rapid data transfer. But its control
packet overhead is average and the number of retransmissions is high.

2.4.3 Hierarchical Cluster Based Routing (HCB)

HCB uses clustering technique which is designed for highly mobility ad-hoc networks.
Two layers communication architecture is used in HCB. Layer-1 nodes have single
radio interface and they are communicating with each other via multi-hop path. In layer-
2 nodes are communicate with each other via base station.in HCB, Intra-cluster routing
is performed independently in each cluster and Cluster heads exchange membership
information periodically to enable inter-cluster routing. But Number of retransmissions
is high because of high packet loss.

24
2.5 Geocast Based Routing Protocol
Geocasting is the delivery of a message to nodes within a geographical region. With
geocast, new services and applications are feasible, such as finding friends who are
nearby, geographic advertising, and accident or wrong-way driver warning on a
motorway.
The protocols mainly differ in whether they are based on flooding, directed flooding,
or on routing without flooding, and whether they are suitable for ad hoc networks or for
infrastructure networks. LBM and Geogrid are examples of geocast-based routing
protocol.

2.5.1 Location Based Multicast (LBM)

Location Based Multicast (LBM) is based on flooding but avoids flooding the whole
network by defining a forwarding zone. Outside the forwarding zone, the packet is
discarded.
LBM can operate in two modes. In the first mode, the protocol designates a forwarding
zone which is defined as the minimum rectangle that contains the source node and the
destination geocast region. In this mode, data packets are simply flooded along the
forwarding zone. In the second mode, data packets are relayed only if they were
received from a node which is located farther away from the intended destination
region. The main disadvantages of LBM are the facts that forwarding zones can be
arbitrary large, even spanning the whole network, and that in cases where the network
is not isotropic LBM can fail to find routes from source to destination even if they
actually exist.

2.5.2 GeoGrid
In Geogrid, the network is divided into a set of geographic regions and a representative
node is chosen in each region. Then, the protocol operates similar to LBM and data
packets are relayed from all the representative nodes which are located within a
forwarding zone defined as the smallest rectangle that contains the source and the
intended geocast destination.

25
Chapter 3 Chapter 3: Network Simulator

ns (from network simulator) is a name for a series of discrete event network

simulators, specifically ns-2 and ns-3 . All are discrete-event computer network
simulators, primarily used in research and teaching.

3.1 What is NS3?

In 2006, a team led by Tom Henderson, George Riley, Sally Floyd, and Sumit Roy,
applied for and received funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) to
build a replacement for ns-2, called ns-3.
ns-3 is a discrete-event network simulator for Internet systems, targeted primarily for
research and educational use. ns-3 is free software, licensed under the GNU GPLv2
license, and is publicly available for research, development, and use.
ns-2 development stopped around 2010. It is no longer developed nor maintained. But
ns-3 is actively being developed and maintained.
Ns3 is written in C++, Python Programming Language can be optionally used as an
interface.

3.2 Advantages of ns3

• Ns-3 provides features not available in ns-2, such as a implementation code
execution environment (allowing users to run real implementation code in the
simulator)
• Ns-3 provides a lower base level of abstraction compared with ns-2, allowing it to
align better with how real systems are put together. Some limitations found in ns-2
(such as supporting multiple types of interfaces on nodes correctly) have been
remedied in ns-3
• Ns-3 is actively maintained with an active, responsive user’s mailing list, while ns-
2 is only lightly maintained and has not seen significant development in its main
code tree for over a decade.

26
Chapter 4 NS3 simulation for VANET routing protocols
performance evaluation

The results obtained from NS3 program, which allows to run vehicular ad hoc network
(VANET) simulation scenarios to assess performance are presented in this chapter.
NS3 allows many parameters to be modified and includes predefined scenario. By
default, the scenario runs for 10 simulated seconds with 40 nodes (i.e. vehicles) moving
according to Random Way point Mobility Model with a speed of 20 m/s and no pause
time within a 300x1500 m region. The Wi-Fi is 802.11p with continuous access to a
10 MHz Control Channel (CH) for all traffic. All nodes transmit a 200-byte safety
message 10 times per second at 6 Mbps.
Additionally, all nodes (optionally) attempt to continuously route 64-byte packets at
an application rate of 2.048 Kbps to one of 10 other nodes, selected as sink nodes. The
default routing protocol is AODV and the Two-Ray Ground loss model is used. The
transmit power is set to 20 dBm and the transmission range for safety message packet
delivery is 145 m.

Other topology-based routing protocols were performed and the results were obtained,
these protocols include OLSR, DSDV, DSR and the default routing protocol AODV.

After studying the previously mentioned routing protocol, it was obtained that each
protocol has its positive and negative performance characteristic, all the results will be
explained in the following parts.

4.1 AODV Routing Protocol

As explained, Ad Hoc On Demand Distance Vector routing protocol is a reactive
routing protocol which establish a route when a node requires to send data packets. It
has the ability of unicast & multicast routing. It uses a destination sequence number
(Dest Seq Num) which makes it different from other on demand routing protocols.
The special features of that protocol are that it can be applied to large scale ad-hoc
network, it is an up-to-date path to the destination since it uses destination sequence
number, also it has a very good response to the link failure in the network, AODV
reduces the requirements for excessive memory and route redundancy.
But AODV protocol have some negative features, that its required time to set up a
connection and its initial communication to establish a route is large compared to other
approaches, also if an intermediate nodes contain old entries, this would lead to a route
interface, In AODV, if there has multiple route reply packets, this will lead to a heavy
control overhead for a single route replay packet, finally AODV consumes more
bandwidth due to the periodic beaconing.

27
4.2 OLSR Routing Protocol
In this, whenever any change in the topology occur, MPR (multipoint relay) are
responsible to generate and forward the topology information to selected nodes
OLSR is well suited for high way density network and in broadcast scenario, it reduces
the number of retransmission of packets.
But the main negative feature of OLSR is that it require a large amount of bandwidth
and CPU Power to compute the optimal path, OLSR requires a routing table for all
possible routes and that would lead to overhead and constrains scalability.

4.3 DSDV Routing Protocol

DSDV uses the bellman-ford algorithm. It forward two type packets: full dump and
incremental. All the routing information is sent in full dump packet and all the updates
information is send in incremental packet.

IN DSDV, it provides loop free routing protocol and it require no route discovery since its
already stored in background.

As known in VANE, the network topology changes frequently, so number of incremental

packets will also increase leading to increase the overhead in the network, another thing is
that full dump packets decrease the bandwidth utilization as only updates are sent, not the
full information.

4.4 DSR Routing Protocol

The Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) as it was explained is presented in which utilize
source routing & maintain active routes. It has two phases route discovery & route
maintenance.
In DSR, anode can save more than one route from the same destination, so if one
route is failed, it just uses the alternative route with no need to discover a new one
which means less load on the network. Another special feature for DSR is that
periodical update is not needed.
As a disadvantage of using DSR is that it can't perform well in high mobility pattern,
it's unable to repair broken links. Unnecessary flooding burdens the network and if
there are too many nodes in the network, the route information within the header will
lead to byte overhead.

28
4.5 GPSR Routing Protocol
In this protocol, as explained, each node has information about its current geographic
position and also the neighboring nodes position. It forwards the packet to nearest
node toward destination. It is also known as greedy algorithm because it follows the
nearest path to forward packet from Source to destination. In this, it first uses the
greedy algorithm to forward the packet if it does not work then it uses perimeter
forwarding.
GPSR is considered to be suitable for highways, also a node needs to remember only
one hop neighbor location in order to forward the packet. Knowing that forwarding a
packet decision are made dynamically.
GPSR has some unfavorable property such as it doesn’t operate well in a city
environment where radio obstacle involves very much, also If GPS fail, the GPSR
can't perform.

In general, main comparison between topology based and position-based routing

protocols can be made, table 3 present the differences between the two types:

VANET Routing Topology-based Routing Protocol Position-based Routing Protocol

Protocol

Methodology 1.Use shortest path algorithm 1. Position determining service is

2.Backet forwarding is done based on
link information stored in routing
table
Benefits/Strength 1.Route discovery is required to
search best possible shortest route
between source node and destination
node
2. suitable for unicast, multicast and
broadcast routing.
Limitation 1.Use more overhead
2.Route discovery and delay
constrains maintenance.
3.Failur in discovering complete path
due to frequent network changes.
Remark 1.Basically proposed for MANET
2.Give less overhead and suitable for
small network
used
2.vehicle position is required to
forward data packet
1. Route discovery and
maintaining protocol routes is not
required
2.Super high mobile environment
1. Give least overhead
2. Position finding service.
1. suitable for large network
2.Research is in progress for
control congestion and small
networks

29
4.6 NS3 Simulation results.
For NS3, AODV routing protocol was simulated since it has many features to be
chosen.

And the following results were obtained:

1. Throuput
Throughput refers to the number of information units a system can process within a
specified amount of time. In the context of communication networks like the internet,
throughput is the rate at which messages are delivered successfully

Network throughput is usually represented as an average and measured in bits per

second (bps), or in some cases as data packets per second. Throughput is an important
indicator of the performance and quality of a network connection. A high ratio of
unsuccessful message delivery will ultimately lead to lower throughput and degraded
performance.

Figure14 : Average throughput for AODV

30
 2. Overhead
Data that is sent across a wireless network is housed in a data envelope (packet) Each
transmission includes additional information, called overhead, that is required to route
the data to the proper location. Network overhead can be calculated by sending a
fixed-size data transmission across the network and observing the number of extra
bytes of data transmitted for the action to be completed.

Figure15 : Overhead for AODV

31
 3. Packet loss
Packet Loss is the ratio of the number of packets that never reached the destination to
the number of packets originated by the source. Mathematically it can be shown as the
following equation
𝑁 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠−𝑁 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑁 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠

Packet Loss for AODV could be obtained using NS3 simulator by the following piece
of code:

Figure16 : NS3 Code to obtain Packet loss

32
The following figures represents the results:

Figure17 : AODV Packet loss VS Number of nodes

Figure18 : Packet loss Vs Total time simulation

33
Chapter 5 Conclusion

The main goal of this project was to study the routing protocols proposed for VANET.
It provides a review of several traditional routing protocols devised for use in VANET,
the proactive and reactive protocols have inherent supposition of network connectivity.
Disconnection and discovery of new nodes is ignored hence these protocols are not well
suited for VANET. Several improved versions of the traditional routing protocols like
AODV and OLSR protocols are proposed for improving their performance.
Research is being carried out for designing protocols and algorithms that can perfectly
fit in the characteristics of VANET. The main limitation of many protocols is long time
delay and the number of retransmissions. It has been found that position-based routing
are most promising for data dissemination in VANET.

The study shows that a routing protocol works well only in a particular scenario like
city, urban environment etc. There is no universal protocol which is suitable for all
VANET’s application scenario. A specific routing protocol is needed to satisfy the
requirements of a particular VANET application, which is a difficult task.

Future work
In future, work needs to be done to generalize algorithms to fit in different scenarios.
Instead of designing new protocols, a protocol should be able to adapt to the abrupt
changes in network and diverse mobility patterns. Work can also be done for making
routing more secure as privacy is a major issue in VANET’s.

34
References

• VANET Routing Protocols: Pros and Cons International Journal of Computer

Applications (0975 – 8887) Volume 20– No.3, April 2011
• Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANETs): A Review Assistant Professor,
MMICT&BM, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Ambala,
Haryana, India
M. Phil Scholar, M.M.I.C.T&B.M, Maharishi Markandeshwar University,
Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India
• Vehicular Adhoc Network (VANET) - An Introduction Ravi Tomar, Manish
Prateek, G. H. Sastry
• Technique to control Data Dissemination and to support data accessibility in
Meagerly Connected Vehicles in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETS)
Er. Gaganpreet Kaur Student, M-Tech (CSE) 4th Semester CSE Department
Global Institute of Management & Emerging Technologies, Amritsar
(PUNJAB)
Dr. Sandeep Singh Kang Professor & Head CSE Department Global Institute
of Management & Emerging Technologies, Amritsar (PUNJAB)
• Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks: Introduction, Standards, Routing Protocols and
Challenges Vinita Jindal, Punam Bedi Department of Computer Science,
University of Delhi Delhi, India
• FreeWinaxinfo.com What is WiMAX Technology
http://freewimaxinfo.com/wimax-technology.html
• Ad hoc Network (VANETs): A Review Divya Chadha, Reena Assistant
Professor, MMICT&BM, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana,
Ambala, Haryana, India
M. Phil Scholar, M.M.I.C.T&B.M, Maharishi Markandeshwar University,
Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India
• Vehicular Adhoc Network (VANET) - An Introduction Ravi Tomar, Manish
Prateek, G. H. Sastry
• Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANETs) - An Overview and Challenges
Sabih ur Rehman , M. Arif Khan , Tanveer A. Zia , Lihong Zheng. School of
Computing and Mathematics, Charles Sturt University, Australia
• The evolution of WiFi standards: a look at 802.11a/b/g/n/ac
https://www.actiontec.com/wifihelp/evolution-wi-fi-standards-look-802-
11abgnac/
• An Evaluation study of WiMAX and WiFi on Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks
(VANETs) International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research
Volume 3, Issue 12, December-2012 1 ISSN 2229-5518
• The ZigBee Protocol Gonzalo Acosta https://www.netguru.co/codestories/the-
zigbee-protocol
• Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Jing Jin, Communications Engineering Laboratory,
HUT

35
• VANET Routing Protocols and Architectures: An Overview Anas Abu Taleb
Department of Computer Science, King Hussein School of Computing
Sciences, Princess Sumaya University for Technology, P. O. Box 1438, Al-
Jubaiha, Amman 11941, Jordan
• A Survey of Geocast Routing Protocols. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224085111_A_Survey_of_Geocast_
Routing_Protocols
• Broadcasting Routing Protocols in VANET Uma Nagaraj, Poonam Dhamal
Pune University, Alandi, Pune India
• Inter-Vehicle Wireless Communications Technologies, Issues and Challenges
S. Habib, M.A. Hannan, M.S. Javadi, S.A. Samad, A.M. Muad and A. Hussain

36