CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND
LITERATURE REVIEW
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1 PREAMBLE
Sun- A blessing to mankind is the ultimate source of the energy that supports our
life and all the human activity around the world. Sun is indeed the source of all energy
that we exploit for satisfying all our energy needs for well being and for comfort life
style. There are several references about Sun in Vedic literature, emphasizing the
importance of Sun for sustained life of man on the earth, e.g. in Rug-Veda

^ S ^?RT3 ^ ^ g^S

Means "All that exists is borne from the "Sun"

Gaytri Mantra' emphasizes on invocation of sustainable energy from Sun, Atmosphere
and Earth. Atmosphere and Earth are, of course, inseparable ingredients of solar system
and their existence itself is totally dependant upon the Sun.
Thus, if say SUN stands for Sourcing Unlimited Nature, it is not exaggeration but
only apt. One of the major applications of solar energy for future is for electric power
generation and is having many advantages over the conventional power generation
systems. Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the
sun intercepted by the earth is approximately 1.8 x lO" MW which is many thousands of
times larger than the present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy
sources. Thus, in principle, solar energy could supply all the present and future energy
needs of the world on a continuing basis. This makes it one of the most promising
renewable energy sources. It is an environmentally clean source of energy and is free and
available in adequate quantities in almost all parts of the world. As solar energy is dilute
and varies widely with time, it requires large collecting areas and storage which results in
excessive cost. Thus, the real challenge in utilizing solar energy is the development of
cheaper methods of collection and storage so that the large initial investments required at
present in most applications are reduced.
 This thesis is about the development of a small capacity power generating unit
using solar energy. Solar power plants are needed to meet the growing electricity demand
and at the same time to take care of the shrinking fossil resources and to reduce global
CO2 emissions. In the past few years, it has become obvious that fossil fuels are fast
depleting. At the same time world's population is reaching towards 7 billions. Therefore
total world energy consumption is expected to expand by 49 % from 1.449x 10 MWh in
2007 to 2.1637x10" MWh in 2035 as per International Energy Organization 2010. With
consumption projected to increase by an average of 2.1% per year, renewable fuels are
becoming the fast growing source of energy. In all countries, the capital stock and the
expenditure upon energy have an important share of the gross national product. The
economic growth of a country is often closely linked to its consumption of energy. As
compared to developed countries, the per capita energy consumption is too low in India.
It is just 4% of USA and 20% of the world average. India currently has a peak demand
shortage of around \4% and energy deficit of 8.4%. Keeping this in view and to maintain
a GDP growth 8% to 10% Government of India has very prudently set a target of
2,15,804 MW power generation capacity by March 2012.(National energy map for India)
As on May 2009, the all India electric power generating installed capacity under utilities
was 1,47,402.81 MW cons^isting of 63.36% thermal, 24.86% hydro, 2.8% Nuclear and
8.98%) renewable power, of course there is a very large share for solar energy utilization.
(Power scenario in India)
With about 301 clear sunny days in a year, India's solar power reception, just on
its land area, is about 5000 trillion kWh/year. The daily average solar energy incident
over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m^ with about 2,300-3,200 sunshine hours per year,
depending upon location. (Solar power in India) The Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE) has initiated schemes and incentives - like subsidy, soft loan,
concessional duty on raw material imports, excise duty exemption on certain
devices/system etc. to boost the production and use of solar energy systems. With high
deployment price as the main hurdle before a solar market, various organizations e.g.
UNEP, MDBs developed innovative funding schemes to catalyze Solar's attractiveness.
Thus there is a wide and expected scope for solar power generation.
 In India, out of total population, 72.2% live in rural areas and 27.8% live in urban
areas. In rural areas electricity supply is not regular, in many rural areas there is load
shading for 12 hours or more. As the demand for power grows exponentially and
conventional fuel based power generating capacity grows arithmetically, solar power
generation can be a source to meet the expected shortfall. Especially in rural, far-flung
where the likelihood of conventional electric lines is remote, solar power generation is
the best alternative. The market for solar lighting and solar pumping is far from saturated.
There are two options for converting solar epergy into electrical energy. Direct
conversion of solar energy to electric energy. This is practically not adapted for
commercial purpose for large power demand due to high cost of cells and Solar thermal
power generation the second option i.e. harnessing solar energy to generate steam and
convert to electricity plant of a small capacity to cater the local needs, is a better option.
1,2 NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
The Prime Minister of India launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission in January 2010 to create an enabling policy framework for the deployment of
20,000 MW of solar power by 2022. The mission plans to achieve 15 million square
meters solar thermal collector areas by 2017 and 20 million by 2022 and to deploy 20
million solar lighting systems for rural areas by 2022. To achieve these ambitious targets,
the government has come out with several incentives to accelerate the tempo of growth of
photovoltaic (PV) and thermal conversion of solar energy in the country to generate
energy from the Sun. Today, one of the major factors inhibiting commercial deployment
of solar energy is its cost. The mission would aim at bringing down the costs as rapidly as
possible. The objective would be to reach ? 4 to 5 per kWh by 2017-20 (with 2009 as
base year), thereby achieving grid parity with fossil fuel based generation. (Green
Energy, 2010)
The mission activities would be planned in three phases: (Akshay Urja, April 2010)

• Phase 1: the remaining period of Eleventh Five year Plan and first year of the
Twelfth Five-year Plan (2012/13)
• Phase 2: the remaining period of Twelfth Five-year Plan (2013-17)
• Phase 3: the Thirteenth Five-year Plan (2017-22)
The details of the activities are given in the Table 1.1
3
 Table 1.1 Solar mission planning (Akshay Urja, 2010)

To achieve solar To achieve off grid Utility grid power

Phase-period thermal collector solar application including rooftop
area (million sq. m) (MW) (MW)
Phase I 2009-13 7 200 1000-2000
Phase II 2013-17 15 1000 4000-10,000
Phase III 2017-22 20 2000 20,000
Based on the normative parameters specified in the renewable energy (RE) tariff
regulation, Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) has specified generic
tariff of ^ 18.44/kWh for electricity generated from grid connected solar PV projects,
where as a tariff of ? 13.45/kWh is specified for solar thermal plants for FY 2009-10. The
process for revision of capital cost for solar PV for 2010-11 and for solar thermal for
2010-11 and 2011-12 has been initiated. (Green Energy, Jan-Feb 2010) Essentially, for
the first phase of the solar mission up to 2013, since National Thermal Power
Corporation (NTPC) Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Ltd. (NVVN) is going to buy the 1,000 MW
solar power, CERC tariffs would apply.
The MNRE, Government of India has drawn up a road map for generating 50MW
of power through grid interactive solar power plants to be set up during the 11"^ five year
plan period (2007-2012). According to MNRE source, the project will be implemented by
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) and private developers will
invest about ? 1000 crore. For the first time, generation based incentives would be
provided for grid interactive solar power generation. A maximum amount of ? 12 per
kWh would be provided as incentive for electricity generated from solar photovoltaic and
? 10 per kWh would be given for electricity generated through the solar thermal route
and fed to the grid from a power plant of IMWp capacity and above. This incentive will
be provided to the project developers at a fixed rate for a period of ten years. The
developers are expected to get land allotted from the state and will have to enter into a
power purchase agreement for seeking generation based incentive from IREDA, who will
approve the proposals on a first come first served basis. The government is focusing on
setting up the solar power generating units in Western and Central India and is mainly
concentrating on the states of Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. India's
NVVN has signed Memorandum of Understanding (MoUs) with 16 project developers to
set up to 84 MW capacity solar power projects. (Weekly intelligence brief, 2010) The list
includes 30 MW through solar thermal technology. These projects are expected to be
commissioned by mid 2011. The list of the project developers for solar thermal power
projects includes Acme Tele Power (lOMW), Dalmia Solar Power (lOMW), and Entegra
(lOMW). All three projects are proposed in Rajasthan. (CSP-Today)
 Considering the huge power requirement in urban areas, MNRE, in February
2008, announced support for municipal corporations for preparation of road map for
development of Solar Cities. The major activity included imder this is preparation of
master plan that will set the goal for reduction of minimum 10% in total demand for
conventional energy at the end of five years to be achieved through energy saving
measures and generation from renewable energy installations. The target set to be
achieved in the next 5 years is 60 cities, with at least one city in each state. Out of 15
cities approved, under this scheme, Nagpur, Maharashtra will be developed as the first
solar city in the country and is expected to be completed by 2012 (Solar India)
1.3 R AND D FOR SOLAR INDIA
A Solar Research Council will be set up to oversee the strategy, taking into
account ongoing projects, availability of research capabilities and resources and
possibilities of intemational collaboration. A National Centre of Excellence (NCE) shall
be established to implement the technology development plan formulated by the research
council and serve as its secretariat. It is envisaged that the solar energy centre of MNRE
will become part of the NCE. These centers may be located in research institutes,
academic institutions or even private sector companies. A NCE will provide a national
platform for networking among different centers of excellence and will serve as the
funding agency to support performance linked solar R and D programmes. DST has been
supporting joint research with several countries under bilateral programmes. MNRE is
also implementing some bilateral projects under the Asia Pacific Partnership Programme
with Japan and Australia. A project on solar radiation data collection is under
implementation with USA.
An ambitious human resource development programme, across the skill-chain,
will be established to support an expanding and large scale solar energy programme, both
for applied and R and D sector. In phase I, at least 1000 young scientists and engineers
would be incentivized to get trained on different solar energy technologies as a part of the
mission's long term R and D and HRD plan. Pilot demonstration projects would be
closely aligned with the mission priorities and designed to promote technology
development and cost reduction. The mission, therefore, envisages the setting up of the
following demonstration projects in phase I, in addition to those already initiated by
MNRE.(Solar-India)

1. 50-100 MW solar thermal plant with 4-6 hours storage (which can meet both
morning and evening peak loads and double plant load factor upto 40%)
2. A 100 MW capacity parabolic trough technology based solar thermal plant.
3. A 100-150 MW solar hybrid plant with coal, gas or biomass to address variability
and space constraints.
4. 20-50 MW solar plants with/without storage, based on central receiver technology
with molten salt/steam as working fluid and other emerging technologies.
5. Grid connected rooftops PV systems on selected government buildings and
installations, with net metering.
6. Solar based space cooling and refrigeration systems to meet daytime and summer
season peak-load. These could be installed on selected government buildings and
installations.

It is expected that these plants will be commissioned in the 12'^ plan period and take a
share of 5% in power generation.
1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW
Solar thermal power cycles are classified as low, medium and high temperature
cycles. (Sukhatme and Nayak, 2008)
1. Low temperature cycles work at maximum temperatures of about 100°C and use
flat plate collectors or solar ponds for collecting solar energy.
2. Medium temperature cycles work at maximum temperatures up to 400''C and use
line focusing parabolic collector technology.
<

3. High temperature cycles work at temperatures above 400°C and use either
paraboloidal dish collectors or central receivers located at the top of towers.
All solar thermal technologies are based on four basic systems: collector, receiver
transport storage and power conversion. As the project undertaken is related to the solar
thermal power generation^it is necessary^ to know the technologies adopted in this regard.
1.5 SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES
There are five major solar thermal technologies for electricity generation:
(Sukhatme and Nayak, 2008; Kalogirou, 2004)

1. Parabolic Trough Solar Electric Generating System (SEGS)

2. Central Receiver Power Plant.
3. Dish Stirling System
4. Solar Chimney Power Plant
5. Solar Pond Power Plant
The solar flux concentration ratio typically obtained is at the level of 30-100, 500-1000
and 1000-10,000 suns for trough, tower and dish systems respectively.
L5.1 Parabolic Trough System
Solar Electric Generating Systems (SEGS) based on parabolic trough are designed
in a power range of 30-150MW. The solar receiver consists of a large array of parabolic
trough reflectors that reflects the sunlight to a receiver tube located along the troughs
focal line. Heat transfer fluid (HTF) flowing in the tube is heated and then pumped to a
central point through a series of heat exchangers to generate superheated steam. An
automatic one axis tracking system keeps the tube in the focus line during the day
(Fig. 1.1) Parabolic troughs operate at temperatures ranging from 100 to 400'^C. The
fluctuation of the solar incidence power can be compensated by a fossil fuel fired backup
system that consists of a HTF-heater or boiler integrated to the steam cycle. The HTF is
pumped to a heat exchanger/evaporator for steam and power generation. Table 1.2 shows
the list of selected parabolic trough solar electric generating systems. Before 1984, more
than 10 test and demonstration facilities for solar thermal process heat generation system
had been erected. From 1984 to 1990 Luz International Ltd built a series of nine SEGS in
the Califomian Mojave desert, ranging from 14 to 80 MW unit capacities and totalling
354 MW of grid electricity. A number of parabolic trough suppliers are available and
pursuing opportunities to build plants similar to the Luz SEGS plants at California using
existing technology, with various hybridization options including combined cycle
systems. Early costs are expected to be 10-15c/kWh and technological risks are expected
to be low. Because of long term successful operation of SEGS plants. World Bank/GEF
 Solar field

Superheater

Q fneat transferfluid(HTF) ^''^ ^'^ ^^ Generator

Turbme

Cold oil. Solar steam loop

tank
Cooling

Steam generator

Cooling water loop

Fig. 1.1 Schematic now diagram of SEGS-I power plant (Garg and Prakash, 2000)
Table 1.2 Selected solar electric generating systems (SEGS) (Solar Thermal Power
Generation Technology)
Name/Site Power (MW) Operating Mode On The Grid
Coolidge (USA) 0.15 Solar 1980-1982
Sunshine (Japan) 1.00 Solar 1981-1984
lEA-DCS (Spain) 0.50 Solar 1981-1985
Step-100 (Australia) 0.10 Solar 1982-1985
SEGS I (USA) 14.0 Hybrid 1985-Present
SEGS II (USA) 30.0 Hybrid 1986-Present
SEGS III-IV (USA) 30.0 Hybrid 1987-Present
SEGS V (USA) 30.0 Hybrid 1988-Present
SEGSVI-VII (USA) 30.0 Hybrid 1989-Present
SEGS VIII (USA) 80.0 Hybrid 1990-Present
SEGS IX 80.0 Hybrid 1991-Present

10
funding may be available to buy down the cost of early plants in developing countries.
The cost reduction opportunities in this technology are
• Plant size: Increasing the plant size (MWe) lowers the Levelised Cost of Energy
(LCOE) With plant size lOMWe LCOE is 0.204$/kWh where as near term trough
plant with 400MWe LCOE will be 0.076$/kWh
• Concentration design: Luz LS-3 is baseline. Improved performance would be
there with increased torsional stiffness and improved accuracy and alignment.
• Improved receiver technology: Improved reliability, performance and reduced
cost are the objectives. New bellows shields and new receiver tubes are
developed. The suppliers of next generation collectors are Solel LS-3, Euro
Trough concentrator, Solax Genix Concentrator.
• Thermal Energy Storage: Advanced options being developed- concrete, molten-
salt heat transfer fluid (HTF), organic-salt HTF, Thremocline storage tanks.
• New power cycle integration: It gives following options: Integrated with
combined cycle power plant (ISCCS), Direct Steam Generation, Organic Rankine
Cycles (ORC), Dry and hybrid wet/dry cooling.
• Operation and Maintenance cost reduction.
• Design optimization/Standardization.
Taking into account all these point, the current state of the art of parabolic solar power
technology and the R and D efforts that are in progress are reviewed. (Price et al., 2002)
Rabl and others have given optical analysis of parabolic trough solar collectors in the
form of graphs and curve fits. They are useful to calculate the performance and optimize
the design with a simple hand calculator. (Rabl et al., 1982)

In SEGS the heat transfer fluid is circulated through the absorber tubes of
parabolic collector. In Direct Steam Generation (DSG) system, water is circulated
through the absorber tubes of parabolic collector and directly converted into steam, hence
eliminates the use of heat exchanger in the system. Odeh developed a thermal model for
evaluating the performance of a direct steam generation collector.(Odeh et al., 1998)
Thermal losses from collector trough are described in terms of absorber emissivity, wind
speed, absorber wall temperature and radiation level. Since the technical feasibility of
direct generation has been proven using parabolic trough concentrators, for high powers

11
of the order of 2MW and for low powers of the order of 2.24 kW. (Flores, et al., 2004)
During the experience of DSG it has been observed that greatest problem during boiling
process is in the regime of stratified two-phase flow. Thermal gradients in periphery of
the receiver tubes are created hence, the bending of absorber may occur. Hence inventers
have used bimetallic receivers (2/3Cu l/3Fe). Possible operation modes of a DSG
collector field are the once through mode, the recirculation mode and the injection mode.
(Fig. 1.2)
• The once through mode is equivalent to a conventional Benson boiler. The total
amount of feed water fed into the absorber is preheated, evaporated and
superheated.
• A recirculation mode driven collector loop is subdivided into evaporation and
superheating section by the separator. More water is fed at the collector inlet than
can be evaporated within the evaporation section. At the end of the evaporation
section the excess water is separated from the steam flow and recirculated to the
collector inlet.
• An injection mode collector loop is subdivided into different collector units. The
series of connections of all subgroups, each consisting of a collector, an injection
unit, and gauging equipment build the collector loop.

Out of these the recirculation process is the most attractive option for commercial DSG
collector field (Eck et al., 2003) and DSG process is feasible in the horizontal parabolic
trough. Montes has given the influence of the solar multiple on the annual performance of
parabolic solar thermal power plants with direct steam generation (Montes et al., 2009).
The analysis presented in this paper is referred to a 50 MW net DSG power plant with
recirculation operating mode. Two projects to develop pre commercial demonstration
plants based on DSG technology to be implemented in the southern Spain will have
3MW and 5 MW capacities.
1.5.2 Central Receiver System
It consists of a field of heliostats, or sun tracking mirrors, which reflect solar
energy to a tower mounted receiver. The concentrated heat energy absorbed by the
receiver is transferred to a circulating fluid that can be stored and later used to produce

12
 1—) r~) Y-)m) ) r=}T

a) Once Through mode

•^^ s

) ) ) J-^ ) ) -) H r

r"
O
-€lv

b) Recirculation mode

X ^ TT -H^ V \ \

LI .A

<N.

c) Injection mode

Fig. 1.2 Operation modes of a DSG collector a, b, c (Eck et al., 2003)

13
power. These systems can operate at temperature 500 to 1500° C. The status of the power
plants based on central receiver technology is shown in Table 1.3
Tower technologies will likely produce power on grids from large plants, as
trough plants do. However, a new concept o f multitower solar arrays' is being developed
that targets smaller urban capacities on building roofs or ground areas such as parking
lots (Mills, 2004). The technology is based on a unique, optical concentration technology
which allows extremely closely spaced reflectors (> 90% ground area).
1.5.3 Solar Chimney
In a Solar Chimney, three well known physical principles-the flat plate air heater,
the tall chimney and the vertical axis turbine-are combined in a novel way. Incident solar
radiation heats the air in a large collector roof. The difference between the temperature of
the air under the roof and thin ambient air causes a pressure drop over the height of the
chimney. This pressure drop is converted into kinetic energy-the upwind. This kinetic
energy is converted into mechanical energy by a turbine and then into electricity via a
conventional generator. A solar chimney power plant can be designed for a power 30-100
MW. The first experimental plant with 50 kW electrical powers was built in 1981-1982
in Manzanares, Spain. The chimney had a height of 200m, the collector covered 45,000
m^. The plant was connected to utility grid between 1986 and 1989.
Solar updraft towers may have various advantages over CSP technologies: They
use all available solar light and do not need direct sunlight only, which allow them to be
installed in a greater variety of climates, thermal storage is offered by the ground itself
and can be enhanced by simple water filled bed in the collector for base load electricity
production, the technology is simpler. A disadvantage is a much lower efficiency, close
to 1%, thus requiring much larger areas for similar capacities. As such, they may find
their way in tropical areas where insufficient direct sunlight does not allow for effective
CSP technologies.
1.5.4 Dish Stirling System
In a Dish Stirling System, the solar collector (paraboloidal dish reflector) and the
heat-to-electricity conversion system (Stirling engine) are mounted on one single track.
The two axis tracked device can use only direct beam radiation for electricity generation

14
Table 1.3 Status of central receiver systems (Solar Thermal Power Generation
Technology)
Name/Site Power(MW) Receiver Coolant Service Period
Eurelios (Italy) 1.00 Water/Steam 1980-1984
Sunshine(Japan) 1.00 Water/Steam 1981-1984
lEA-CRS (Spain) 0.50 Sodium 1981-1985
Solar one (USA) 10.0 Water/Steam 1982-1988
CESA 1 (Spain) 1.20 Water/Steam 1983-1984
Themis (France) 2.50 Molten Salt 1983-1986
MSEE (USA) 0.75 Molten Salt 1984-1985
SES-5 (USSR) 5.00 Water/Steam 1985-1989
PHOEBUS-TSA(Spain) 2.50 Air 1992-Present '
Solar Two (USA) 10.0 Molten Salt Start in 1995
1997-1999 operation
The heat absorber of the Stirling engine is placed in a focus of the dish reflector. It is
cooled by gaseous hydrogen or helium. Dish Stirling systen^are highly modular, stand
alone units of 10-15kW of power that can be connected to form larger grid connected
electricity plants of more than 1 MW. Kaushica and Reddy (2000) have given review and
innovations in paraboloidal dish concentrator in the last decade. They have developed a
low cost paraboloidal dish steam generating system, which gives solar to steam
conversion efficiency of 70-80% at 450'^C and the collector system cost as ? 8000-
9000/ml
A point focusing parabolic dish concentrator can have concentration ratios
ranging from 100 to a few thousand and can yield maximum temperatures. This
technology is also useful for steam generation. Use of this system is seen at White Cliffs
(Australia) solar power station. It gives 14 dishes each of 19.8m^ aperture area, 5.02m
diameter. The system pressure is 7 MPa and temperature SSO^C. The steam from
collectors array is used to drive a uniflow reciprocating steam engine, which gives 25kW,
and 140kW power output.(Garge and Prakash, 2002) The characteristics of selected dish-
stirling systems have been shown in Table 1.4
1.5.5 Solar Pond
A Solar Pond collects solar energy by absorbing both the direct and diffuse
components of sunlight. Solar pond contains salt in high concentrations near the bottom,
with significantly diminishing concentrations near the surface. This salt-density gradient
is obtained by perfectly dissolving heavy salt with the increasing depth to suppress the
natural tendency for heated fluid to rise to the surface and lose its heat to the atmosphere
by evaporation, convection and radiation. The density gradient permits heated fluid to
remain in the bottom layers of the pond while the surface layers are sufficient to drive the
vapour generator of an organic Rankine-cycle engine, to provide process heat and to
desalt water, temperatures of 90°C commonly attained in the pond bottom. The plants
have been shown in Table 1.5
1.5.6 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Projects In Pipeline
Concentrated solar power technology as a means of large-scale power generation
is gaining momentum throughout the world with several mega projects coming up in
many desert regions of the world. According to a new study by U.S. based Emerging
Table 1.4 Characteristics of selected Dish-Stirling systems (Solar thermal power
generation technology)
Name/Site Power(kW) Working Gas Operation Period

Vanguard (USA) 25 Hydrogen 1984-1985

Mc Donnel (USA) 25 Hydrogen 1984-1988

SBP (Saudi Arabia) 52.5 Hydrogen 1984-1988

SBP (Spain/Germany) 9 Helium 1991-Present

Cummins CPG (USA) 7.5 Helium 1992-Present

Aisin/Miyako (Japan) 8.5 Helium 1992-Present

STM-PCS (USA) 25 Helium 1993-Present

Table 1.5 Selected solar pond power plants (Solar thermal power generation
technology)
Name/Site Power (MW) Pond Area (m^) Operation Period
Ein Boqek (Israel) 150 6250 1979-1986
Beith Ha'Arava (Israel) 5000 250000 1984-1989
Alice Springs (Australia) 15 1600 1985-1989
El Paso (USA) 70/330 3350 1986-Present

17
Energy Research (EER), CSP is the fastest growing utility-scale renewable energy
alternative after wind power, with up to $ 20 billion expected to be invested in CSP over
the next five years. Some major projects being developed and those in the pipeline are
given below. (Green energy, 2008)
1 Solar thermal developer 'Ausra Inc' from California has signed an agreement
with California based Pacific gas & Electric Co. to build a 177MW solar farm in
central California. The solar plant, the first in the world to use Compact Linear
Fresnel Reflector (CLFR) technology, will have an array of mirrors spread over
640 acres. The power plant is set to open 2010.
2 Spanish company 'Abengoa Solar' recently signed a contract with Arizona Public
Company to set up a 280 MW solar power plant, the largest in the world 'if
operating today'. The project using the parabolic trough technology is being built
in Phoenix, Arizona, and would begin operation by 2011. The world's first
commercial concentrating solar power plant PS 10 was also set up by Abengoa
near Seville in Spain.
3 Israel's Solel Solar System has signed an agreement with PG&E to build an even
bigger (553 MW) solar park in the Mojave desert (U.S.) that is scheduled to open
in 2011. This project would also employ the parabolic trough technology.
4 'ACS Cobra' of Spain and 'Solar Millennium' of Germany are jointly promoting
the setting up of two 50 MW solar trough power plants, AndaSol-1 and 2, in the
Andalucian region of Spain.
5 Solar Tres, a 15 MW solar power tower project promoted by the Spanish
company SENER will have a 16-hour molten-salt storage system to deliver power
around the clock.
6 Iberdrola and Hidrocantabrico-Genesa, Spain, have started promotion of over a
dozen 50 MW parabolic trough plants all over the Southern Spain.
7 Florida energy company, FPL Energy will (after certification with the California
Energy Commission) construct, own and operate a 250 MW solar plant based on
parabolic trough technology in Mojave desert to be called Beacon Solar Energy
Project.
 8 U.S. based 'Bright Source Energy', is planning to set up a huge solar tower
project of about 400 MW capacities, called Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating
System (ISEGS) and located in the Mojave Desert in California, it would have
three solar towers, each surrounded by heliostat mirrors. The project is expected
to be completed in late 2012.
1.6 SMALL CAPACITY SOLAR THERMAL POWER GENERATION
The small capacity solar thermal power plant either works on Organic Rankine
Cycle (ORC) or on Stirling Cycle. The attempt was made to use different organic
working fluids like toluene, refrigerants etc. and power developed in the range of 10 kW
to 100 kW. With the development of Stirling engine and use of Helium or Hydrogen as
working fluid, Dish-Stirling system has gained the achievement for off grid utility.
Following are the details of small capacity solar thermal power plant.
L6.1 Barber Nichols Engg. Project
In many small capacity plants toluene is used rather than steam. There are
advantages in the use of toluene, both in the thermodynamic cycle design and in the
design of turbine. The resulting turbine for toluene cycle was larger in diameter, lower in
speed and less complex (fewer stages). This result in higher turbine efficiency and
probably a lower cost, e.g. the Organic Rankine Cycle designed for a U.S. Dept. of
energy's small communities' project by Barber Nichols Engg. is designed to be placed at
the focus of a single parabolic dish concentrator, h is designed to produce 26 kW of shaft
power with a peak operating temperature of 400°C. The single stage axial flow turbine
spins at 60,000 rpm and has a mean turbine diameter of 12.5 cm. (Fig. 1.3) it has a
thermal efficiency of 24% which is 45% of the ideal Carnot efficiency. The working fluid
is toluene. With the development of Stirling engine efficiency was brought up to 37%. By
using Helium or Hydrogen as working fluid, efficiency was 38%. The engine efficiency
increases with increase in maximum operating temperature where as collector efficiency
decreases with increase in operating temperature. The optimum operating temperature is
a stronger function of the design of the concentrator. Therefore low concentration ratio
collectors are normally selected for engines operating at low temperatures (Rankine
cycle) and high concentration ratio collectors for high temperature engines (Stirling cycle

19
 Superheated toluene
vapour
Hydro dynamic radial
bearing

High pressure
liquid toluene
Turbine wheel
out
Gimballed hydrodynainic thrust
bearing
Turbine nozzle mamfold
Alternator rotor
Liquid toluene
Alternator winding
in

Feed pump

Fig. 1.3 Turbine pump assembly (Stine and Harrigan, 1985)

20
or Brayton cycle). In Table 1.6 some characteristics of solar Organic Rankine power
cycle (ORC) are given. (Stine and Harrigan, 1985)
1.6.2 CPG/SAIC Dish Stirling Project
Dish-Stirling systems track the sun and focus solar energy into a cavity receiver where it is
absorbed and transferred to a heat engine/generator. Fig. 1.4 is a representation of a Dish
Stirling system with the major system components, the Dish, the power conversion unit
(PCU), etc. identified. The concentration ratios produced are more than 3000 and
operating at temperatures of 750°C at annual efficiencies of 23% whereas for trough
system and power tower the concentration ratios are 75 and 800 respectively. (Mancini et
al., 2003) Dish systems are well suited for decentralized power production, covering the
range between 10 kW and 10 or even more MW by clustering lots of individual modules.
Thus, both stand alone operation in remote areas and supply for villages or small
communities is possible. Such systems combined either with Stirling engines or turbines,
have been developed mainly in the USA and Germany. Cummins Power Generation and
Science Applications International Corporation (CPG/SAIC) both 50% funded by DOE
have developed 7 kW modules for stand alone and 25 kW module for utility-scale
operation. For the 25 kW system, a hybrid heat pipe receiver and a tubular receiver are
used in two designs: a circular mirror with 12-16 metal segments and a mirror consisting
of 16 single circular facets both with thin glass mirrors respectively. Hydrogen is used as
working fluid. Engine used is STM 4-120 double acting kinematic.
1.6.3 SBP Project
The German engineering company Schlaich Bergermann and Partner (SBP) has
developed a 9 kW dish/Stirling system. Three modules were installed at the Plataforma
Solar de Almeria (PSA)/Spain in 1992. A V-160 Stirling engine, designed originally by
United Stirling of Sweden, now remodeled and relevantly improved by SOLO
Kleinmotoren (Germany), is coupled with a tubular receiver. The Helium is used as
working fluid and engine operates at 1500 rpm. Feasibility study and a small
demonstration project is promoted by a Spanish group in collaboration with Stirling
Energy Systems (SES) consortium using a 25 kW Dish/Stirling unit of McDonnell
Douglas Aerospace Corporation (MDAC) Spain. (Tsoutsos et al., 2003) Thus Dish
Stirling (DS) systems are successfully demonstrating technical feasibility of solar power

21
Table 1.6 Characteristics of selected solar Rankine power cycle (Stine and Harrigan,
1985)
Parameter Coolidge (Arizona) Dish Ore (USA)
i max 268 °C 400 °C
Tcond 40.5 °C 45 °C
Power 240 kW 26kW
Workng Fluid Toluene Toluene
Heat Addition Method Heat Transfer Fluid Receiver Boiling
Cycle Efficiency 24% 24%
Percent Camot 57% 45%
Turbine Inlet State 50 °C of superheat 103 °C of superheat
Regeneration Regenerator Regenerator
Turbine Stages 1 1
Mean Turbine Diameter 58.7 cm 12.5 cm
Speed 9300 rpm 60,000 rpm

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 Re Clever

Declination axis

b^upportiAg base

Fig. 1.4 Dish Stirling system components (Sukhatme and Nayak, 2008)

23
generation. The high levels of system reliability and initial cost of the system are the
major barriers
1.6.4 Enviro Dish Project
Recently Reinalter has given detailed performance analysis of a 10 kW
Dish/Stirling system in his paper. (Reinalter, 2008) This system is one of the five
country reference units of the EnviroDish project. Garcia et al., (2000) have given the
development of a thermal model of system at Sevilla Engineering school (ESI) i.e. of the
Eurodish solar Stirling engine and its comparison with experimental data.
1.6.5 ANU Big Dish Project
In Australia first 400 m^ pilot experimental 'big dish' project with capacity of up
to 150kW under scientific testing at Australian National University (ANU) since 1994
designed for power generation using a SOkWe steam engine generator or for cogeneration
applications by solar steam production which now being commercialized by Wizard
Power Pty Ltd. (Keith et al., 2006)
In case of large capacity plants parabolic troughs and central receivers are used
and a single power cycle is enough to supply the full demand for electricity (or
mechanical work) normally used. In both cases, all the solar produced heat is brought to a
single point where power cycle can be placed. For small capacity plants parabolic dish
collectors are used. The system designer has the choice of either transporting heated fluid
from a field of dishes to a single power cycle or using small engines at the focus of each
collector and transporting electric power to the point of demand. The major advantage of
using small engines is that it is often easier to transport electrical energy than thermal
energy from moving receiver to the ground with less transmission losses. Further, small
engines can be replaced by spares so that a plant comprised of numerous units can deliver
close to a rated power even while engines are being repaired. The system can be easily
expanded by adding modules to accommodate growth. But the major disadvantage is that
many small engines in the 10-100 kW output range must be used; therefore economics
and increased efficiency of large sized units are not applicable. In addition, incorporation
of significant amounts of thermal storage into these modules is generally considered
infeasible. When located at focus, engine must be designed to operate at different
orientations, and there is a problem in the design of lubrication systems. Furthermore,

24
maintenance and adjustment of an engine module located off the ground is more difficult.
Another point is the use of working fluid. It is seen that if toluene is used it works on
Organic Rankine Cycle where as for Hydrogen it works on Stirling cycle.
1.7 INDIAN SCENARIO
In India one Solar Thermal Power Plant of 50kW capacity has been installed by
MNES following the parabolic trough line focussing technology at Gwalpahari, Gurgaon.
This plant was commissioned in April, 1989 and operated till October, 1990, after which
the plant was shut down due to lack of spares. Revival work was undertaken in
September, 1995 and the plant was re-commissioned in February, 1996. Several spares
have been fabricated indigenously and the plant is still under operation. However, due to
damage to some critical parts like reflector mirrors & glass vacuum tubes, the capacity of
this plant has reduced considerably. These critical parts are still not manufactured in the
country and original German supplier of the plant equipment (MAN) has already
shutdown this business six years ago. Efforts are still on to replace or repair damaged
components indigenously. (Solar thermal power generation technology)
In Maharashtra, the village 'Shive' situated some 50km from Pune in the rural
hinterland of Khed Taluka with a population of 1500, is the first one selected by the
union science and technology ministry where a solar thermal power plant is slated to
come up. The villagers of Shive have given three acres of land for the project. The project
would cost ? 14.9 crore, out of which the ministry would give ? 13.01 crore, while
Thermax limited would spend ? 1.78 crore. The power plant would be commissioned in
18 months and would produce 250 kW of electricity. The projects like these would boost
the rural economy. The central government has been actively encouraging every proposal
for electricity to meet the country demands. The central government has envisaged a
spending of ? 1 lakh crore over ten years for projects to generate electricity using solar
energy. (Shive project)
One Solar Thermal Power Plant (20kW) following the Dish-technology and
owned by Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources has been built by BHEL in
India under the supervision of U.S. Agencies and MNES. Six dishes used in this plant
have been designed for centralized generation of power. It is understood that BHEL has
gained very useful knowledge in setting up of this plant and in their opinion; the system

25
followed in this plant cannot be considered for centralized generation of power. The plant
is not in operating condition and is likely to be disposed off A look at this plant would
reveal that there are too many practical problems in this dish technology for effecting
generation of power in a centralized manner.
A Solar Thermal Power Plant of 140MW has been proposed and sanctioned by
the Government in Rajasthan. The project configuration of 140MW Integrated Solar
Combined Cycle Power Plant involves a 35MW solar power generating system and a
105MW conventional power component. The global environment facility (GEF) has
approved a grant of US$ 40 million for the project. The Government of Germany has
agreed to provide a soft loan of DM 116.8 million and a commercial loan of DM 133.2
million for the project. Another Solar Energy based commercial power plant based on
Solar Chimney technology is being planned in North-Westem part of Rajasthan. The
project is to be implemented in five stages. In the 1st stage the power output shall be
I.75MW which shall be enhanced to 35MW, 70MW, 126.3MW and 200MW in
subsequent stages. The height of the solar chimney which would initially be 300m shall
be increased gradually to 1000m. Cost of electricity through this plant is expected to be
? 2.25/ kWh. (Solar thermal power technology)
As a part of solar mission India's NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam has signed MoUs
with 16 project developers to set up to 84 MW capacity solar power projects out of which
30 MW is through solar thermal technology. Dalmia Solar Power has proposed 10 MW
project, the salient features of which are as follows: (TERI Report 2009)

Project promoter
Project location
Proposed technology
Design Consultant
Plant capacity
Dish sterling system
Annua! average DNI
Annual effective DNI
M/s Shri Rangam Brokers and Holdings Private limited,
New Delhi
Village Bap, Tahsil Phuodi, Jodhpur District, Rajasthan
Solar-Dish-Stirling
Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi
10 MW
3340 Dish Stirling engine systems each of 3kW capacity
2240 kWh/m^
2202 kWh/m^

26
Annual output (expected) 22.2 MU
Land area required 28.33 hectors
Project implementation
period 26 months from date of approval
Estimated project cost ? 230 crore
1.8 SCOPE OF THE PROPOSED WORK
In India, farmers require electricity for pumping water, to power agro mechanical
cleaner harvester through machines, chaffers and many other activities. So, in order to
generate electricity in a small modular form will be useful for a small farm. Steam
required for running the turbine can be generated using solar energy which is available in
abundance. Steam turbine would be coupled to a generator and produce electricity.
Further the exhaust steam can be condensed or it is utilized for process heating. If such
system is made cost effective it would be one of the solutions for electrifying remotely
located small villages where there is no electrical supply at all.
1.8.1 Methodology
In this proposed work on design and development of a small capacity solar steam
power plant, the methodology adopted is given as under.

1. Design of parabolic solar concentrator to meet the demand of steam for steam
turbine.
2. Development of a small capacity power conversion unit, consisting of steam
turbine coupled to an ac generator. Following parameters have been taken into
account in the design:
i) The power output of the turbine,
ii) Speed,
iii) Steam pressure and temperature at inlet and outlet of the turbine,
iv) Rated rpm of the generator.
3. Testing of the unit manufactured in the laboratory and at the field.
i) The steam from existing boiler is used for conducting the test in the
college laboratory,
ii) Similar to proposed solar conventional steam generation system, the
existing solar system is used for conducting the field test.

27
 iii) Combining the experiences of (i) and (ii) to project a small capacity solar
power plant to work in remote areas.
1.9 THESIS LAYOUT
The Chapter 1 emphasizes the importance of Sun and solar energy, the national
solar mission, R and D activities in India. A review of literature of solar thermal power
technologies is made at length. Also the review for small capacity solar thermal power
generation is followed by the work in this regard in India. Further, the scope of project
and methodology is described.
The design of experimental setup is discussed in the chapter 2. This project has
two broad components a solar system and a turbine generator set, the design of which is
given in the section 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
Turbine testing and performance evaluation in the laboratory and at the field is
discussed in the Chapter 3. The results and discussions are given in the chapter 4 at
length.
The economic evaluation for solar thermal power plant is introduced in the
Chapter 5. The methodology for calculating levelised energy cost (LEC) for different
solar systems is given in the same chapter. The overall conclusions assessment of work
done and suggestions for future work are given in the Chapter 6.

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