FEASIBILITY OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY SAVING AT

HUB POWER STATION

B.E. (EE) PROJECT REPORT

Batch 2004-05

Prepared By:
SYED FAISAL ALI (EE- 03)
FAHAD IFTIKHAR (EE- 06)
ANWAR ALI (EE- 07)
ASIF JEHANZEB (EE- 307)

Project Advisors:
MR. NOMAN AHMED
ASST.PROF. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
N.E.D UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
MR. ZAFAR FARIDI
SENIOR MANAGER ELECTRICAL INTERNATIONAL POWER GLOBAL
DEVELOPMENT LIMITED
This page is left intentionally
 ABSTRACT

Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be achieved
through efficient energy use, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy conservation
reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita, and thus offsets the growth in
energy supply needed to keep up with population growth. This reduces the rise in energy costs,
and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports.

This particular project is to save electrical energy consumed by different auxiliaries at HUB Power
Station for Process Improvement and Cost Reduction of one of the largest IPP in Pakistan, with all
the feasible and implement able considerations. So this in particular is not an old fashioned
theoretical report. We as a team have put our utmost efforts to be as practical as we can, with all
the latest and implement able methods of energy conservation at HUBCO. We have around five to
six techniques of energy conservation in which VFD will be the prominent one in this report. They
are discussed in details in the further chapters.

Need for Energy conservation in Pakistan:

Energy conservation may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national
security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that are direct
consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and promote
economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus
maximize profit. Thus for developing country like Pakistan energy conservation is very important
and now government is also taking initiatives to promote energy conservations.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Our team has achieved this worthy project through the courtesy of International Power Global
Development Limited (IPGDL) with reference to our External Advisor Mr. Zafar Faridi, Senior
Manager (Electrical) and Mr. Jalil Anwar, General Manager Development at IPGDL. Also very
thankful to Dr. Talat Altaf (DEAN), Prof. Aktar Nadyme (Chairman), Mr. Iqbal Qureshi (C.A) and
Mr. Nouman Ahmed (Internal Advisor) for their support at NEDUET.

The details related to the project were expertly conveyed by, our External Mr. Zafar Faridi and his
colleagues specially Mr. Sohail, Mr. Iqbal, Mr. Irfan and Mr. Asim. This was undoubtedly the most
fruitful experience as we were guided in the right path by our Instructors .
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The topic of our study chosen was ‘FEASIBILITY OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY SAVING AT HUB
POWER STATION’; we acquire this project from International Power Global Development Limited,
we would like to thank IPGDL for giving us an opportunity to work with them, being relatively
inexperienced at practical work, IPGDL provided us a gateway to practical work for which we are
really grateful to them. It was an enthralling experience working on such an interesting topic. Not
much study had previously been done on this topic so it was something new for all concerned
(specially internal). Our project team consisted of four people, the respective names being
mentioned on the title page.

The project consists of four parts. In the first part we started by going through the introduction of
Energy, Thermal Power Plants, Hub Power plant. In second part we focus on the areas of saving
electrical energy at HUB power Plant. In this part we gave suggestions that how we can minimize
auxiliary power consumption at HUB power Plant. Deep study was done on topics of VFD and
Centrifugal Pumps as a good understanding of this was essential for a successful work.

After that we discuss renewable energy resources that are available at HUB power Plant that can
be used to run auxiliaries in order to save fuel. Wind Energy is easily available at HUB power Plant
can be used to share load of auxiliaries on plant.

In the last chapter we discussed the economics, payback time, feasibility and implementation of
the suggestions that we give in previous chapters.

Our project team worked well throughout, we were organized in our approach and our team was
divided in to groups, which focus on their respective topics, this allowed us to complete this project
within time. This procedure though required lot of discussions which were readily done.
The details of these topics are covered in the report to follow. We hope that whatever work we
have done would get accepted and hopefully it would encourage others to study this important
topic and take it further.
 CONTENTS

PART ONE 01
Introduction

Chapter 1 – Energy 02
1.1 Primary and Secondary energy 03
1.2 Conventional and Non-Conventional energy 03
1.3 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy 03
1.4 Energy and Environment 03
1.5 Energy Security 04
1.6 Energy Conservation and its Importance 05

Chapter 2 - Thermal power plant 07

2.1 Major components of thermal power plant 07
2.2 Reduction in Auxiliaries power consumption in Thermal Power Stations
(Researched by National Productivity Council (NPC), India) 10
2.2.1 Draft System 11
2.2.2 Feed Water system 12
2.2.3 Circulating Water System 12
2.2.4 Air Conditioning System 13
2.2.5 Lighting System 13
2.3 Conclusion 14

Chapter 3 - International Power and HUB Power Plant 15

3.1 International Power 15
3.2 Hub Power Station 15
3.2.1 Plant Location 15
3.2.2 Overall area of site 16
3.2.3 Key Features 16
3.2.4 Major Components 16
3.2.5 Brief outline of the plant 16
3.2.6 Turbine Characteristics 16
3.2.7 Boiler Characteristics 17
3.2.8 Turbo Generator characteristics 17
3.2.9 Technical Description of Power generation cycle. 18
3.2.10 T-S Diagram of Rankine Cycle (HUB Power Station) 19
3.2.11 Plant Performance 19
3.3 HUB Power Plant Efficiency 20
3.3.1 Calculation of the efficiency 20
3.3.2 Where are the losses…….? 21
3.3.3 Works Power 23
 3.4 Electrical Energy Consumed at HUB Power Station 24
3.4.1 Auxiliary Power Consumption at HUB Power Station 25

________________________________________________________________
PART TWO
Areas of Saving Energy at HUB Power Station 26

Chapter 4 – Energy Saving in Auxiliaries 27

4.1 Circulating Water Pumps 27
4.2 Feedbacks that will control VFD 27
4.2.1Minimum water requirment to maintain the vacuum
in the condensor 28
4.2.2. Inlet and Outlet temerature Difference 28
4.3 Power saving on CW Pump by the installation of VFD 31
4.3.1 Recovery Time 33
4.4 Boiler Feed Water Pumps 35
4.4.1 Energy Saving In Boiler Feed Pumps. 35
4.4.2 Problems in installation of VFD on Boiler Feed Pump 35
4.5 Forced Draft fan 37
4.5.1 Forced Draft Fan at HUB Power Station 38
4.5.2 Installation of Energy Efficient motors 40

Chapter 5 - Others 42
5.1 Lighting Load 42
5.2 CRT and LCD monitors 46
5.3 Solar geysers 48

________________________________________________________________
PART THREE
Renewable Energy Resources 50

Chapter 6- Wind Energy 51

6.1 Energy and Power in Wind 51
6.2 Wind turbines 52
6.3 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines 52
6.4 Wind turbine generators 53
6.5 Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbine 53
6.6 Generating Alternating Current (AC) at Variable Frequency 53
6.7 Rectification 53
6.8 Conversion to fixed frequency AC 54
6.9 Wind energy at HUB Power Station 54
6.10 Average speed at site 54
6.11 Feasibility and implementation of Wind Turbine at HUB premises 55
6.12 Working Principles 56
6.13 Features 56
 6.14 Power Curve 57
6.15 Connection Diagram 57
6.16 Energy output and savings 58
6.17 Cost and Economics 58
6.18 Environmental Effects 59

Chapter 7- Hydro-Electric Power 60

7.1 Converting Moving water to Electricity 60
7.2 Water wheel 60
7.3 Types of water Wheels 60
7.3.1 Undershot water wheel 60
7.3.2 Overshot water wheel 61
7.3.3 Breast shot water wheel 61
7.4 Small scale Hydro power 61
7.5 Stored Potential energy 62
7.6 Calculation of Hydro power 62
7.7 Hydroelectric Power at HUB Power Station 63
7.8 Suitable Dimensions Of water wheel 63
7.9 Power Output of water wheel 64
7.10 Energy output and savings 65
7.11 Cost and Economics 65

________________________________________________________________
PART FOUR
Commercial Feasibility of the project 66

Chapter 8 – Synopsis 67

APPENDIXES 72
A – VFD (Variable Frequency Drives) 73

B – Centrifugal Pumps 83

C – Affinity Law and Pump Energy Saving Methods 87

Bibliography 99

Technical Documents
PART ONE_______________________________________

Introduction

Chapter 1 Energy

Chapter 2 Thermal Power Plant

Chapter 3 International Power and

HUB Power Station
Chapter 1
Energy
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of the
developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever
increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
• Primary and Secondary energy
• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary
energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy
sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in
earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and secondary
energy sources are shown in Figure.

Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources;
for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used
directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used
as a feedstock in fertilizer plants

1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial
energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined
petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels
are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of
general population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle
dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is
often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for
irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.

1.3 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of
renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power. The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed
without the release of harmful pollutants.
Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil, nuclear and gas, which are
likely to deplete with time.

1.4 Energy and Environment

The usage of energy resources in industry leads to environmental damages by polluting the
atmosphere. Few of examples of air pollution are sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxide (NOX),
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from boilers and furnaces, chloro-fluro
carbons (CFC) emissions from refrigerants use, etc. Typical inputs, outputs, and emissions for a
typical industrial process are shown in Figure.

Air Pollution
A variety of air pollutants
have known or suspected
harmful effects on human
health and the
environment. These air
pollutants are basically
the products of
combustion from fossil
fuel use. Air pollutants
from these sources may not only create problems near to these sources but also can cause
problems far away. Air pollutants can travel long distances, chemically react in the atmosphere to
produce secondary pollutants such as acid rain or ozone.

1.5 Energy Security

The basic aim of energy security for a nation is to reduce its dependency on the imported energy
sources for its economic growth.
Increasing dependence on oil imports means reliance on imports from the Middle East, a region
susceptible to disturbances and consequent disruptions of oil supplies. This calls for diversification
of sources of oil imports. The need to deal with oil price fluctuations also necessitates measures to
be taken to reduce the oil dependence of the economy, possibly through fiscal measures to reduce
demand, and by developing alternatives to oil, such as natural gas and renewable energy.
Some of the strategies that can be used to meet future challenges to their energy security are
• Building stockpiles
• Diversification of energy supply sources
• Increased capacity of fuel switching
• Demand restraint,
• Development of renewable energy sources.
• Energy efficiency
• Sustainable development
Although all these options are feasible, their implementation will take time. Also, for countries like
Pakistan, reliance on stockpiles would tend to be slow because of resource constraints. Besides,
the market is not sophisticated enough or the monitoring agencies experienced enough to predict
the supply situation in time to take necessary action. Insufficient storage capacity is another cause
for worry and needs to be augmented, if Pakistan has to increase its energy stock pile.
However, out of all these options, the simplest and the most easily attainable is reducing demand
through persistent energy conservation efforts.

1.6 Energy Conservation and its Importance

Coal and other fossil fuels, which have taken three million years to form, are likely to deplete soon.
In the last two hundred years, we have consumed 60% of all resources. For sustainable
development, we need to adopt energy efficiency measures. Today, 85% of primary energy comes
from nonrenewable, and fossil sources (coal, oil, etc.). These reserves are continually diminishing
with increasing consumption and will not exist for future generations.

What is Energy Conservation?

Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency are separate, but related concepts. Energy
conservation is achieved when growth of energy consumption is reduced, measured in physical
terms. Energy Conservation can, therefore, be the result of several progress. On the other hand
Energy efficiency is achieved when energy intensity in a specific product, process or area of
production or consumption is reduced without affecting output, consumption or comfort levels.
Promotion of energy efficiency will contribute to energy conservation and is therefore an integral
part of energy conservation promotional policies.
Energy efficiency is often viewed as a resource option like coal, oil or natural gas. It provides
additional economic value by preserving the resource base and reducing pollution. For example,
replacing traditional light bulbs with
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)
means you will use only 1/4th of the
energy to light a room. Pollution levels
also reduce by the same amount (refer
Figure).
Nature sets some basic limits on how
efficiently energy can be used, but in most
cases our products and manufacturing
processes are still a long way from
operating at this theoretical limit. Very
simply, energy efficiency means using less
energy to perform the same function.
Although, energy efficiency has been in practice ever since the first oil crisis in 1973, it has today
assumed even more importance because of being the most cost-effective and reliable means of
mitigating the global climatic change. Recognition of that potential has led to high expectations for
the control of future CO2 emissions through even more energy efficiency improvements than have
occurred in the past. The industrial sector accounts for some 41 percent of global primary energy
demand and approximately the same share of CO2 emissions. The benefits of Energy
conservation for various players are given in Figure.
Chapter 2
Thermal Power Plant
A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is
heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it
passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser. The greatest variation in the
design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term
energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.
The electric efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as saleable energy
produced at the plant busbars compared with the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically
33 to 48% efficient, limited as all heat engines are by the laws of thermodynamics.

2.1 Major components of the Thermal Power Plant

Boiler:
Most boilers heat water until it boils, and then the steam is used at saturation temperature (i.e.,
saturated steam) for use in various processes or heating applications.
Superheated steam boilers boil the water and then further heat the steam in a superheater. This
provides steam at much higher temperature, and may decrease the overall thermal efficiency of
the steam plant due to the fact that the higher steam temperature requires a higher flue gas
exhaust temperature. However, there are advantages to superheated steam. For example, useful
heat can be extracted from the steam without causing condensation, which could damage piping
and turbine blades. It is important to note that while the temperature of the steam in the
superheater is raised, the pressure of the steam is not: the turbine or moving pistons offer a
"continuously expanding space" and the pressure remains the same as that of the boiler. The
process of superheating steam is most importantly designed to remove all droplets entrained in the
steam to prevent damage to the turbine blading and/or associated piping.

Steam drums:
Steam drums are a regular feature of water tube boilers. It is a reservoir of water/steam at the top
end of the water tubes in the water-tube boiler. They store the steam generated in the water tubes
and act as a phase separator for the steam/water mixture. The difference in densities between hot
and cold water helps in the accumulation of the "hotter"-water/and saturated-steam into the steam-
drum.

Air preheater:
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases the
thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas.
As a consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stack. It also allows control
over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions regulations, for example).

Economizer:
In boilers, economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to but not
normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so named because they can make
use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a boiler, thereby
recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device fitted to a
boiler which saves energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the cold water
used to fill it (the feed water).

Steam turbine:
It is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into
useful mechanical work. It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine,
primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. Also, because
the turbine generates rotary motion, rather than requiring a linkage mechanism to convert
reciprocating to rotary motion, it is particularly suited for use driving an electrical generator. The
steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic
efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, rather than a single stage.

Condenser:
Surface condenser is the commonly used term for a water cooled shell and tube heat exchanger
installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. the primary
purpose of a surface condenser is to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain
maximum efficiency and also to convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water (referred to as
steam condensate) so that it may be reused in the steam generator or boiler as boiler feed water.

Ion exchangers :
Ion exchangers or Demineralizer are used for water softening, water purification, water
decontamination, etc.

Feedwater heater:
A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to a steam
generating boiler. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam
generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant
operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is
introduced (back) into the steam cycle.

Feed Pump:
A boiler feedwater pump is a specific type of pump used to pump feedwater into a steam boiler.
The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate produced as a result of the
condensation of the steam produced by the boiler. These pumps are normally high pressure units
that use suction from a condensate return system and can be of the centrifugal pump type or
positive displacement type.

Cooling towers:
They are heat rejection devices used to transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere. The
towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures. With respect to
drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers Natural draft, Induced draft
and Forced draft. Categorization by air-to-water flow are Cross flow (air flow is perpendicular to air
flow) and Counter flow (air flow is opposite of the water flow).

Deaerator:
It is a device for air removal and is used to remove dissolved gases (an alternate would be the use
of water treatment chemicals) from boiler feedwater to make it non-corrosive. A deaerator typically
includes a vertical domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel
which serves as the deaerated boiler feedwater tank.

Superheater:
A superheater is a device in a steam engine that heats the steam generated by the boiler again,
increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will condense inside the engine.
Superheaters increase the efficiency of the steam engine, and were widely adopted. Steam which
has been superheated is logically known as superheated steam; non-superheated steam is called
saturated steam or wet steam.

Control valves:
Control valves are valves used to control operating conditions such as pressure, flow etc by fully or
partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that compare a
"setpoint" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor changes in such
conditions

Precipitator:
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate collection device that
removes particles from a flowing gas (such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic
charge.

Oil system:
An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It
supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the
governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other
mechanisms.
WORKING
The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature
required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. The generator includes the
economizer, the steam drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and the furnace with its steam
generating tubes and the superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points
to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD)
fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan and the flue gas stack.

2.2 Reduction in Auxiliaries power consumption in Thermal

Power Stations.
(Researched by National Productivity Council (NPC), India)
The auxiliary power consumption (APC) varies from 6-14% (depending on the size of the plant),
use of Turbine Driven Boiler Feed Water Pumps (TDBFP) and age of the plant etc. The 500 MW
units register the least APC, largely due to the incorporation of TDBFP. In some of the old 110 MW
plants APC consumption of 14% is also observed. Energy audit in a vast thermal power station
(TPS) is better tackled when the thermal power plant operations are segregated into different sub-
areas like: main plant auxiliaries, draft system (consisting of ID/FD/PA fans), feed water system
[consisting of Boiler Fed Pumps (BFPs)/ Condensate Extraction Pumps (CEPs), Circulating Water
(CW) system-including Cooling Tower (CTs)], and off sites (consisting of coal handling plants, ash
handling plants, air compressors, AC plants, station lightings etc.).
As may be clear from figure 1, BFPs constitute 33%, the single largest contributor to the APC
(excepting in the case of 500 MW units where TDBFPs are used) followed by induced air (ID) fans,
primary air (PA) fans and CW pumps. All of these are generally HT drives.

Graphical Representation of APC of 210MW Plant.

BFP's
CEP's
5% 9%
CW pump 4%
ID 16% 7%
FD 2%
2%
PA
2%
CT farm 2%

coal mills 8% 1%
comp 7%
A/c 3%
CHP
AHP
32%
light
Others
2.2.1 Draft System
Interestingly, ample scope for conservation in the draft system exists. NPC’s experience suggests
scope for improvement, potentially for at least 15-20% energy savings. The audit of the Draft fans
would involve measurement of duty parameters like air flow, head developed and motor input
power drawl.
The analysis, based on comparison of as-run combined (motor and fan) efficiency and specific
energy consumption (SEC) with corresponding rated values, would indicate the margins available
for improvement in performance.
Power plant O&M personnel are certain to be familiar with the phenomena of sizeable power
reduction in fans systems immediately after an overhaul of the fans and it’s associated ducting
system. It is therefore vital to periodically assess percentage of O2 levels at different locations in
the flue gas path, which reflect the extent of stray air ingress through the air pre-heater and ESP
system. Simple corrective measures to arrest and identify stray air in leaks bring about huge
energy savings. Very often, these fans are required to operate below their rated discharged
capacity and head, which impose by default an intrinsic inefficiency in these equipments.
2.2.2 Feed Water System
The feed water circuit in a thermal power plant consists of the following key equipments which
make significant impact to auxiliary power consumption and heat rate:
• Condensate extraction pumps (CEPs),
• LP heaters,
• Deaerator,
• Boiler feed water pumps (BFPs),
• HP heaters and
• Economizers.
A detailed energy audit and analysis of energy performance parameters of LP and HP heaters and
Deaerator often brings out scope for heat rate reduction (extraction steam use reduction) in power
plants. As we are now dealing with auxiliary power consumption, this paper restricts its discussion
to CEPs and BFPs.
The specific power energy consumption of BFPs ranges between 8-9 kWh/M3 feed water and
CEPs ranges between 0.8–1.0 kWh/M3 of condensate. Due to their criticality, the BFPs always
operate with a standby, hence, it is easy to perform overhaul of the spare BFPs without disturbing
the main stream activity and thus ensures that the BFPs are always at peak efficiency and
performance.
It would be worthwhile to remember that even a 1% power reduction in BFPs could mean a huge
savings in terms of energy [around 60-70 million units (MU) annually in a 500 MW unit].
Some of the best practices and energy conservation scope areas in BFPs and CEPs are:
• Replacement of inefficient BFPs as a part of renovation and modernization in some of the
old plants.
• Clipping of one stage from the multi stage BFPs to balance the pressure drop
requirements between HP heaters, economizer and boiler drum etc.
• Use of higher pressure in the Deaerator to commensurately reduce BFP power
consumption (reduced head developed)
• Running of two CEPs instead of 3 CEPs (3 CEPs are run to avoid tripping due to lower
frequency in some of the power plants)
• Application of variable speed drivers

2.2.3 Circulating Water (CW) System:

By conducting an energy audit of CW system, the performance of CW pumps can be evaluated.
The measurements of water flow by online flow meters wherever feasible or by ultrasonic flow
meters and simultaneous head and motor input power measurements need to be made at site.
The specific energy consumption, along with combined (motor and pump) efficiency of the pumps
gives clues about the margins and scope for improvement.
The specific energy consumption figures typically vary from 0.06 – 0.1kWh/M3 CW water. The
variation in specific energy consumption largely depends on factors like:
• the fore bay level
• bowl condition
• profile condition of impeller and casing
• availability of suction lift
• throttling
The design efficiency levels of most of the vertical centrifugal CW pumps would be in the range of
85-89%. Inter-se comparison of the battery of pumps in the CW pump house is strongly
recommended, mainly because it would be profitable and energy efficient to work with more
efficient pumps for longer periods than with inefficient ones. In the intervening period the inefficient
pumps could be examined closely and necessary corrective measures could be incorporated. It is
possible to achieve substantial energy saving by judiciously switching off one or more of the
pumps, based on favorable condenser vacuum and favorable weather conditions.
Optimized cleaning schedules for condenser tube help overall performance of the station,
particularly in CW water flow optimization (reduction in CW pumping energy consumption).
Depending on the needed quantum of cooling water flow, the weather condition, condenser
cleanliness and as fore bay level variation, it is possible to reduce CW pump energy consumption
by incorporating two speed motors. By refurbishing the casing and impellers and alternatively
going in for application of special coatings to improve the impeller and the casing profile condition,
it is possible to increase the efficiency of the CW pumps by 3-4%, thus lowering SEC and realizing
energy savings.

2.2.4 Air Conditioning System

It is normal practice to provide unit control rooms (UCBs) in thermal power plants with centralized
air conditioning. A typical UCB of a 200 MW unit has a connected load of 150 TR. The normal
operating electrical load is around 150kWh (including chilled water pumps, condenser water
pumps and cooling tower fans). The AC system contribution in APC would be around 0.5-1%. The
ideal way to evaluate the performance of AC system is by measuring specific power consumption
in terms of kWh/TR. Typical kWh/TR values for centralized reciprocating machines ranges
between 1.0-1.1kWh/TR.

2.2.5 Lightning System

The station lightning system consists of main plant lighting, off sites lighting and service buildings
lighting. A typical connected load of lightning system in a super thermal power project of 2000 MW
would be around 2 MW, but the operating load including day and night time would be around 1.2
MW. Though the lighting loads are wide spread, the contribution of lighting consumption in APC is
merely around 0.8-1 %. Despite the low consumption by lighting system (<1%), there exists a good
scope for reducing energy consumption to the tune of 20-30%, by adopting energy efficient
practices. A recent energy audit study of station lighting system at a thermal power plant yielded
savings of 27%.
Some of the best practices for conserving energy in lighting are:
• Reducing single phase voltage to 220-230 V by transformer tap setting (in most of the
generating stations the single phase voltage has been observed to be in the range of 250-
260V)
• Use of electronic ballasts
• Incorporation of CFL’s
• Incorporation of lighting energy savers
• Use of metal halide lamps by replacing HPSV lamps
• Incorporation of timers
• Incorporation of photo sensors etc.

2.3 Conclusion
It is evident that thermal power stations offer tremendous scope for reducing auxiliary power
consumption. In fact the auxiliary power consumption of 200 MW units is close to the connected
load of a large cement plant. Detailed energy audit and analysis can help in identifying a number of
energy conservation options. NPC has brought out energy audit procedures for all these systems
and identified some of the best practices that are applicable in thermal power stations.
It is immaterial whether energy audit is mandatory or not. Ample scope exists for energy
conservation and one needs to continuously identify ways and means to conserve energy and
retain one’s competitive edge in this fiercely competitive industry.
Chapter 3
International Power and HUB Power Plant

3.1 International Power

International Power is a leading independent power producer that generates enough electricity to
light millions of homes around the world. They have the resources and skills to play an active role
in all phases of the power generation chain, including development, construction, operation and
trading & marketing.
At present they have 10,235 MW (net) in operation, 910 MW (net) under construction and
approximately 6,000 MW (net) in advanced development. Among the countries where they have
operating facilities are Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic,
Portugal, Turkey, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Thailand.
International Power is the largest single shareholder of Hubco and also the O&M Contractor.
Under the terms of O&M agreement International Power will act as a Operator of the Plant for an
initial term of 12 years from the Commercial Operations Date.

Company’s Motto
Safety comes first.
As per this motto company this highest priority to Health, Safety And Environment.
Last year the high standard of health and safety performance at the power station has been
recognized by the presentation of the highest level award from the Royal Society for Prevention
of Accident (RoSPA). this reflects credit on employees of the Company and the Operator.
The strong commitment to HSE management system was successfully accredited against the
new ISO 14001:2004 standard.

3.2 HUB POWER STATION

HUB POWER STATION is oil fired 1292 MW thermal power plant to meet the growing power
demands of the country. The power station owned by HUBCO operated and maintenance by
international power was completed in 1996. It feed national grid system at jamshoro through
wapda’s 180km long and 500KV transmission lines.

3.2.1PLANT LOCATION
Hub Power Plant located at coast of Arabian sea at the southern tip of the province of Baluchistan,
just north of mouth of Hub River, approximately 40 kilometers northwest of the city of Karachi.
3.2.2 OVERALL AREA OF SITE
The plant is spread over an area of 50 acre, where as the overall area of the site is 1495 acre.

3.2.3 KEY FEATURES

• HUBCO feeds power to WAPDA National grid through two 500kV circuits 180 KM long
parallel transmission line to Jamshoro. In May 2006 line 1 has been re-routed through
newly constructed NTDC/KESC Interconnection at 26 KM from Hub Power Station.
• Residual fuel oil is pumped from Pipri to hub site through 78 KM long 14” (inch) diameter
pipeline.
• Plant projected life is approximately 30 years

3.2.4 MAJOR COMPONENTS

• BOILER & AUXILIARIES supplied by IHI of Japan
• TURBINE & AUXILIARIES by Ansaldo of Italy
• GENERATOR & AUXILIARIES by Ansaldo of Italy
• GIS System & AUXILIARIES by ABB of Switzerland

3.2.5 BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE PLANT

• Type of station Thermal
• No of Power Generating Units 4
• Gross output of each Unit (MW) 323
• Generation Voltage (KV) 21.5
• Terminal Voltage (KV) 500
• Auxiliary power consumption /unit (MW) 23
• Net output of Station (MW) 1200
• Design heat rate at full output (kJ / kWh) 7898.4
• Design heat rate at full load (kJ /kWh) 7908.4
• Fuel RFO

3.2.6 TURBINE CHARACTERSTICS

• Type TC2F
• Steam Pressure 169 bar
• Steam Temperature 538 °C
• Critical Speed (rpm) 1300, 1800, 2200
• LP Rotor 49 tons
• LP Casing 150 tons
• HP/ IP Rotor 20 tons
3.2.7 BOILER CHARACTERSTICS
• Manufacturer IHI (Foster wheeler design)
• Type Single drum, natural circulation, pressurized
furnace units, outdoor installation.
• Boiler efficiency 94.25%
• Evaporation 1030 tons/hr
• Super heater outlet pressure 175 bar
• Super heater outlet temperature 541°C
• Combustion chamber volume 2950m3
• Area of primary super heater 340m2
• Area of secondary super heater 6930m2
• Area of final super heater 640m2
• Number of tubes 1713
• Steam drum inside diameter 1.675m
• Drum length 16.0m
• Steel for each boiler 11800 tons
• Height of the Structure 47m

3.2.8 TURBO GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS

• Manufacturer Ansaldo (GE design)
• MCR Output 323 MW each unit
• Rated Power 380 MVA
• Rated Frequency 50 Hz
• Rated Power Factor 0.85
• Terminal Voltage 21.5 KV
• Rated Speed 3000 rpm
• Rated Voltage 500 KV
• Type of Cooling Hydrogen cool
• Total Weight 385 tons
• No of phase 3
• Noise level 88 db
• Generator Rotor 46 tons
• Generator Stator 183 tons
3.2.9 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF POWER GENERATION CYCLE (STEAM)
The power plant works on the principle of Rankine -Reheat-Regenerative Cycle. Water used here
is 99.9% pure, demineralized and desalinated. The basic principle is making steam from water and
raising it to high temperatures and then expanding it in turbine that moves the generator to
produce electricity.
 3.2.10 T-S DIAGRAM OF RANKINE CYCLE (HUB POWER STATIION)

3.2.11 PLANT PERFORMANCE

Performance 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2001-01 2001-02 2002-03

Thermal Efficiency Avg % 38.08 37.97 37.80 37.79 37.49 37.65

Electrical Energy Sent Out GWh 6294.00 5634.00 5813.00 7063.00 4305.00 3660.00

Running Capability Availability % 81.20 83.20 85.30 96.90 99.40 95.40

Avg Availability % 72.75 74.16 78.67 85.16 88.48 83.64

Avg Yearly Load Factor % 59.88 53.60 55.29 67.19 40.96 25.90

Planned Maint. Outage Factor% 10.98 11.07 8.16 12.48 11.25 12.33

Froced Outage Factor % 16.28 14.75 13.17 2.36 0.56 3.99

Avg Fuel Consumption Kg/Kwh 0.231 0.233 0.234 0.234 0.236 0.235

Regular Staff per MW 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.24

Local/Expetriate Ratio 8.00 9.50 13.40 17.20 32.30 44.57

Safety Major Events 0 0 2* 0 0 0

3.3 HUB POWER PLANT EFFICIENCY
The basis of steam power plant thermal efficiency is the rankine steam cycle upon which it works.
If heat is added to water to produce superheated steam, the steam has been given the ability to do
work. It could be applied to the piston of the steam engine or it could issue at high velocity through
a nozzle and drive a turbine wheel. How much work it could do? At first sight it would appear that
the amount of work it was capable of doing would depend on only one thing, the amount of heat
added. But this would only be true if the steam process of doing work actually returned to its
original form of water. Unfortunately after all the work has been obtained from steam, it still
remains in the form of steam and has to be condensed to return it to its original state of water. In
other words, the heat must be rejected to return to the starting point of the cycle. The amount of
heat which can be converted into work is the difference between the amount of heat added and the
amount rejected. The output is the work done and the input is the heat added, and as the work
done is the difference between the heat added and the heat rejected, the thermal efficiency can be
expressed as follows.

Thermal efficiency = work done / heat added

Thermal efficiency = (heat added – heat rejected) / heat added

It is easy to see that high efficiency will be achieved if the heat added is a large quantity in relation
to the heat rejected. The overall effect of this cycle of energy conversion process is that on the
output of electrical energy is produced from input fuel neglecting for the time being the cost of
producing boiler feed water.

As the electrical units of output are convertible to heat equivalent of input, i.e.1 watt = 1 joule /
second, the efficiency can be readily worked out if following information is known.

1. Electrical Energy produced as output (KWh).

2. Weight of fuel burnt (tones).
3. Calorific value of fuel (KJ/KG).

3.3.1 CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY

At HUB Power Station considering a 323MW unit generating 300MW (subtracting works power) for
an hour is supplied with 65 tones of fuel having calorific value of 10200 KCal / Kg. The overall
efficiency can be worked out as follows.

Heat input = weight of fuel (in kg) x Calorific value of fuel

= (65 x 1000) x (10200 x 4.187) (1 cal = 4.187J)

Heat Output = (300 x 1000) x (3600) (1kwh = 3600KJ)

Therefore the overall efficiency = 38.9 %
Considering the unit with following plant item efficiencies.
Boiler 90 %
Steam / Water Cycle 51 %
Turbine 85 %
Alternator 98.5 %
The overall unit efficiency = 0.9 x 0.51 x 0.85 x 0.985
= 38.43 %

3.3.2 WHERE ARE THE LOSSES…..?

The typical overall steam power plant efficiency is 38% suggests that losses take place during
production process. A list of major losses that occur in a power station is given in table.

INPUT INPUT OUTPNT OUTPUT EFFICIENCY

% MW % MW
Fuel Input 100% 1280 - -

BOILER 100% 1280 89.9%

Dry Flue Gases 4.25 55
Moisture and H2 4.93 63
Carbon in refuse 0.42 5
Radiation 0.50 7
TOTAL 10.10% 130

STEAM/WATER CYCLE 89.9% 1150 52.0%

Condenser 47.0 540.5
Make up 1.0 11.5
TOTAL 48.0% 552.0

TURBINE 46.7% 598 85.01%

Cylindrical 14.8 89
Mechanical 0.2 1
TOTAL 15.2% 90

GENERATOR 39.74% 508 98.5%

Electrical 1.51% 8

AUXILIARIES 39.1% 500

Works power 3.4% 17

UNITS SENT OUT 37.73% 483 797 Total

Losses

It can be seen from table that the greatest loss occurs in the steam / water cycle. As steam is
condensed after it has passed through the LP stages of turbine, the available heat energy does no
useful work and steam is condensed in the condenser. Thus it is important to state that any
deviation from optimum in the individual plant item performance has the potential to cause the
lower efficiency and a greater loss.
EFFECT OF LOAD FACTOR ON OVERALL EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of generating unit improves as the loading improves. Fig shows that drop in
efficiency occurs in a situation, either due to forced outage or due to system requirement, where
unit is running at low loads. It can be seen that the lower loads, small alternators in loads cause a
large difference in efficiency. It is therefore important that any shortfall in unit output should be kept
to a minimum in order that efficiency may be increased.

CONTROLS FOR OPTIMIZATION

In any production process, either providing a service or in manufacturing, controls are applied to
ensure that targets of quality, quantity, cost, etc. are achieved.

INPUT CONTROLS
Inputs to production process are fuel, Feed water and works power (power to run auxiliaries,
23MW for each unit). Air is also an input, however, the first three are considered to be discussed
individually.

FUEL
Poor quality of fuel results in lower heating value. Therefore it is ensured that the fuel oil has the
required chemical properties. In this regard, calorific value of oil, density, viscosity, flash point,
pour point, water and sulphur content are important properties to consider. Any deviation from the
standards is likely to result in a fuel oil sample being rejected.

FEED WATER
Pure water is required so as not to damage the surface of boiler and turbine. At some locations,
the only water available is sea water. Therefore sea water is passed through chemical processes
of desalination and demineralization. After this chemical process, we have light water free from
minerals which are likely to cause damage to the surface of boiler and turbine, e.g. Calcium,
Magnesium, Sulphates and sodium.
3.3.3 WORKS POWER
Every MW saved in works power becomes available to the customer so increases efficiency. Large
proportion of works power is used by the big auxiliaries. e.g. BOILER FEED PUMPS, COOLING
WATER PUMPS, BOILER FANS. At HUB Power Station these auxiliaries have following ratings.

Boiler Feed Pump 5000 KW (2 pumps per unit)

Cooling water Pumps 1100 KW (2 pumps per unit)
Boiler Forced Draught Fan 2000 KW

Power consumption of pumps and fans are varied with the cube of their speed. Auxiliaries should
not run for a moment longer than necessary and it should be a personal challenge to each
operator to think of the most practical ways of achieving savings on plant.

CONCLUSION
• In this paper, importance of efficiency and optimization in steam power plants is
highlighted. The production process of steam power plant is considered and different
areas are isolated where improvement in efficiency can be made.
• Fuel is the predominant expense in the operation of steam power plant accounting for
about 85% of the total.
3.4 ELECTRICAL ENERGY CONSUMED AT HUB POWER STATION

Power plants internationally are one of the largest industrial consumers of electricity. When a
power plant is in operation, its own power requirement (works power or power required to run
auxiliaries) is fulfilled by plant itself. During periods of no demand by WAPDA, there is still
considerable amount of works power that is being imported from WAPDA to keep the plant alive.

Recently, due to increased availability of hydel, nuclear and gas fired plants in Pakistan, HUBCO is
experiencing low load factor. The imported works power for the year 2002-03 was worth
approximately Rs.55 million. As part of process optimization, considerable work and energy
savings have previously been carried out in the past to minimize the works power at the station
during normal running of the plant. In this regard, Predictive Startup program enabled staff to use
the plant auxiliaries at the specified time.

A group of IPGDL and HUBCO engineers with active support of employees at site is presently
carrying out the works power audit of all the power consumed at the station. The audit exercise
has divided the plant into three categories.

Category A:
Comprising of major station works power e.g. Boiler Feed Pumps, Circulating Water Pumps, Close
circuit cooling water pumps, air compressors, plant air-conditioning etc. This category comprising
of approximately 75% of the total works power.

Category B:
Comprising of station lighting load, that includes boiler lighting, turbine hall lighting, switchgear and
relay room, 500KV GIS yard and plant outside area. This category comprises of approximately 8%
of the total works power.

Category C:
Non operational use of works power includes offices, Admin Block and Townships A/C and lighting
load. This category comprises of approximately 17% of the total works power.
3.4.1 AUXILIARY POWER CONSUMPTION AT HUB POWER STATION

MACHINE POWER (KW) % OF TOTAL

Fuel oil pump motors 528 0.57 %
Feed water pump motors 40000 43.47 %
Fuel oil transfer pump 330 0.358 %
Desalination 17.6 0.019 %
Cooling water motors 1984 2.15 %
Circulating water pump 8800 9.56 %
GR Fan 32 0.034 %
Burner Flame motor 74 0.080 %
Burner sealing 88 0.0956 %
Gas Recirculation Fan 3040 3.30 %
FD fan 15360 16.69 %
Gas Air Heater 44 0.047 %
Lighting 500 0.543 %
others 21702 23.58 %
TOTAL 92000

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

0% Fuel oil pump motors

0% 2% 0%
0% Feed water pump motors
10%
3% Fuel oil transfer pump
0%
17% Desalanation
Cooling water motors
0%
Circulating water pump
GR Fan
1% Burner Flame motor

43% Burner sealing

Gas Recirculation Fan
23%
FD fan
Gas Air Heater
1%
Lighting
others

It is clear from table and graphical representation that Boiler feed pumps, circulating water pumps
and Forced Draught Fan are the largest Electrical Energy consuming machines.
PART TWO_______________________________________

Areas of Saving Energy at

HUB Power Station

Chapter 4 Energy Saving in Auxiliaries

Chapter 5 Other Saving Areas

Chapter 4
Energy Saving in Auxiliaries
Hub Power station is 1292MW Oil fired thermal power station out of which 92MW is consumed by
its auxiliaries. The plant has four units (323MW each) with 23MW auxiliary power consumption of
each unit.
Usually auxiliary power consumption of a thermal power plant varies from 8% to 10% of its
capacity depending on its size. HUB Power station has auxiliary power consumption of 7.12% of
its capacity which is quite low.
At HUB Power Station each unit has two circulating water pumps (1100KW each) and two boiler
feed pumps (5000KW each). These are the areas where large energy savings are possible
because they are consuming more than 53% of total auxiliary power but there also other areas
where energy saving in small amount is possible which has been discussed in chapter 5.

4.1 CIRCULATING WATER PUMPS

At Hub power station each unit has two circulating water pumps having total power consumption of
2200KW i.e 1.1 MW each. The pump is centrifugal pump which is driven by three phase squirrel
cage induction motor.
When the demand of electrical power by WAPDA during winter or night is quite low, it is normal
practice to turn off one pump because one pump can handle the load up to 60% to 65% (195MW
to 210MW). It is used to be a good practice for energy savings. But when the unit is at full load
both of the pumps are running at its full capacity. Means 20% of water in excess is passed through
the condenser. Which indicates that even during full load pump is doing useless extra work, which
is waste of energy and also in winter extra vacuum is created in the condenser and the Rankine
cycle goes into the sub cooled region..
Here the idea is to decrease the flow of the pump by decreasing the speed of the motors through
VFD(for details see appendix A) and thus to save energy.
The recovery time of VFD depends whether we use the old motor (if it bear the harmonics
generated by the VFD) or changing the motor with the new one which is specially designed for the
VFD.

4.2 Feedbacks that will control VFD

The installation of drives in the CW pumps require some feedbacks from the plant which will
control the motor rpm and ultimately the required flow to the condenser and other systems which
require water from this pump for the purpose of cooling.
There are certain amount of feedbacks for the drives from the system out of which two main
feedbacks are as follows.

1. Minimum water requirment to maintain the vacuum in the condensor.

2. Inlet and outlet temperature difference maintained at 8 oC.

4.2.1 Minimum water requirment to maintain the vacuum in the condensor

The requirment of water in the condensor is varying according to the vacuum required to be
maintained. If the unit is operating at full load maximum amount of water is require for
condensation of steam because the quantity of steam will increase. So the controller should
increase the flow of water from the VFD. If less amount of water is require then drive will decrease
the flow.The drive controller should have the mnimum value of water flow rate defined in the VFD.

4.2.2 Inlet and Outlet temerature Difference

The plant require temperature difference of 8 oC between inlet water and outlet water. This
temerature difference is varying in summer and winter seasons. In winter the rankine cycle on
which the power plant is operating enters the sub-cooling region. To maintain this temerature
difference two temperature sensors should be installed one at inlet and the other at the oulet.
Controller will entertained both of these signals and maintaind the temperature difference of 8 oC
and control the flow of water by changing the rpm of motor

We wish to examine how non-ideal pump-inlet conditions affect the efficiency of a Rankine Cycle.
We will look at the ideal pump inlet conditions, then see how variations change the thermal
efficiency of a typical cycle.

Figure 1 : Safe Fluid Pumping Region

The purpose of cooling in a Rankine cycle is only to get the fluid to be completely liquid so that the
pump may deal with it without damage. Most pumps are designed to deal exclusively with fluids
which contain no vapor. Fluids that are partially vapor can lead to pump damage. Figure 1 shows
the region of safe pump operation on a T-s diagram.
We can see from the figure that any fluid on or to the left of the saturated liquid line (show in
green) is pump able. This means that we could, at constant pressure, cool the fluid down to the
saturated liquid line or somewhere past it into the compressed liquid region.

The design question becomes where is the optimal point at which to extract the fluid from the
cooler and send it to the pump?
The optimal condition for fluid entering the pump from a cooler in a Rankine cycle is typically
saturated liquid and here's why: Removing more heat than is necessary to get the fluid down to the
saturated liquid line means rejecting (throwing way) more heat from the fluid while it flows through
the cooler. This is heat that we will have to add to the fluid again in the heater, so we don't want to
throw away any more of it than necessary. Even when efforts are made to use the heat rejected in
the cooler for some other purpose, unless this use is 100% efficient, we are still better off rejecting
as little heat as we can in the cooling process. This means cooling right down to the saturated
liquid line and not past it.

In addition, if it is possible to cool the working fluid down past the saturated liquid line, there is an
extra advantage in removing it earlier in that we can avoid real-world pressure losses in the
cooler's tubing and remain closer to our ideal assumption of isobaric cooling.

Figure 2: Ideal (A) and Non-Ideal (B) Pump Inlet States

Figure 2 shows this optimal point ("A"), right on the saturated liquid line. Of course, we cannot
always cool the working fluid to just this point. For instance, we might have a cooling source at
some lower temperature from which it is inconvenient to remove the fluid at just the saturation
point. In such cases, we cool the fluid down past the saturation line and the resulting subcooled (or
"compressed") liquid enters the pump. "B" represents such a point in Figure 2.

To illustrate, we could set up a Rankine Cycle which is typical except that its working fluid is cooled
with ice down to 10°C, giving it the following properties:
• Working fluid: steam
• Turbine Inlet conditions: 5 MPa, 400ºC
• Turbine Outlet condition: 50 kPa
• Pump Inlet Temperature: 10°C

We calculate the thermal efficiency of this cycle to be 27.98%.

This is not usually a problem for the pump, which can handle compressed liquids without difficulty,
but the extra heat that we must add later on can impact the thermal efficiency of the cycle. In Cycle
Pad, we can plot the effect of varying the pump inlet temperature on the cycle efficiency. Figure 3
shows that, the closer we can get the pump inlet temperature to the ideal (saturation) temperature
of 81.34°C, the higher the cycle's efficiency. For reference, the ideal Rankine cycle's efficiency at
the saturation temperature is 30.91%, nearly a 3% improvement over the efficiency of the initial
example.

Figure 3: Cycle Efficiency vs.Pump Inlet Temperature

Following are some characteristics of circulating water pump (centrifugal pump) at hub power
station.
Flow = Q = 19200 m 3 / h.
Normal head = 16m
Detail is given in curves.

4.3 Power Saving on CW Pump by the installation of VFD

Power = 1100KW
Flow = 23500 m3/h
Speed = 370 rpm
Head = 11.02 m

FOR 15% REDUCTION IN FLOW

If we reduce 15% flow by VFD it will become = 20000 m3/h
By relation q1 / q2 = (n1 / n2)
The new speed of motor will be = 314.5 rpm
The new head will be = 10.24 m
By relation P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)3
The new power consumed by motor = 675.537 KW
Power Saved = 424.462 KW

Getting the Savings Wrong

• Some consultants, salesmen and suppliers assume that the cube law always applies
• IT DOESN’T apply, if
> the variable speed is set to maintain a constant pressure at the pump or fan
discharge
> if a liquid is being pumped up to a tank at higher level (called “static head”)

Estimating VFD Savings Properly

You will need
¾ An understanding of the static head of your system
¾ A good picture of the flow requirements of your system
¾ The fan/pump curves from the manufacturer
¾ The motor and VSD efficiency curves from the manufacturer
Therefore the exact calculation is as follows
Power = 1100KW
Flow = 23500 m3/h
Speed = 370 rpm
Head = 11.02 m
FOR 15% REDUCTION IN FLOW
If we reduce 15% flow by VFD it will become = 20000 m3/h
By relation q1 / q2 = (n1 / n2)
The new speed of motor will be = 314.5 rpm
The new head will be = 10.24 m
By relation P1 / P2 = (n1 / n2)^1.35
The new power consumed by motor = 883.300 KW
Power Saved = 216.700 KW

Economics And Payback Period

• RFO COST Rs. 44977 /ton
• Calorific Value of RFO (Net) 9580 Kcal/Kg
• Calorific Value of RFO (Gross) 10122 Kcal/Kg
• Heat Rate 2256 Kcal/KWh
• 1 ton oil Rs. 44977 (1 ton = 1016.047 Kg)
• 1 Kg oil Rs. 44.268
• 1 KWh 2256 Kcal
• 216.7 KWh 488875.2 Kcal

FOR NET CALORIFIC VALUE OF RFO

• 1 Kcal 1 / 9580 Kg
• 488875.2 Kcal 51.03 Kg
Therefore,
• Oil saved in 1 hour Rs 51.03 * 44.268=Rs 2259.032
• Oil saved in 1 day Rs 54,216.77
• Oil saved in 320 days Rs 17,349,366.4

FOR GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE OF RFO

• 1 Kcal 1 / 10122 Kg
• 488875.2 Kcal 48.298 Kg
 Therefore,
• Oil saved in 1 hour Rs 48.298 * 44.268= Rs 2,138.067
• Oil saved in 1 day Rs 51,313.64
• Energy saved in one year 1658880 KWh
• Oil saved in 320 days 1658880 X 0.234 = 388177.92 KG
(0.234 kg = 1 KWh)*
• Saving Money Rs 17468006

4.3.1 RECOVERY TIME

For ACS 1000i system:

DIMENTIONS
(Length=3.3m, Width=1.1m, Height=2.7m, Weight=5700Kg)

With old motor:

BUDGEDARY PRICES OF ABB’s MEDIUM VOLTAGE DRIVES
For ACS 1000i System = 200,000 $ (Rs 13,600,000)
(Recovery time = 9.4 months)

With new motor:

BUDGEDARY PRICES OF ABB’s MEDIUM VOLTAGE DRIVES WITH NEW MOTOR
For ACS 1000i System = (Rs 25,000,000)
(Recovery time = 1.56 years)

Here,
If i = 7% Then,
R = Rs.17468006 n = 1.56 years
A = Rs.25000000
For ACS 5000 System
DIMENTIONS (Length=6m, Width=1.1m, Height=2.86m, Weight=8200Kg)

With old motor

BUDGEDARY PRICES OF ABB’s MEDIUM VOLTAGE DRIVES
For ACS 5000 System = 1,000,000 $ (Rs 68,000,000)
(Recovery time = 3.9 years)

With new motor

BUDGEDARY PRICES OF ABB’s MEDIUM VOLTAGE DRIVES WITH NEW MOTOR
For ACS 5000 System = Rs. 80,000,000
(Recovery time = 5.71 years)

Here,
If i = 7%
Then,
R = Rs.17468006 n = 5.71 years
A = Rs.80000000
4.4 BOILER FEED WATER PUMPS
Boiler feed pumps are the largest energy consumers among auxiliaries at the power station. Each
unit has two boiler feed pumps in parallel driven by 5000KW, three phase, squirrel cage induction
motors.
Boiler feed pumps are consuming approximately 43% of the total auxiliary power consumption of a
unit.
When the unit is at full load (323MW) the flow of the pump is 500 ton / hr or 500 ton / hr. İn case
when the unit is at underload the flow of the pump is regulated by hydraulic coupling which act as
a gear to change the speed of the pump. Normal operating speed of boiler feed pump motor is
1500rpm uhich is increased 5000rpm by hydraulic coupling for pump.
The biggest disadvantage of using hydraulic coupling is that it decreases the speed of the pump to
desired value but motor is running at its full speed consuming same amount of power as at full
speed of the pump. However using VFD to decreases the speed of the pump can save large
amount of energy.

4.4.1 ENERGY SAVING IN BOILER FEED PUMPS

From affinity law it is clear that required power of the pump varies with the cube of speed of the
pump.

Example
On 17th april unit one is operating at 270MW instead of 323MW. The boiler feed water pump flow
was around 450 ton / hr. If the Feed Pump is operated through drive then energy saving will be,
Power 2 = Power 1 ( Flow 2 / Flow 1 ) 3

Power 2 = 5000 ( 450 / 500) 3

Power 2 = 3645 KW.

Hence possible energy saving are 1355KW . If unit is running at this load for 24Hrs then savings
will be,

Energy Saving = 1355 X 24 = 32520KWh

Fuel Saving = 32520 KWh X 0.234 KG / KWh = 7609.68 KG = 7.48 ton

Rupees Saving = Rs. 336600.

4.4.2 PROBLEM IN INSTALLATION OF VFD AT FEED WATER PUMP

Following are problems which can occur if speed of the pump is regulated by VFD.

1. If hydraulic coupling is removed and motor is directly conneced to pump then speed of
both pump and motor operate at same speed which is not desirable because necessary
speed for pump operation is 5000rpm.
2. A booster pump is also on the same shaft of the motor operating at 1500rpm. Its function
is to give a boost to feed water before supplying it to main boiler feed pump. Its speed
must not be changed during any circumstances. If speed of the motor is reduced the the
speed ofd the booster pump is also decreases which is not desirable.

Solution
In Engineering there is always a solution af a problem. If we donot removev hydraulic coupling
and operate motor through VFD, then we can change the speed of the pump by VFD and
speed of the motor is multiplied by hydraulic coupling with large energy saving.
For booster pump a small new motor should be installed to operate it at fixed speed.
4.5 FORCED DRAUGHT FAN
Basic meaning of draft is force needed to draw. This force may be due to small pressure difference
created by a fan causes flow to take place. Air required in boiler furnace for combustion is supplied
from atmosphere by forced draft fan. The products of combustion from furnace are removed by an
induced draughts fan (HUB Power Plant do not have ID Fan).

Usually in boilers centrifugal fans are used as FD fan.

Centrifugal Fan
A centrifugal fan is a mechanical device for moving air or other gases. It has a fan wheel
composed of a number of fan blades, or ribs, mounted around a hub.The hub turns on a driveshaft
that passes through the fan housing. The air or gas enters from the side of the fan wheel, turns 90
degrees and accelerates due to centrifugal force as it flows over the fan blades and exits the fan
housing.

Basic Fan Laws

Calculating the change in fan performance due to small diameter changes, speed variations and
density fluctuations is simply a matter of multiplying by ratios of the target parameter to the initial
parameter (raised to some power). The table on the next page shows the relationships and powers
to be used in these calculations.
Performance data may be calculated for changes in diameter, speed and density according to the
table shown above.

4.5.1 FORCED DRAUGHT FAN AT HUB POWER STATION

At HUB Power station each unit has two FD Fans driven by three phase squirrel cage, 1920KW
Induction motor. The further description is given under.

At HUB Power Plant FD Fan consumes 17% auxiliary of power from. A small decrease in speed
can save large amount of energy proved from fan laws (see Appendix for details) that power
required to drive a fan varies with cube of its speed.

Decreasing the speed of fan speed by 10% decreases power requirement up to 27%.
Decreasing the speed of the fan by 20% decreases power requirement up to 49%.
Auxiliaries should not run for a moment longer than necessary and it should be a personal
challenge to each operator to think of the most practical ways of achieving savings on plant. Hence
it is clear that fan should be operated according to the requirement of the furnace of the boiler.
If fan is operating at full speed and plant is at running at under load the power is being wasted with
the cube relation.

Problem
At HUB power station rated speed of FD fan is 990rpm. The volume flow requirement of the
furnace is 8570 m 3 /h.
Because of larger slip of the induction motor, the speed of the fan is reduced to 950rpm.
From fan law the air flow will becomes,

Flow 2 = (Flow 1) (RPM 2 /RPM 1) 3

= (8570) (950/990) 3
Flow 2 = 8223.73 m 3 /h.

The fan is running at 95% of its speed, and from fan laws it is calculated that 5% less air is
supplied to the boiler furnace which decreases burning efficiency hence oil will not burn completely
and efficiently.
Energy saving is possible only when speed of the fan decreases. But at Hub power plant FD Fan
is already running below to its rated speed. Hence energy saving is not possible.

Solution
In order to burn fuel completely and efficiently we need to increase the flow of the fan. It is only
possible by changing the diameter or speed of the fan. Changing the diameter of an installed fan is
not possible. Another way to increase the speed of the fan is to increase the speed of the motor
which is driving fan.
Installing a VFD will be the solution of the problem. VFD can change the speed of the fan
according to the requirement of the boiler hence energy saving is easily possible.

Economics
From Economical point of view cost of a 1920KW VFD will be more than the cost of a motor.
Therefore the practical solution is to change the FD fan motor and not to install a VFD. Installation
of VFD may cause other problems like heating of motor, harmonics and VFD losses.
Hence a Solution is to install a motor or more feasible is that to install an energy efficient motor.
4.5.2 Energy Efficient Motor for FD fan
Improvements in motor efficiency can be achieved without compromising motor performance - at
higher cost - within the limits of existing design and manufacturing technology. From the Table, it
can be seen that any improvement in motor efficiency must result from reducing the Watts losses.
In terms of the existing state of electric motor technology, a reduction in watts losses can be
achieved in various ways. All of these changes to reduce motor losses are possible with existing
motor design and manufacturing technology.
They would, however, require additional materials and/or the use of higher quality materials and
improved manufacturing processes resulting in increased motor cost.

Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY

Thus energy-efficient electric motors

reduce energy losses through improved
design, better materials, and improved
manufacturing techniques. Replacing a
motor may be justifiable solely on the
electricity cost savings derived from an
energy-efficient replacement. This is
true if the motor runs continuously,
power rates are high, the motor is
oversized for the application, or its
nominal efficiency has been reduced by
damage or previous rewinds. Efficiency
comparison for standard and high
efficiency motors is shown in Figure.
Technical aspects of Energy Efficient Motors

Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At lower temperatures,
bearing grease lasts longer; required time between re-greasing increases. Lower temperatures
translate to long lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each 10°C reduction in
operating temperature.

Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and design for operation at 85% of the
rated motor load.

Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can affect the operation of
energy-efficient motors.

Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors, slip is a measure of
motor winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy efficient
motors results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.

Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors. Facility managers
should be careful when applying efficient motors to high torque applications.
Chapter 5
Other Saving Areas

5.1 Lighting load

The major lighting load of the plant is as follows. The complete lighting load table is attached at the
end of the report.

Type of light Power (W) Quantity Area Total Load (W)

Fluorescent Lamp 4-18 202 Indoor 144
Fluorescent Lamp 2-58 1598 Indoor 185368
Fluorescent Lamp 4-18 456 Indoor 32832
High Pressure Sodium 250 185 Outdoor 46250
High Pressure Sodium 250 233 Outdoor 58250
High Pressure Sodium 150 51 Outdoor 7650
Halogen Lamp 250 72 Outdoor 18000
Incandescent lamp 100 106 Indoor 10600
Total ≈ 359 KW

Following are the ways for saving energy in the above lighting schemes

1. For fluorescent lamps

(a) Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of "Conventional" fluorescent lamps.
Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder
technology. They offer excellent colour rendering properties in addition to the very high luminous
efficacy.

(b) Conventional Vs Electronic Ballasts

The conventional ballasts make use of the kick caused by sudden physical disruption of current in
an inductive circuit to produce the high voltage required for starting the lamp and then rely on
reactive voltage drop in the ballast to reduce the voltage applied across the lamp. On account of
the mechanical switch (starter) and low resistance of filament when cold the uncontrolled filament
current, generally tend to go beyond the limits specified by Indian standard specifications. With
high values of current and flux densities the operational losses and temperature rise are on the
higher side in conventional choke.

Role of Ballast
In an electric circuit the ballast acts as a stabilizer. Fluorescent lamp is an electric discharge lamp.
The two electrodes are separated inside a tube with no apparent connection between them. When
sufficient voltage is impressed on these electrodes, electrons are driven from one electrode and
attracted to the other. The current flow takes place through an atmosphere of low pressure
mercury vapor.
Since the fluorescent lamps cannot produce light by direct connection to the power source, they
need an ancillary circuit and device to get started and remain illuminated. The auxiliary circuit
housed in a casing is known as ballast.

2. For high pressure sodium lamps:

Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps.
Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury &
sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the
choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These lamps
are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It
is recommended to install metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more critical.

3. For incandescent lamps:

Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps.
Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower wattage
incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The average
rated lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer than that of a normal incandescent lamps.

Light distribution
Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone. Efficient
luminaries along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror-optic
luminaries with a high output ratio and bat-wing light distribution can save energy. For achieving
better efficiency, luminaries that are having light distribution characteristics appropriate for the task
interior should be selected. The luminaries fitted with a lamp should ensure that discomfort glare
and veiling reflections are minimized. Installation of suitable luminaries, depends upon the height -
Low, Medium & High Bay. Luminaries for high intensity discharge lamp are classified as follows:
• Low bay, for heights less than 5 meters.
• Medium bay, for heights between 5 – 7 meters.
• High bay, for heights greater than 7 meters.

System layout and fixing of the luminaries play a major role in achieving energy efficiency. This
also varies from application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaries at optimum height and
usage of mirror optic luminaries leads to energy efficiency.
Light Control
The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On-Off" switch.
The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational costs may be
high. This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not required.
Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction in
lighting level, when not needed. The light control systems that can be adopted are as follows:

• Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control

Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.

Timed Based Control

Timed-turnoff switches are the least expensive type of automatic lighting control. In some cases,
their low cost and ease of installation makes it desirable to use them where more efficient controls
would be too expensive
Timed-turnoff switches are available with a wide range of time spans. The choice of time span is a
compromise. Shorter time spans waste less energy but increase the probability that the lights will
turn off while someone is in the space. Dial timers allow the occupant to set the time span, but this
is not likely to be done with a view toward optimizing efficiency. For most applications, the best
choice is an electronic unit that allows the engineering staff to set a fixed time interval behind the
cover plate.

• Installation of microprocessor based controllers

Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching
circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which can
take pre-programme commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting control
system uses movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.

• Optimum usage of daylighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination with
electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual
environment.
Usage of day lighting in administration building and any other air conditioned halls will have to be
very limited, because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the increased solar heat
dissipation into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable reduction of electric light in
the window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.

Daylight Linked Control

Photoelectric cells can be used either simply to switch lighting on and off, or for dimming. They
may be mounted either externally or internally. It is however important to incorporate time delays
into the control system to avoid repeated rapid switching caused, for example, by fast moving
clouds. By using an internally mounted photoelectric dimming control system, it is possible to
ensure that the sum of daylight and electric lighting always reaches the design level by sensing the
total light in the controlled area and adjusting the output of the electric lighting accordingly.
If daylight alone is able to meet the design requirements, then the electric lighting can be turned
off. The energy saving potential of dimming control is greater than a simple photoelectric switching
system. Dimming control is also more likely to be acceptable to room occupants.

Localized Switching
Localized switching should be used in applications which contain large spaces. Local switches
give individual occupants control over their visual environment and also facilitate energy savings.
By using localized switching it is possible to turn off artificial lighting in specific areas, while still
operating it in other areas where it is required, a situation which is impossible if the lighting for an
entire space is controlled from a single switch.

Methods of saving lighting loads (Summary)

i) Maximize sunlight use through use of transparent roof sheets, north light roof, etc. in turbine hall
etc.
ii) Examine scope for replacements of lamps by more energy efficient lamps, with due
Consideration to luminaries, color rendering index, lux level as well as expected life
Comparison.
iii) Replace conventional magnetic ballasts by more energy efficient ballasts, with due
Consideration to life and power factor apart from watt loss.
iv) Select interior colors for light reflection.
v) Modify layout for optimum lighting.
vi) Providing individual / group controls for lighting for energy efficiency such as:
a. On / off type voltage regulation type (for luminance control)
b. Group control switches / units
c. Occupancy sensors
d. Photocell controls
e. Timer operated controls
f. Pager operated controls
g. Computerized lighting control programs
viii) Replace energy efficient displays like LED's in place of lamp type displays in control panels /
instrumentation areas, etc.
5.2 CRT and LCD Monitors
Energy Requirements of LCD monitors are extremely economical when it comes to power
consumption. Their consumption is in the region of 25 -50 watts compared to CRT which consume
like 60-80 watts for a 15 inch model to almost 70 to 150 for 17 and 19 inch models.

Energy consumption in monitors

The wattage of a CRT monitor is listed as 150 watts (awake) or 30 (asleep).
This means that in energy use, one hour of awake time = five hours of sleep time for the monitor.
According to IBM, the T Series flat panel monitors consume 3-4 watts asleep and 30 – 65 watts
awake.
Note that the awake energy use changes by a factor of more than 2, depending on screen size.
For a flat screen monitor which uses 3.5 watts (asleep) and 50 watts (awake) 1 hour of awake time
= 14 hours of sleep time.

Extra consumption in CRT

The extra energy consumed by a CRT monitor does not disappear. It is radiated into the room in
the form of heat.
If it is winter, and you are otherwise heating the room with an electric heater, you will require less
electricity to heat the room when using a CRT monitor, so there may, in fact, be no total energy
saving.
But if it is summer, and you are air conditioning the room, the savings
from using a cool LCD display will be both the electricity saved per hour to run the monitor and the
savings gained from requiring less air conditioning to achieve comfort.

Cost and Economics

[(hours/day) x (days/year) x (watts)] / 1000 watts/kW = annual kWh consumption
(kW) x (Rs./kWh) = annual energy cost

For CRT monitors

[(6.5hr/day) x (250days/yr) x (150watts)]/1000 = 243.75 kWh
therefore annual energy consumption (243.75 kWh) x (Rs.10*/kWh) = Rs. 2437.5 per year
A CRT monitor costs Rs. 2437.5 per year in electricity.

For LCD monitors

Using the above calculations for a flat screen monitor with the following data:
Time Use – hours/day: 6.5 (to account for sleep time)
Time Use – days/year: (52weeks/yr – 2weeks vacation/yr) x (5days/wk) = 250 days/year
Monitor Watts: 50
Cost per kWh: Rs. 10*
* Estimated cost per KWh based on the oil price in March 2008.
A flat panel monitor costs Rs. 812.5 per year electricity.
So there is saving of approximately Rs. 1625 per monitor per year if LCD is used instead of CRT
monitors.
Considering the new LCD monitor cost with CRT replacement = Rs. 9500.

Here
i = 7%
R = Rs.1625
A = Rs.9500

Then,
n = 7.78 years
5.3 Solar geysers
There are possibilities of replacing electric geysers by the solar geysers in A-camp, National camp,
Town ship etc at the premises of HUB Power Plant. The description, working and the advantages
of solar geysers are as follows.

Key Benefits of Solar Geysers

• Up to 80% of water heating needs for geysers sourced directly from the Sun.
• A proven technology - widely used throughout the world.
• Amongst the lowest greenhouse emissions thus environmental friendly.
• Can pay for itself in 2-3 years.
• Easier to install - a range of frames exist to suit installation on all roof types and pitches.
• Maintenance free.
• Can be connected to existing electric geysers.

Solar radiation is a free, clean and inexhaustible source of energy. In a split second the sun
radiates more energy than was converted and stored by plants in fossil fuel over millions of years.
Using great new technology like evacuated glass tubes
we can now convert solar radiation efficiently into a usable
from of energy that heat water which we can use in our
geysers.
By using Solar Geyser the demand will be reduced for
fossil fuels, which will improve the environment by
reducing air pollution as well as the heat-trapping gases
that cause global warming.

Working
Solar Geyser relies on warm water rising, a phenomenon
known as natural convection, to circulate water through the
evacuated glass tube collector and to the tank.
Hot water storage tank is located above the absorber evacuated glass tubes. As water in the
absorber heats, it becomes lighter and naturally rises into the tank above. Meanwhile, cooler water
in the tank flows downwards into the absorber, thus causing circulation throughout the system.

Solar geysers in cold conditions and in cloudy weather

Solar Geyser can be used in temperatures as low as -10° C, although performance is reduced in
such extreme conditions but Good heat output is still achieved in mild sub-zero conditions as long
as there is sunlight.
Although the heat output of the solar collector is reduced on overcast days it will still be able to
provide heating. If it is a heavily clouded day or raining, then electric boosting may be required to
maintain water at the required temperature. This system will be automated with the existing electric
geyser, so you don't have to worry about running out of hot water on a rainy day.

Maintenance of the Solar Geyser

Under normal circumstances no maintenance of the system is required. Due to the shape of the
tubes regular rainfall and wind should keep the tubes clean. Tubes are very strong and not easily
broken, but if the worst should happen, solar tubes can be replaced very easily. They are available
though your local Solar Geyser distributor. It is recommended that broken tubes be replaced
immediately. Should a tube even be broken it should be replaced. This, however, is an
inexpensive and easy job. Any "handy" person can install a new tube.

Solar Geyser in swimming pool

Solar Geyser Collectors are high temperature collectors, and are therefore ideal for spas, as the
volume of water is small and temperature requirements high. For large scale swimming pools
Solar Geyser collectors may be an extremely viable supplement to electricity.

Solar Geyser and the environment

Using solar and other forms of renewable energy reduces reliance on fossil fuels for energy
production, thus directly reducing CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions contribute to global warming, an
environmental issue which is now of great concern. The average household can reduce CO2
emissions by as much as 20% by installing a Solar Geyser System.

Solar geysers approximate payback time

The price of a full system may not be too much more than a new electric geysers. The price
ranges from Rs. 25000/- for 135 liters capacity to Rs. 45000/- for 300 liters capacity. Normally, the
full cost of the purchase may be recouped as quickly as 3-4 years and there will be definitely
considerable savings during the life of the Solar Geyser.
PART THEREE____________________________________

Areas of Saving Energy at

HUB Power Station

Chapter 6 Wind Energy

Chapter 7 Hydro Power

Chapter 6
Wind Energy
Wind energy offers to generate substantial amount of electricity without the polluting problems of
most of the conventional forms of electricity generation. Its environmental costs, mainly in the form
of visual intrusion, are different from those of conventional electricity generation. The scale of its
development depends on the care with which wind turbines are selected and sited.
Atmospheric pressure is the result of the weight of the column of air that rests on a specified
surface area on the ground and it is measured by means of a barometer. The unit of atmospheric
pressure is known as bar. One bar is approximately normal atmospheric pressure at sea level.
Barometers are usually calibrated in millibars that are thousand of a bar. The average atmospheric
pressure at the sea level is about 1013.5 mbar. Pressure is also measured in Pascal or Newton
per square meters.

6.1 ENERGY AND POWER IN WIND

Power is defined as the rate at which energy is used or converted and it can therefore be
expressed as energy per unit time, for example joules per second. The unit of power is watt (W) or
joules / second.
The energy contained in wind is kinetic energy, and kinetic energy of a mass ‘m’ moving with
velocity ‘v’ is given by,
K.E = ½ m v 2 --------------------- eq.1
Where ‘m’ is mass in kg and ‘v’ is velocity in m / s.
We can calculate the kinetic energy in wind if first, we imagine air passing through a circular ring
( enclosed a circular area A, say 100 m 2 ) at a velocity v ( say 10 m/s). As the air is moving with a
velocity, a cylinder of air with a length 10m will pass through the ring each second.
3
Therefore the volume of air is equal to 100 X 10 = 1000 m will pass through the ring each
second. By multiplying this volume by density of air ‘ρ’ (equal to 1.2256 kg / m 3.) we would obtain
the mass of air moving through ring each second. In other words:
Mass per second = air density X area X length of cylindrical air passing each second.
Mass per second = air density X area X velocity.
I.e.
m=ρAV

Putting in equation 1 we get,

Kinetic Energy per second = ½ ρ A V3
P = ½ ρ A V3
The main relationships that are apparent from above equation are that the power in wind is
proportional to:
(a) the area through wind is passing.
(b) the cube of wind velocity.
Note that the power contained in wind is not the power that can be extracted from wind turbine.
This is because losses there are incurred in the energy conversion process.

6.2 WIND TURBINE

The varieties of machines that have been devised or proposed to harness wind energy is
considerable and include many unusual devices. A part from new innovative designs, modern wind
turbines come in two basic configurations, Horizontal axis and vertical axis turbines.
A majority of modern wind turbines are electricity generating devices. They range from small
turbines that produce few tens or hundred of watts of power to relatively large turbines that
produce 1 MW or more. Since for electrical power generation only horizontal axis turbines are
used so they are only given in detail.

6.3 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINE

Horizontal axis wind turbine usually has two or three blades or else a large number of blades.
Wind turbine with large number of blades has what appears to be virtually a solid disc covered by
solid blades. Such type of turbines is used for pumping water. To generate electricity three blade
turbines are normally used.
6.4 Wind Turbine Generators
The wind turbine generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Wind turbine
generators are a bit unusual, compared to other generating units you ordinarily find attached to the
electrical grid.
One reason is that the generator has to work with a power source (the wind turbine rotor) which
supplies very fluctuating mechanical power (torque).Most of the wind turbine generators use
INDUCTION GENERATORS to produce electricity. Some of the wind turbine use permanent
magnet generator to produce alternating current.

6.5 Indirect Grid Connection of Wind Turbines

6.6 Generating Alternating Current (AC) at Variable Frequency

Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed with direct grid connection. With indirect grid
connection, however, the wind turbine generator runs in its own, separate mini AC-grid, as
illustrated in the graphic. This grid is controlled electronically (using an inverter), so that the
frequency of the alternating current in the stator of the generator may be varied. In this way it is
possible to run the turbine at variable rotational speed. Thus the turbine will generate alternating
current at exactly the variable frequency applied to the stator.
The generator may be either a synchronous generator or an asynchronous generator, and the
turbine may have a gearbox, as in the image above, or run without a gearbox if the generator has
many poles, as explained on the next page.

6.7 RECTIFICATION (Conversion to Direct Current)

AC current with a variable frequency cannot be handled by the public electrical grid. We therefore
start by rectifying it, i.e. we convert it into direct current, DC. The conversion from variable
frequency AC to DC can be done using power diodes, thyristors or large power transistors
6.8 Conversion to Fixed Frequency AC
We then convert the direct current to an alternating current (using an inverter) with exactly the
same frequency as the public electrical grid. This conversion to AC in the inverter can also be
done using either thyristors or transistors.
Thyristors or power transistors are large semiconductor switches that operate without mechanical
parts. The kind of alternating current one gets out of an inverter looks quite ugly at first sight -
nothing like the smooth sinusoidal curve we learned about when studying alternating current.

6.9 WIND POWER AT HUB POWER STATION

If wind turbines are installed at the site of HUB Power Station, its electrical power output can be
used to run auxiliaries (at least some of lighting) to save fuel, Electrical energy and minimize CO2
emission.
As discussed earlier the only thing necessary to install wind turbine is enough wind that can
operate wind turbine. The wind data available from Pakistan Meteorological Department
(PAKMET) proves that there is enough wind at the site of HUB Power Station.

6.10 AVERAGE WIND SPEED AT SITE

The average wind speed at the site of HUB Power Station provided by PAKMET for the last three
years in knots is given below. 2005 2006 2007
Jan 11.5 11.8 10.5
Feb 14.5 14.4 14.9
Mar 16.8 17.6 16.5
Apr 17.8 18.8 17.2
May 19.2 21.7 19.8
Jun 20 20.8 20.5
Jul 21.6 21.4 18.6
Aug 20.2 18 18.6
Sept 18.1 15.2 14.7
Oct 14 14.6 11.6
Nov 10.5 10.9 10.1
Dec 10.5 10.7 8.8

25 25

20 20

15 15 2005
2006
10 10 2007

5 5

0 0
ov
n

ec
ug
l
pr
b

t
ar

ay

ct
Ju

ep
Ja

Ju
Fe

O
A
M

D
A
M

S
The wind speed from March to September is shown in this graph.

25

20

15 2005
2006
10 2007

0
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

The average wind speed during these 6 months is around 18 knots or 9 m/sec.
The electrical energy available from wind turbine can be used to operate lighting load. In case of
below cut in wind speed the load is again feed by HUB Power.

6.11 FEASIBILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION OF WIND TURBINE AT HUB PREMISES

Wind turbines are unfortunately not manufactured in Pakistan. The wind turbines are manufactured
in china, are cheap, reliable and have less pay back period.
The specifications given by a wind turbine manufacturing company on our special enquiry for
coastal area of hub are as under.
• Numbers of blade(P): 3
• Rotor Diameter(m): 10.0
• Out-in(start)wind speed: 3
• Out-out(outage)wind speed: 30
• Rated wind speed(m/s): 11
• Rated speed(rotate/minute): 100
• Max. wind speed(m/s): 50
• Wind energy ratio(%): 0.42
• Generator: Permanent magnetic generator
• Generator rated power(W): 20000
• Max.output power(W): 25000
• Output voltage(VDC): 480
• Rated current(A): 41.7
• Type of off-course: Wind direct-ion is decided by tail
• Weight (kg): 1200
6.12 Working principle specific to the proposed device
Wind energy is used as the motive power to provide low speed rotation of a permanent magnet
generator to produce alternating current which is then converted to direct current by a controlled
constant voltage rectification system, the resulting voltage being stored in a battery, or batteries.
The direct current from the battery, (batteries), is then converted to alternating current by an
inverter, the resulting controlled and stabilized alternating current being used to power the load;
this is the general principle for battery storage type systems. Grid connect systems take the
alternating current produced by the turbine directly to an inverter which controls and stabilizes the
alternating current and also provides numerous control elements for direct connection to the
electricity grid.

6.13 Features
The products combine unique and innovative design with high reliability. The innovative design has
been awarded both Invention and Practical new patents by the State Intellectual Property
Department and thereby has totally independent property rights in China, resulting in the market
leading position in wind to electrical energy conversion, technical design and efficiency. Key
design features such as very low rotation speed result in increased efficiency in comparison to
other small turbine systems.
• Durable reinforced fiberglass material, low price per kWh and maximum operational
reliability.
• Excellent aerodynamic rotor performance with high energy coefficient, low start-up/cut-in
speed and low noise.
• Utilize the "lift design" aerodynamic principle to maximize the blade rotational speed and
minimize noise level.
• High quality standards to result in minimum of 20 years of service life.
• No more wood carving! Save time and money, zero maintenance, last much longer than
wood blades.
• Streamlined light weight blade design to achieve maximum energy output and efficiency.
• Optimized aerodynamic design to offer the best performance with minimized load.
• 3-blade rotor design provides the best balance of high rotation speed, load balancing and
simplicity.
6.14 POWER CURVE

From power curve it is clear that this wind turbine will work at 15KW at approximately 9 m/sec of
wind speed.

6.15 CONNECTION DIAGRAM

6.16 ENERGY OUTPUT AND SAVINGS
If this turbine is producing 15KW for 200 days (aproxx.7 months) per year then total energy output
will be;
Energy = Power X time
Energy = 15 KW X 24 hrs/day X 200 days/year
Energy = 72000 KWh/year = 72 MWh/year.
Savings = 72000 KWh/year X 9* Rs ./KWh.
Savings = 648000 Rs. /year.

6.17 COST AND ECONOMICS

The cost of 20KW wind turbine having model FOB QINGDAO manufactured by a Chinese
company EXMORK is given below.
COMPONENT COST
20KW Wind Turbine (Generator, Blades, and Rear Tail) $8805
Multi Steps Battery Charge Controller 20KW (480VDC Output) $2355
18M Tower with Guy Wires $3260
18M Mono Tapered Tower with Ladder and Maintenance Platform $6340
5000VA Full Sine Wave Inverter $3400

**TOTAL COST: $24160 or Rs.1642880

If we include transportation and installation cost then total cost would be approximately 25 lacks.
As calculated above this wind turbine is saving Rs.650000/ year then the pay back time will be,

Here,
i = 7%
R = Rs.650000
A = Rs.2500000
Then,
n = 4.63 years.

* Estimated cost per KWh based on the oil price in May 2008. (Rs. 45000/- per ton)
**Estimated cost based on the dollar in May 2008. (1$ = Rs.68.01)
6.18 Environmental effects
CO2 emissions and pollution
Wind power consumes no fuel for continuing operation, and has no emissions directly related to
electricity production. Operation does not produce carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, mercury,
particulates, or any other type of air pollution, as do fossil fuel power sources. Wind power plants
consume resources in manufacturing and construction. During manufacture of the wind turbine,
steel, concrete, aluminum and other materials will have to be made and transported using energy-
intensive processes, generally using fossil energy sources.
A study by the Irish national grid stated that "Producing electricity from wind reduces the
consumption of fossil fuels and therefore leads to emissions savings", and found reductions in
CO2 emissions ranging from 0.33 to 0.59 tones of CO2 per MWh.

Impact on wildlife Birds

Danger to birds is often the main complaint against the installation of a wind turbine, but actual
numbers are very low: studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is negligible
compared to the number that die as a result of other human activities such as traffic, hunting,
power lines and high-rise buildings and especially the environmental impacts of using non-clean
power sources. For example, in the UK, where there are several hundred turbines, about one bird
is killed per turbine per year; 10 million per year are killed by cars alone. In the United States,
turbines kill 70,000 birds per year, compared to 57 million killed by cars and 97.5 million killed by
collisions with plate glass. An article in Nature stated that each wind turbine kills on average 0.03
birds per year, or one kill per thirty turbines.

Fish
In Ireland, construction of a wind farm caused pollution feared to be responsible for wiping out
vegetation and fish stocks in the Lough Lee. A separate landslide is thought to have been caused
by wind farm construction, and has killed thousands of fish by polluting the local rivers with
sediment.

Offshore ocean noise

As the number of offshore wind farms increase and move further into deeper water, the question
arises if the ocean noise that is generated due to mechanical motion of the turbines and other
vibrations which can be transmitted via the tower structure to the sea, will become significant
enough to harm sea mammals. Tests carried out in Denmark for shallow installations showed the
levels were only significant up to a few hundred meters. However, sound injected into deeper
water will travel much further and will be more likely to impact bigger creatures like whales which
tend to use lower frequencies than porpoises and seals. A recent study found that wind farms add
80–110 dB to the existing low-frequency ambient noise (under 400 Hz), which could impact baleen
whales communication and stress levels, and possibly prey distribution.
Chapter 7
Hydro-Electric Power
On Earth, water is constantly moved around in various states, a process known as the hydrologic
cycle. Water evaporates from the oceans, forming into clouds, falling out as rain and snow,
gathering into streams and rivers, and flowing back to the sea. All this movement provides an
enormous opportunity to harness useful energy.

7.1 Converting Moving Water to Electricity

In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in moving water, the water has to be moving
with sufficient speed and volume to turn a generator. Roughly speaking, one gallon of water per
second falling one hundred feet can generate one kilowatt of electrical power.

7.2 Water Wheel

A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall) of water, that is hydropower. A
water wheel consists of a large wooden or metal wheel, with a number of blades or buckets
arranged on the outside rim forming the driving surface. Most commonly, the wheel is mounted
vertically on a horizontal axle, but the tub or Norse wheel is mounted horizontally on a vertical
shaft. Vertical wheels can transmit power either through the axle or via a ring gear and typically
drive belts or gears; horizontal wheels usually directly drive their load.
A flowing stream was often dammed in order to maintain a steady supply of water for the mill; the
dammed water would form a mill pond. A channel created for the water to follow while flowing to or
from a water wheel is a mill race (also spelled millrace) or simply a "race", and is customarily
divided into sections. The race bringing water from the mill pond to the water wheel is a headrace;
the one carrying water after it has left the wheel is commonly referred to as a tailrace.

7.3 TYPES OF WATER WHEELS

7.3.1 Undershot waterwheel
Compared with the other types this is less efficient. Here the wheel
relies on huge quantities ofwater, moving at considerable speed, to
drive the mill. Such mills are usually built on substantial rivers -
streams just don't have enough water. Undershot wheels are
normally quite narrow and have to fit very accurately within their
channel to prevent the water from escaping round the sides.
• Its advantage is that it can be used in almost any stream or channel.
• It becomes very inefficient if the water downstream backs up because of flooding,
impending motion of the wheel.
7.3.2 Overshot waterwheel
A vertically-mounted water wheel that is rotated by falling water striking paddles, blades or buckets
near the top of the wheel is said to be overshot. In true overshot wheels the water passes over the
top of the wheel, but the term is sometimes applied to backshot or pitchback wheels where the
water goes down behind the waterwheel.
A typical overshot wheel has the water channeled to the wheel at
the top and slightly to one side in the direction of rotation. The
water collects in the buckets on that side of the wheel, making it
heavier than the other "empty" side. The weight turns the wheel,
and the water flows out into the tail-water when the wheel rotates
enough to invert the buckets. The overshot design can use all of
the water flow for power (unless there is a leak) and does not require rapid flow.
Unlike undershot wheels, overshot wheels gain a double advantage from gravity. Not only is the
force of the flowing water partially transferred to the wheel, the weight of the water descending in
the wheel's buckets also imparts additional energy. The mechanical power derived from an
overshot wheel is determined by the wheel's physical size and the available head.
Overshot wheels demand exact engineering and significant head, which usually means significant
investment in constructing a dam, millpond and waterways. Sometimes the final approach of the
water to the wheel is along a lengthy flume or penstock.Overshot water wheel does not have
flooding problem.

7.3.3 Breastshot wheel

A vertically-mounted water wheel that is rotated by falling water
striking buckets near the center of the wheel's edge, or just above it,
is said to be breastshot. Breastshot wheels are less efficient than
overshot wheels , more efficient than undershot wheels, and are not
backshot.The individual blades of a breastshot wheel are actually
buckets, as are those of most overshot wheels.

7.4 SMALL SCALE HYDROPOWER

Small scale hydro or micro-hydro power has been increasingly used as an alternative energy
source, especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small scale hydro
power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernible environmental
effect on things such as fish migration. Most small scale hydro power systems make no use of a
dam or major water diversion, but rather use water wheels.
There are some considerations in a micro-hydro system installation. The amount of water flow
available on a consistent basis, since lack of rain can affect plant operation.
Head, or the amount of drop between the intake and the exit. The more head, the more power that
can be generated. There can be legal and regulatory issues, since most countries, cities, and
states have regulations about water rights and easements.

7.5 STORED POTENTIAL ENERGY

Water or anything else held at a height represents stored energy. We find that about 10 Joules are
needed to lift one kilogram vertically through one meter. More formally if M kilograms are raised
through height H meters the stored potential energy (PE) is given by,
PE = MgH.
The ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity, whose absolute value is 9.8 m/s2.

7.6 CALCULATIONS OF HYDROPOWER

Before embarking on any hydro power generation project it is essential to survey the proposed site
to calculate the amount of available hydro power.
The two vital factors to consider are the flow and the head of the stream or river. The flow is the
volume of water which can be captured and re-directed to turn the turbine generator, and the head
is the distance the water will fall on its way to the generator. The larger the flow - i.e. the more
water there is, and the higher the head - i.e. the higher the distance the water falls - the more
energy is available for conversion to electricity. Double the flow and double the power double the
head and double the power again.
A low head site has a head of below 10 metres. In this case you need to have a good volume of
water flow if you are to generate much electricity. A high head site has a head of above 20 metres.
In this case you can get away with not having a large flow of water; because gravity will give what
you have an energy boost.
The key equation to remember is the following:

Power = Head x Flow x Gravity

Where power is measured in Watts, head in metres, flow in litres per second, and acceleration due
to gravity in metres per second per second.
The acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.81 metres per second per second - i.e. each
second an object is falling, its speed increases by 9.81 metres per second (until it hits its terminal
velocity).
Sadly it is not possible to tap all the power - nothing is 100% efficient. However, hydro power
turbine generators are very efficient when compared to wind turbine generators and solar panels.
Efficiencies of around 70% can be expected which is to say that 70% of the hydraulic energy of the
flowing water can be turned into mechanical energy spinning the turbine generator. The remaining
30% is lost. Energy is again lost in converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy
(electricity) and so at the end of the day you can expect a complete system efficiency of around
50-60%.

7.7 HYDROPOWER AT HUB POWER STATION

At HUB Power Station eight circulating water pumps are used to pass water through condenser to
condense steam. The water is taken from an intake channel from the sea and pumped it in
condenser which passes through condenser tubes and at the end goes to outlet where it falls
down and went at south of power station to meet HUB River. The water is falling at the outlet
having both kinetic and potential energy.

The flow of one circulating water pump is 19200m3/h.

The flow of eight CW pumps will be 153600 m3/h = 42666.66 liter/sec.
The available head at the outlet is approximately 1.5m.

The power in the flowing water can be calculated by the relation,

Power = Head x Flow x Gravity

Power = (1.5) (42666.66) (9.8)
Power = 627KW

It is obvious that the power available from a water wheel will be very much less than above
because of losses and the Power output of a water wheel also depends on the width of the water
wheel. More the width more the water falls in the wheel which produces more energy.

7.8 SUITABLE DIMENTIONS OF WATER WHEEL

After a detailed inspection of the site, water wheel having following dimensions (given by the
manufacturer) is suitable for the proposed area.
A = Diameter = 8ft.
B = Perimeter wall width = 10in.
C = Spoke width = 4in.
D = Outside hub diameter = 14in.
E = Axil length = 36in.
F = Hub thickness = 1.3125in.
G = Spoke thickness = 1.3125in.
H = Axle diameter = 2in.
I = Perimeter wall thickness = 1.3125in.
J = locking collar = 1in.
K = wideat point of wheel = 25in.
L = bucket width = 16in.
M = weight = 300lbs.

7.9 POWER OUTPUT OF THIS WATER WHEEL

The power obtained from this water wheel can be calculated as,

Power = head x flow x gravity

The water flowing in the wheel depends upon the width of the bucket. The total width of the outlet

is 1200in. and the width of the bucket is 16in. hence the water flow in the wheel will be,

Flow = 42666.666 (16/1200)

Flow = 568.88 liter/sec.

Now using above expression to calculate power,

Power = (1.5)(569)(9.8)

Power = 8364 W

Power = 8.364 KW (aproxx.)

Assuming turbine(water wheel) to be 60% efficient and generator to be 90%, the final output wil

be,

Power = 4515 W

Power = 4.5 KW (aproxx.)

7.10 ENERGY OUTPUT AND SAVINGS

If this turbine is producing 4.5KW for 200 days (aproxx.7 months) per year then total energy output

will be;

Energy = Power X time

Energy = 4.5 KW X 24 hrs/day X 200 days/year

Energy = 21600 KWh/year = 21.6 MWh/year.

Savings = 21600 KWh/year X 10* Rs. /KWh.

Savings = 216000 Rs. /year.

7.11 COST AND ECONOMICS

The cost of this water wheel in United States is $2200 = Rs.149600**.

Total cost after assuming the transportation cost and installation cost will be Rs.500000.

From above calculations it is clear that this project will save 21600 rupees/ year. The payback

period can be calculated as,

Here,
i = 7%
R = Rs.216000
A = Rs.500000
Then,
n = 2.61years.

* Estimated cost per KWh based on the oil price.

** Estimated cost based on the dollar rate.
PART FOUR______________________________________

Commercial Feasibility of the project

Chapter 8 Synopsis
Chapter 8
Synopsis
After a detailed project the summary of economics, payback time, feasibility and
implementation of the suggestions that we give in previous chapters are as
follows.

INSTALLATION OF VFD ON CW PUMP

The highest energy savings possible at power plant are at CW Pump through
drives.
For ACS 1000i system:
The cost of VFD with the replacement of motor will be = Rs.25000000
The energy savings by VFD in year = Rs.17468006
Hence the Pay back period can be calculated as,

Here,
If i = 7% Then,
R = Rs.17468006 n = 1.56 years
A = Rs.25000000

Hence the installation of VFD (ACS 1000i) on CW Pump is feasible and

implement able having less payback time period.
INSTALLATION OF VFD ON BOILER FEED PUMP

If we install VFD on Boiler Feed Pump Very large energy savings are possible.

PROBLEM IN INSTALLATION OF VFD AT FEED WATER PUMP

Following are problems which can occur if speed of the pump is regulated by
VFD.

3. If hydraulic coupling is removed and motor is directly conneced to pump

then speed of both pump and motor operate at same speed which is not
desirable because necessary speed for pump operation is 5000rpm.

4. A booster pump is also on the same shaft of the motor operating at

1500rpm. Its function is to give a boost to feed water before supplying it to
main boiler feed pump. Its speed must not be changed during any
circumstances. If speed of the motor is reduced the the speed ofd the
booster pump is also decreases which is not desirable.

Solution
In Engineering there is always a solution af a problem. If we donot removev
hydraulic coupling and operate motor through VFD, then we can change the
speed of the pump by VFD and speed of the motor is multiplied by hydraulic
coupling with large energy saving.
For booster pump a small new motor should be installed to operate it at fixed
speed.

Hence VFD will give large energy savings problem is that the whole design and
pump machinery should be rearranged for this purpose.
INSTALLATION OF VFD ON FD FAN
At HUB Power Station FD fan is not operating at its actual speed. The idea is to
increase the speed of FD fan through VFD to its original value which is the
requirement of the boiler furnace.

From Economical point of view cost of a 1920KW VFD will be more than the cost
of a motor. Therefore the practical solution is to change the FD fan motor and not
to install a VFD. Installation of VFD may cause other problems like heating of
motor, harmonics and VFD losses.
Hence a Solution is to install a motor or more feasible is that to install an energy
efficient motor.

LIGHTING LOAD
At HUB Power Station the lighting Load is around 500KW which is much less than
1% of auxiliary power consumption. Further decrease in lighting load is not
possible. Use of energy efficient lighting schemes can be a good choice but
problem is that their power consumption is quite low but cost is so high which
make it not a feasible solution.

CRT AND LCD MONITORS

It has been discussed in detail that for energy saving point of view LCD is a good
choice. The initial cost of LCD makes it not feasible.

SOLAR GEYSERS

The problem with solar geysers is that is requiring large space for installation.
They have less initial cost. It can be installing on the roof of the camps.
 WIND ENERGY

At HUB Power Station wind energy in bulk is available. The thing necessary is to
install wind turbines here as much as possible to get free of cost, environmental
friendly energy.

Wind turbines are unfortunately not manufactured in Pakistan. The wind turbines
which are manufactured by china are cheap, reliable and have less pay back
period. The wind available for proper wind turbine operation is for six months. So
we can save fuel for half a year.
If the cost of wind turbine including installation and transportation cost is
RS.2500000.
The amount of energy saved by wind turbine is Rs.650000
Then payback period can be calculated as,

Here,

i = 7%
R = Rs.650000
A = Rs.2500000
Then,
n = 4.63 years.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER
The installation of a water wheel is impossible at the outlet because installation in
running water is not possible. The life of wheel is 5 years for normal water but how
long it will work for sea water is a question mark.

As far as feasibility is concerned it is feasible but not implement able.

The pay back time is around 2.7 years

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Install VFD on CW pump can save power up to 216KW per pump.

2. Install one Wind Turbine of 20 KW can save fuel up to 16.5 ton per year.
3. Replace old FD fan motor to improve burning efficiency.
4. In modern power stations VFD is necessary with Boiler Feed Pump so
replace old pump, hydraulic coupling, motor with new and latest
technology. Payback period will be quite small because you get large
saving.
APPENDIXES_________________________________

A – VFD (Variable Frequency Drives)

B – Centrifugal Pumps

C – Affinity Law and Pump Energy Saving

Methods
Appendix A

VFD (Variable Frequency Drives)

Intoduction
An electric drive is a system that performs the conversion of electric energy into mechanical
energy at adjustable speeds. This is the reason why an electric drive is also called adjustable
speed drive (ASD). Moreover, the electric drive, as we will see later, always contains a current (or
torque) regulation in order to provide safe current control for the motor. Therefore, the electric drive
torque/speed is able to match in steady state the torque/speed characteristics of any mechanical
load. This motor to mechanical load match means better energy efficiency and leads to lower
energy costs. In addition, during the transient period of acceleration and deceleration, the electric
drive provides fast dynamics and allows soft starts and stops, for instance.

Adjustable speed drive (ASD)

ASD or variable-speed drive (VSD) describes equipment used to control the speed of machinery.
Many industrial processes such as assembly lines must operate at different speeds for different
products. Where process conditions demand adjustment of flow from a pump or fan, varying the
speed of the drive may save energy compared with other techniques for flow control.

Applications
A growing number of applications require that the torque and speed must vary to match the
mechanical load. Electric transportation means, elevators, computer disk drives, machine tools,
and robots are examples of high-performance applications where the desired motion versus time
profile must be tracked very precisely. Pumps, fans, conveyers, and HVAC (heat, ventilation, air
conditioners) are examples of moderate performance applications where variable-speed operation
means energy savings.

Reasons for using adjustable speed drives

Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an adjustable
speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for process control, but energy
conservation has emerged as an equally important objective.

Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives

An adjustable speed drive often uses less energy than an alternative fixed speed mode of
operation. Fans and pumps are the most common energy saving applications. When a fan is
driven by a fixed speed motor, the airflow may sometimes be higher than it needs to be.
Airflow can be regulated by using a damper to restrict the flow, but it is more efficient to regulate
the airflow by regulating the speed of the motor. It follows from the affinity laws that reducing fan
speed to 50% results in a power consumption drop to 12.5%.

AC drives
AC drives are AC motor speed control systems.

Slip controlled drives

Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a motor's slip. This is
accomplished by reducing the voltage applied to the motor or increasing the resistance of the rotor
windings. Because they are generally less efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives
have lost popularity and have recently been used only in special situations

Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD)

AFD control the speed of either an induction motor or a synchronous motor by adjusting the
frequency of the power supplied to the motor. Adjustable frequency drives are also known as
variable-frequency drives (VFD).

We can see the effect of a change in stator frequency on the induction motor by looking at the
speed-torque curve in Figure(on the next page).Curve A is a typical curve for a four pole machine
with an applied stator frequency of 60Hz.. The motor will operate where the curve crosses the line
labeled 100% load torque. If the stator frequency is decreased to 40Hz, the motor will shift its
operating point to curve B, further reduction in frequency to 30Hz will take the motor to curve C.
This reduction in frequency could continue untill the rotor ia at a standstill. Although we moved the
stator frequency in steps, the actual control is infinitely variable up to the maximum motor speed.
The induction motor is named for the way –that is, electromagnetic induction. Like the trasformer,
the AC induction motor needs to have a constant flux in the rotor and stator.
Unless this requirtement is met , the motor will not be able to generate full torque, if the frequency
applied to the stator is decreased. The voltage applied to the stator must be decreased by the
same amount.This concept is based on the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and it is as
follows

V(t) = -N dФ/dt
If a v(t) = VM sinωt is applied to the core; the resulting flux Фis
Ф(t) = (1/Np ) ∫ v(t) dt = (1/Np ) ∫ VM sinωt dt
Ф(t) = - (VM / ω Np )cos ωt

When changing the frequency of the power supplied to an AC motor, the ratio of the applied
voltage to the applied frequency (V/Hz) is generally maintained at a constant value between the
minimum and maximum operating frequencies. Operation at a constant voltage (reduced V/Hz)
above a given frequency provides reduced torque capability and constant power capability above
that frequency. The frequency or speed at which constant-voltage operation begins is called the
base frequency or speed. Whether to applied voltage is regulated directly or indirectly, the V/Hz
tends to follow the general pattern described for the performance described.

A composite picture of induction motor operation

The figure(on the next page) shows the developed torque, stator current, and slip frequency as
functions of speed. In the constant torque region, the maximum available torque is shown to be
somewhat lower than the breakdown torquedue to the limited inverter current capability.
On the right edge of the constant torque region , the stator voltage reaches the rated value and the
machine enters the constant horspower mode. In this mode the stator current stays nearly
constant but the rotor frequency increases linearly and the operating point moves closer to the
breakdown point. Again on the right of the constant horspower region the breakdown torque is
reached and the machine speed can be further increased by increasing the frequency, with
reduction in the stator currennt . In this region the slip frequency is held constant.
Benefits of Ac Drives
Ac drives have the following overweighing advantages.
(a) Ac machines are 20-40% lighter than dc motors. They are inexpensive and require less
maintenance compared to dc motors.
(b) The advent of Silicon controlled rectifiers with high di/dt and dv/dt ratings as well as IGBTs
has given impetus to the use of ac drives in applicaton with power ratings 100hp and
above
(c) Easy implementation of complex control algorithms by means of microprocessor or
microcomputers, and the consequent improved reliabilityand increased flexibilty have
popularized microprocessor based ac drives. Flexibility can be attributed to the replacibilty
of hardwaare circuitry by microprocessor software. The development of software
packages for optimum pulse width modulation has led to the increased use of PWM-based
VSIs.

Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process

The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an adjustable speed drive:
• Smoother operation
• Acceleration control
• Different operating speed for each process recipe
• Compensate for changing process variables
• Allow slow operation for setup purposes
• Adjust the rate of production
• Allow accurate positioning
Control torque or tension
Reduced maintenance costs and longer lifetime of equipment
Variable speed drives also act as soft starters reducing the stress on network, motors and pumps.
During the starting process, the variable speed drive progressively increases the motor speed and
smoothly accelerates the load to its rated speed. One variable speed drive can start several
pumps in sequence. Soft starting eliminates high starting currents and voltage dips which can
cause process trips. By soft starting, maintenance costs will be reduced and the lifetime of the
equipment extended. If pumps are turned off or water demand is reduced, variable speed drives
slowly reduce the speed of the pumps, avoiding water hammering. The stress on the pumps is
reduced resulting in a longer lifetime of the pumps.
Example: An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an
alternative fixed speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station sewage usually
flows through sewer pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well location. From there it is pumped
up to a treatment process. When fixed speed pumps are used, the pumps are set to start when the
level of the liquid in the wet well reaches some high point and stop when the level has been
reduced to a low point. Cycling the pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of electrical
current to start the motors resulting in electromagnetic and thermal stresses in the motors and
power control equipment, the pumps and pipes are subjected to mechanical and hydraulic
stresses, and the sewage treatment process is forced to accommodate surges in the flow of
sewage through the process.
When adjustable speed drives are used, the pumps operate continuously at a speed that
increases as the wet well level increases. This matches the outflow to the average inflow and
provides a much smoother operation of the process.

Fixed speeds of electric motors

Alternating-current electric motors run at speeds closely determined by the number of poles in the
motor and the frequency of the alternating current supply. This is unlike the steam engine, which
can be made to run over a range of speeds by adjusting the timing and duration of valves
admitting steam to the cylinder.
AC motors can be made with several sets of poles, which can be chosen to give one of several
different speeds (say, 720/1800 RPM for a 60 Hz motor). The number of different speeds available
is limited by the expense of providing multiple sets of windings. If many different speeds or
continuously variable speeds are required, other methods are required.
Direct-current motors allow for changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current. Another way
of changing speed of a direct current motor is to change the voltage applied to the armature.
An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and controller that is used to adjust
the motor's operating speed. The combination of a constant-speed motor and a steplessly
adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also be called an adjustable speed drive.
Electronic variable frequency drives are rapidly making older technology redundant.

Comparision of fixed speed Vs variable speed

The most common flow control method is by means of a fixed speed motor regulated with a valve.
This method can be compared to adjusting the speed of a car by braking while keeping the foot on
the accelerator. This technique does not only waste a tremendous amount of energy, it also wears
out the equipment.
With electric variable speed drives, changing the flow is simply achieved by changing the motor
speed, which can be compared to reducing the speed by taking the foot off the gas and switching
to a lower gear. The pumps will be operated at the BEP (Best Efficiency Point) under all operating
conditions. Electric variable speed drives are the most efficient control method - they save energy,
decrease CO2 emissions and minimize total operating costs.

Operation of Variable Frequency Drive

Three main components of Electric drive
An electric drive has three main components:
• The electric motor
• The power electronic converter
• The drive controller
The following figure shows the basic topology of an electric drive. Beside the three main
components, the figure shows an electric power source, a mechanical load, electric and motion
sensors, and a user interface.

VFD Technology Highlight

Direct Torque Control (DTC)
Direct Torque Control (DTC), results in the highest torque and speed performance ever achieved
in .Medium voltage drives. Control of the drive is immediate and smooth.

Power Loss RideThrough

Due to its RideThrough function, the drive system is able to withstand disturbances of the power
supply. The drive will continue to operate in an active but non-torque producing mode if the
incoming supply voltage is cut off. The drive will be active as long as the motor rotates and
generates energy to the drive. It will resume normal operation immediately upon return of power
supply.

High-power semiconductor switching devices

Technology has developed a high power switch called IGCT (Integrated Gate Commutated
Thyristor) to allow the use of modern control algorithms, which can eliminate harmonics, improve
dynamic response time and maintain or even control the power factor.
This results in a reliable, compact and service-friendly drive. IGCTs are an optimal switching
device for high-power medium voltage applications. The diode and the line commutated thyristor
technology provides an optimal solution with lowest losses and highest reliability for high power
applications, but they do not allow the use of modern control algorithms.

Low parts count

The fewer the parts, the higher the reliability. Some drives uses high power semiconductor
switching devices and a topology that brings down the parts count to a minimum.

Fuseless design
Some drives medium voltage drives are designed to operate safely without fuses. This results in
less spare parts and fast re-starting should a trip occur.

Encoderless
Encoders have an exposed position on the motor and are known to cause failures. Medium
voltage drives can operate without encoder.

DriveMonitorTM
Medium voltage drives are available with an intelligent monitoring and diagnostics system, which
allows secure access to the drive from any location in the world. DriveMonitorTM supports
monitoring, configuration and diagnostics of ABB drives independent of the implemented control
method, thus also enabling the connection of existing installations. The optional tool consists of a
hardware module inside the drive, as well as a software layer that automatically collects and
analyzes selected drive signals and parameters.

VFD Losses
When the total efficiency of a drive system is determined, the internal losses of the VFDs must be
included. These VFD losses are not constant and not easy to determine. They consist of a
constant part and a load dependent part.

Constant losses:
Cooling losses (cooling fan)—
losses in the electronic circuits
and so on.

Load dependent losses:

Switching losses and lead losses
in the power semiconductors.
EFFECTS ON MOTOR INSULATION
The output voltages from modern VFDs have a very short voltage rise time.
dU/dT = 5000V/μs is a common value.
Such steep voltage slopes will cause undue stress in the insulation materials of the motor winding.
With short rise times, voltage in the stator winding is not uniformly distributed. With a sinusoidal
power supply, the turn-turn voltage in a motor winding is normally equally distributed. With a VFD
on the other hand, up to 80% of the voltage will drop across the first and the second turn. Since
the insulation between the wires constitutes a weak point, this may prove to be hazardous for the
motor. A short rise time also causes voltage reflection in the motor cable. In the worst case, this
phenomena will double the voltage across the motor terminals. A motor fed from a 690-volt VFD
might be exposed to up to 1 900 volts between phases.The voltage amplitude depends on the
length of the motor cable and the rise time. With very short rise times, full reflection occurs in a
cable 10 to 20 meters in length.
To ensure function and ample motor life time, it is absolutely necessary that a winding be adapted
for use with a VFD. Motors for voltages above 500 volts must have some form of reinforced
insulation. The stator winding must be impregnated with a resin that ensures an insulation free of
bubbles or cavities. Glow discharges often start around cavities. This phenomena will eventually
destroy the insulation.
There are ways to protect a motor. Over and above a reinforced insulation system, it might be
necessary to insert a filter between the VFD and the motor. Such filters are available from
most well-known VFD suppliers. A filter will typically slow down the voltage rise time from

BEARING FAILURE
Breakdown of rotating machinery can often be related to bearing failure. In addition to excessive
heating, insufficient lubrication or metal fatigue, electric current through the bearings may be the
cause behind many mysterious bearing breakdowns, especially with large motors. This
phenomenon is generally caused by non symmetry in the magnetic circuit, which induces a small
voltage in the stator structure, or by a zero sequence current. If the potential between the stator
structure and the shaft unit becomes high enough, a discharge will take place through the bearing.
Small electric discharges between the rolling elements and the bearing raceway will eventually
damage the bearing.
The use of VFDs will increase the probability of this type of bearing failure occurring. The switching
technique of a modern VFD causes a zero-sequence current that, under certain circumstances,
finds its way through the bearings. The easiest way to cure this problem is to raise an obstacle for
the current. The usual method is to use a bearing with an insulating coating on the outer ring.
Application of VFD With References
APPENDIX B
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

WHAT IS CENTRIFUGAL PUMP?

• Convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by centrifugal force on the liquid.
• Constitute the most common type of pumping machinery.
• Used to move liquids through a piping system.
• Has two main components:
1. Stationary componets, casing, casing cover and bearings
2. Rotating components, impeller and shaft
• Classified into three categories ; Radial Flow, Mixed Flow, Axial Flow

WORKING MECHANISM OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

• Simplest piece of equipment in any process plant.
• Energy changes occur by virtue of impeller and volute.
• Liquid is fed into the pump at the center of a rotating impeller and thrown outward by
centrifugal force.
• The conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy supplies the pressure difference
between the suction side and delivery side of the pump.

IMPORTANT PUMP FORMULAE

1. Head of pump and velocity.
H= V2
2g
where;
H = Head developed ( ft)
V = peripheral impeller velocity ( ft/sec)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft / sec 2.

2. Speed and ipmeller diameter.

V = N.D
229
where;
V = peripheral impeller velocity ( ft/sec)
N = imprller RPM.
D = impeller diameter (in)
 3. Capacity, Velocity and Area.
Q = 449 . A. V
where;
Q = capacity (gpm)
A = area of pipe line (ft 2)
V = velocity of flow

4. Head and pressure.

Head = Perssure (psi) . 2.31
Specific Gravity

5. Break Horse Power.

BHP = Q . H . Sp.Gr
3960 . η
where;
BHP = break horse power
Q = capacity (gpm)
η = pump efficiency

6. Work Horse Power.

BHP = Q . H . Sp.Gr
3960
where;
BHP = break horse power
Q = capacity (gpm)

7. Efficiency.
η = BHP
WHP

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CURVES.

The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on a characteristic curve. A
typical characteristic curve shows the total dynamic head, brake horsepower, efficiency, and net
positive Suction head all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.
Figures 1, 2 & 3 are non-dimensional curves which indicate the general shape of the characteristic
curves for the various types of pumps. They show the head, brake horsepower, and efficiency
plotted as a percent of their values at the design or best efficiency point of the pump.
Fig. 1 below shows that the head curve for a radial flow pump is relatively flat and that the head
decreases gradually as the flow increases. Note that the brake horsepower increases gradually
over the flow range with the maximum normally at the point of maximum flow.

Fig. 1 Radial Flow Pump

Mixed flow centrifugal pumps and axial flow or propeller pumps have considerably different
characteristics as shown in Figs. 2 and 3 below. The head curve for a mixed flow pump is steeper
than for a radial flow pump. The shut-off head is usually 150% to 200% of the design head, The
brake horsepower remains fairly constant over the flow range. For a typical axial flow pump, the
head and brake horsepower both increase drastically near shutoff as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2 Mixed Flow Pump

 Fig. 3 Axial Flow Pump

The distinction between the above three classes is not absolute, and there are many pumps with
characteristics falling somewhere between the three. For instance, the Francis vane impeller would
have a characteristic between the radial and mixed flow classes. Most turbine pumps are also in
this same range depending upon their specific speeds.

ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIGUGAL PUMPS

• Simple in construction and cheap.
• Handle liquid with large amounts of solids.
• No metal to metal fits.
• No valves involved in pump operation.
• Maintenance costs are lower.

DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

• Cannot handle highly viscous fluids efficiently
• Cannot be operated at high heads
• Maximum efficiency holds over a narrow range of conditions
APPENDIX C
Affinity law and Pump energy savings methods

AFFINITY LAWS

The affinity laws express the mathematical relationship between the several variables involved in
pump performance. They apply to all types of centrifugal and axial flow pumps. They are as
follows:
1. With impeller diameter D held constant:
Where:
Q = Capacity, GPM
H = Total Head, Feet
BHP = Brake Horsepower
N = Pump Speed, RPM

2. With speed N held constant:

When the performance (Q1, H1, & BHP1) is known at some particular speed (N1) or diameter (D1),
the formulas can be used to estimate the performance (Q2, H2, & BHP2) at some other speed (N2)
or diameter (D2). The efficiency remains nearly constant for speed changes and for small changes
in impeller diameter.
Example:
N 1 = 1750 rpm,N2 = 2000rpm, Q 1 = 300gpm, BHP 1 = 20hp, H 1 = 160ft
Q 2 =?, BHP 2 =?, H 2 =?
Solution:

SystemCurves
For a specified impeller diameter
and speed, a centrifugal pump has a
fixed and predictable performance
curve. The point where the pump
operates on its curve is dependent
upon the characteristics of the
system In which it is operating,
commonly called the System Head
Curve or, the relationship between
flow and hydraulic losses in a
system. This representation is in a
graphic form and, since friction
losses vary as a square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape.

By plotting the system head curve and pump curve together, it can be determined:
1. Where the pump will operate on its curve.
2. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the pump performance curve
changes.
NO STATIC HEAD - ALL FRICTION

As the levels in the suction and discharge are the same (Fig. 1), there is no static head and,
therefore, the system curve starts at zero flow and zero head and its shape is determined solely
from pipeline losses. The point of operation is at the intersection of the system head curve and the
pump curve. The flow rate may be reduced by throttling valve.

Fig.1 No Static
Head All Friction

POSITIVE STATIC HEAD

The parabolic shape of the system

curve is again determined by the
friction losses through the system
including all bends and valves. But in
this case there is a positive static
head involved. This static head does
not affect the shape of the system
curve or its "steepness", but it does
dictate the head of the system curve
at zero flow rate.

The operating point is at the

intersection of the system curve and
pump curve. Again, the flow rate can be reduced by throttling the discharge valve.
Fig. 2 Positive Suction Head
NEGATIVE (GRAVITY) HEAD

In the illustration below, a certain flow

rate will occur by gravity head alone. But
to obtain higher flows, a pump Is
required to overcome the pipe friction
losses in excess of "H" - the head of the
suction above the level of the discharge.
In other words, the system curve is
plotted exactly as for any other case
involving a static head and friction head,
except the static head is now negative.
The system curve begins at a negative
value and shows the limited flow rate
obtained by gravity alone. More capacity
requires extra work.
Fig. 3 Negative (Gravity) Head

MOSTLY LIFT- LITTLE FRICTION HEAD

The system head curve in the

illustration below starts at the static head
"H" and zero flow. Since the friction
losses are relatively small (possibly due
to the large diameter pipe), the
system curve is "flat". In this case. the
pump is required to overcome the
comparatively large static head
before it will deliver any flow at all.

Fig. 4 Mostly Lift - Little Fricition

Head

Hydraulic losses in piping systems are composed of pipe friction losses, valves, elbows and other
fittings, entrance and exit losse (these to the entrance and exit to and from the pipeline normally at
the beginning and end not the pump) and losses from changes in pipe size by enlargement or
reduction in diameter.
Pump flow controlling methods
On many occasion, pumping systems are designed with a conservative safety factor. It is very
common that we have experienced pumps delivering higher flow and head onsite. This is mainly
due to over design on the operating
requirement. The additional head and flow
are produced due to the common practice
of adding safety factor to cater for pipe
aging into the original system. See the
figure below for a typical installation.

The Actual Operatng Requirement is Ha

and Qa, but due to the safety factor and
the system curve on site, the Operating
Point will be X. The safety factor for H can
vary from country to country but it usually
ranges from 5%-15%. However H can be up to 30% in some country. It left alone, the system
requirements (Hx & Qx) will be larger. This higher head and flow will inevitably result in higher
power consumption. In more serious cases, proble,s like cavitations, vibration, overloading and
premature failure will set in and shorten the life span of the pump.

Method 1: Valve Control

Using valves to control the flow is the most common and cheapest way. Commonly used valves
are butterfly valve, gate valve and ball valve etc. However these are not recommended for flow
control. Sometimes customers will not use valves to control the flow because they will damage
easily due to wear and tear. We
recommended the globe type or needle
type valve design for flow control.

Effect of valves Control Is to modify

system characteristic and induce the
artificial loss.

From this figure, we can see that the head

loss during throttling.
The accuracy of the control is still a
question as valves have their own
characteristics

Hence, we recommend this solution

for applications where flow and
pressure are not critical during
operation, such as transfer from one
point to another point.

Method 2: Orifice plates

The most convenient and economical way to control flow and head is to use a orifice plate in the
system. It is a simple and effective approach to handle over headed system. But there are several
rules to follow when applying orifice plate with system.
1) Orifice diameter must be at least 50% than pipe internal diameter.
2) Orifice plate material should be corrosion resistant like stainless steel or brass/bronze
3) Using orifice plate in the system is for clean liquid purpose.
4) Thickness of the orifice plate 6mm for up to pipe diameter 150 and 10mm for up to pipe
diameter 12".
The orifice plate when installed creates artificial loss in him system so that the head and flow is
brought to the desired level.
The use of orifice plate not only creates hydraulic losses but also the following problem:
1) Unnecessary noises in the system.
2) Turbulence
3) Unwanted wear and tear caused by erosion.
When the liquid contain particles the intensity of the inspection of the orifice plate should be check
at regular intervals due to possible erosion in the liquid.
In the drawing the Q reduce when the orifice plate is added.
Orifice plate is a good economical solution for fixed system for flow & head.

Method 3: Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is being used to control the speed of the pump to attain the
desired flow/head and temperature in the system but it is more expensive compared to other
methods. By using the VFD, it is possible to obtain large energy savings when the demand for flow
decreases. For example when flow demand decreases by 50%, the head is reduced by 25% and,
at the same time, the power need is reduced 12.5%.

Two main reasons for choosing a speed controlled pump solution:

1) The pump performance curve and the system characteristics counteract. This implies that a
lower flow results in a higher head and a lower pressure loss across the entire system.
2) Whether it is circulator pumps for domestic housing or large central distribution systems,
payback times of 1-4 years are realistic when existing, non controlled pumps are replaced by
electronic speed controlled pumps. Reduced CO. emission to the atmosphere as a consequence
of substantial energy savings is another strong argument. Consumption of 1 kwh of electricity
produced by means of coal results in a CO. emission of 1.2Kg.
Centrifugal pumps are the most likely pump style to provide a favorable return based on energy
savings when applied with a variable-
frequency drive (VFD). To help illustrate
this, we conducted benchmark testing to
document various head and flow
scenarios and their corresponding effect
on energy savings. We explored the
relationship of static and friction head in
the energy efficiency equation and the
effect of motor, pump and VFD
efficiencies. The result is a reference point
for plant engineers and maintenance
personnel to select the best prospects for
maximizing efficiency and energy savings.

While most centrifugal pumps operate at the fixed flow established by the hard-piped “free system”
needs, many systems require variable flow to meet changing process demands. The two most
common methods for controlling variable pump system output are a control valve (throttling) and a
variable speed drive.

Controlling the flow with a throttling valve is like modulating the speed of a car using only the brake
pedal. You set the accelerator pedal at a fixed point and use the brake to change speed. The
engine works at nearly the same rate, but applying the brake restricts the work output by changing
the resistance of the drive train. At low speed, the engine strains, the brakes overheat and
reliability suffers — while consuming fuel at a nearly constant rate. Of course, this is a silly way to
control your car, but most varying pumping systems are controlled in an analogous manner. The
pump speed is fixed and a control valve adds system resistance, changing the system curve and
thus restricting the output of the pumping system — while consuming nearly the same amount of
energy.

Using variable-speed control, on the other hand, can be compared with the way people drive cars,
changing vehicle speed by changing the engine’s output. Variable-speed pumping uses the same
principle. Instead of changing the system resistance to modulate flow, the pump speed changes.
This shifts the pump’s head-capacity (HQ) curve to alter the point at which it crosses the system
curve. Variable-speed control changes the energy input rather than relying on a valve to strip
system energy. The result is often a dramatic energy savings.

While a throttled pump consumes slightly less power than it would running free, it continues to
rotate at the same speed, thus maintaining high velocity in the mechanical seal and bearings, and
velocity directly determines bearing and mechanical seal life. Moving the operation of a centrifugal
pump equipped with a constant pressure volute (the most common centrifugal pump type) away
from BEP alters the hydraulic balance between the volute and impeller. The pump develops ever-
increasing radial thrust loads, which increases radial forces that produce high bearing loads and
shaft deflection. That affects mechanical seal alignment and, therefore, reduces bearing and
mechanical seal life.

Centrifugal pumps and the affinity laws

Energy usage decreases with throttling as shown by the valve throttling curve in Figure 1.
However, speed reduction results in a more significant energy reduction. The larger the flow
reduction from the free operating point, the larger the energy savings. The advantage is that
centrifugal pumps performance follows the affinity laws. Flow rate is directly proportional to pump
speed. The differential pressure is directly proportional to the square of the pump speed. Power
usage is directly proportional to the cube of the pump speed.

For example, reducing speed by 50% requires only 12.5% of the power needed at full speed.
Determine the new operating point by using the affinity laws to generate a new pump curve and
finding where it intersects the system curve. Adjust the flow, head and power at several points
along the original pump curve to find the new curve.
Follow the energy

System curves combine the effects of both static and frictional head. Static head is the height to
which fluid is being pumped plus the surface pressure at the outlet less the height of the supply
tank and its surface pressure. Frictional head is the frictional pressure loss in the pipe, fittings and
valves.

In systems exhibiting only frictional head loss, flow rate can be reduced by slowing the pump. The
power savings mount as the pump slows. In systems with high static head, the operational flow
point is continuously moving toward the pump minimum flow as speed drops. A minimum
operating speed is required to overcome the static pressure difference, Therefore, the energy
savings are limited.

Because systems with only friction head provides the most likely energy-saving scenario and those
with greater static head provide the least, making a decision on VFD or throttling appears simple.
However, most applications fall somewhere in the middle, making the economics less clear.

Running the test

To develop some energy savings guidelines, we configured a 40-hp, pump/motor/drive system and
measured energy consumption for various static-versus-friction head scenarios. We then
compared the various scenarios to each other and to the throttled base case. Figure 2 shows the
test configuration.
These tests used a two-pole, 3,560 rpm, 40-hp, totally enclosed fan-cooled motor with a NEMA
nominal nameplate efficiency of 94.1% matched with a pump having a 3-in. suction, 2-inch
discharge and 8-inch impeller. The VFD was rated at 40-hp. Both the drive and motor are three-
phase 460 VAC. Figure 3 shows the system curves for the five-test regimen that recorded the
input power and power factor as a function of flow rate.
The first test used no VFD. The pump was throttled to move along the pump curve. The VFD was
used in the remaining tests to vary the flow rate and move along one of the four system curves.
The system curves represent 0, 60, 140 and 210 feet of static head. Each curve intersects the
pump curve at approximately 340 gpm.

Experimental results
The greatest energy savings occur in low-static-head applications that use a VFD in place of a
throttling valve. However, using a VFD to operate at reduced flow rate against high static head still
produces savings over throttling, though the result is not as dramatic.
Table 1 shows flow and energy consumption for various flow conditions. These savings follow the
curves shown in Figure 4, which compare the savings of each test scenario to the valve throttling
base case. Notice that when using a VFD at points near full flow and speed, energy use actually
increases because of VFD losses, typically 3%. Thus, if flow will never be reduced and the system
is sized properly for the application, the most efficient system would be across-the-line power.

Table 1. Power Consumption

Flow Flow
Throttled VFD
(gpm) (%)

0 ft. static 60 ft. static 140 ft. static 210 ft. static
head head head head

170 50% 19.70 kW 3.20 kW 6.35 kW 10.44 kW 14.08 kW

204 60% 20.95 5.46 8.70 12.70 16.02

238 70% 22.21 8.68 11.75 15.42 18.30

272 80% 23.47 13.06 15.58 18.61 20.90

306 90% 24.73 18.83 20.31 22.31 23.77

340 100% 25.99 26.19 26.02 26.52 26.89

Economics

A pump operating 30% below the free system flow rate consumes 61% less power (13.53 kW)
than by throttling it to the same flow rate. If the pump operates at this level only 25% of the time in
a 24-hr. shift for 250 days per year when power cost is 6 cents per kW-hr, the savings would be
about $1,217 per year. If the pump also had to overcome 60 ft. of static head (47% of the total
head), the savings would be $941 per year.

Using a VFD to operate a pump against variable static head not only saves energy, it also reduces
bearing and seal wear, which reduces downtime and maintenance costs.

VFDs also provide nearly unity power factor. For these tests, the displacement power factor with
the VFD was about 0.97 to 0.98 versus a range of 0.72 to 0.87 when operating the motor across
the line. This may be important if the local utility has penalties for poor power factor.

Using a VFD requires that the motor insulation system be designed and manufactured to handle
the high switching frequencies used in today’s IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) drives. Lead
lengths also should be minimized to prevent reflected waves from damaging the motor.
Finally, if most of the energy for a centrifugal pump isn’t needed to overcome static head, using a
VFD instead of a throttling valve to control flow will produce energy savings.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF ENERGY SAVING

BIBLOGRAPHY

BOOKS

i. Renewable Energy Chapter.5 By Janet Ramage

ii. Renewable Energy Chapter.7 By Derek Taylor

iii. Power Plant Engineering

iv. Modern Power Station Design

Web References:

o http://www.pc.ibm.com/us/accessories/access_promo/flatpanel/tour

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_power_station

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plants

o www.exmork.com/

o www.windpower.org/en/core.htm

o www.windpower.org/en/pictures/offshore

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power_in_Denmark

o www.danishwpa.com

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity

o www.waterwheelfactory

o www.variablefrequencydrives.net/

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable-frequency_drive

o www.engineeringtoolbox.com/affinity-laws

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_laws

o www.pumpworld.com/Affinity%20Laws.htm

o en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_pump

o www.cheresources.com/centrifugalpumps1
o www.maintenanceworld.com/Articles/engresource/centrifugalpumps

o www.cee1.org/ind/mot-rep/mot-rep-fanlaws

o www.efisystemsgroup.com/fanlaws.htm

o www.delhi-industries.com/Engineering/Tips/FanLaws

o www.cpemma.co.uk/fanlaws.html

o www.china-solarpower.com

o www.plantservices.com

o http://www.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/refbriefs/ec7.html
TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS -