Calculator

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This article is about the electronic device. For mechanical precursors to the modern calculator,
see mechanical calculator. For other uses, see Calculator (disambiguation).

An electronic pocket calculator with a liquid-crystal display (LCD) seven-segment display that can
perform arithmetic operations

A modern scientific calculator with a dot matrixLCD

An electronic calculator is typically a portable electronic device used to perform calculations,

ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics.
The first solid-state electronic calculator was created in the early 1960s. Pocket-sized devices
became available in the 1970s, especially after the Intel 4004, the first microprocessor, was
developed by Intel for the Japanese calculator company Busicom. They later became used
commonly within the petroleum industry (oil and gas).
Modern electronic calculators vary from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy
desktop models with built-in printers. They became popular in the mid-1970s as the
incorporation of integrated circuits reduced their size and cost. By the end of that decade,
prices had dropped to the point where a basic calculator was affordable to most and they
became common in schools.
Computer operating systems as far back as early Unix have included interactive
calculator programs such as dc and hoc, and calculator functions are included in almost
all personal digital assistant (PDA) type devices, the exceptions being a few dedicated address
book and dictionary devices.
In addition to general purpose calculators, there are those designed for specific markets. For
example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations.
Some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be
used to graph functions defined on the real line, or higher-dimensional Euclidean space. As of
2016, basic calculators cost little, but scientific and graphing models tend to cost more.
In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the world's general-purpose
hardware capacity to compute information. By 2007, this had diminished to less than 0.05%.[1]

Contents

 1Design
o 1.1Input
o 1.2Display output
o 1.3Memory
o 1.4Power source
o 1.5Key layout
 2Internal workings
o 2.1Example
 2.1.1Numeric representation
 3Calculators compared to computers
 4History
o 4.1Precursors to the electronic calculator
o 4.2Development of electronic calculators
o 4.31970s to mid-1980s
 4.3.1Pocket calculators
 4.3.2Programmable calculators
 4.3.3Technical improvements
 4.3.4Mass market phase
o 4.4Mid-1980s to present
 5Use in education
 6See also
 7References
o 7.1Sources
 8Further reading
 9External links

Design

Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents

Input
Electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations;
some even contain "00" and "000" buttons to make larger or smaller numbers easier to enter.
Most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button; however, in more
specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations.
Display output
Calculators usually have liquid-crystal displays (LCD) as output in place of historical light-
emitting diode (LED) displays and vacuum fluorescent displays (VFD); details are provided in
the section Technical improvements.
Large-sized figures are often used to improve readability; while using decimal
separator (usually a point rather than a comma) instead of or in addition to vulgar fractions.
Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display. Fractions such as
1
⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some
fractions (such as 1⁄7, which is 0.14285714285714; to 14 significant figures) can be difficult to
recognize in decimal form; as a result, many scientific calculators are able to work in vulgar
fractions or mixed numbers.
Memory
Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic calculators
usually store only one number at a time; more specific types are able to store many numbers
represented in variables. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas. Some
models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers; the
extended memory address is termed an array index.
Power source
Power sources of calculators are: batteries, solar cells or mains electricity (for old models),
turning on with a switch or button. Some models even have no turn-off button but they provide
some way to put off (for example, leaving no operation for a moment, covering solar
cell exposure, or closing their lid). Crank-powered calculators were also common in the early
computer era.
Key layout
The following keys are common to most pocket calculators. While the arrangement of the digits
is standard, the positions of other keys vary from model to model; the illustration is an example.
Usual basic pocket calculator layout

MC MR M− M+

C ± % √

7 8 9 ÷

4 5 6 ×

1 2 3 −

0 . = +

Calculator buttons and their meanings

MC or CM Memory Clear

MR, RM, or
Memory Recall
MRC

M− Memory Subtraction

M+ Memory Addition

C or AC All Clear

Clear (last) Entry; sometimes called CE/C: a first press clears the last entry (CE), a
CE
second press clears all (C)

± or CHS Toggle positive/negative number aka CHange Sign

 % Percent

÷ Division

× Multiplication

− Subtraction

+ Addition

. Decimal point

√ Square root

= Result

Internal workings

In general, a basic electronic calculator consists of the following components:[2]

 Power source (mains electricity, battery and/or solar cell)

 Keypad (input device) – consists of keys used to input numbers and function commands
(addition, multiplication, square-root, etc.)
 Display panel (output device) – displays input numbers, commands and results. Liquid-
crystal displays (LCDs), vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), and light-emitting
diode (LED) displays use seven segments to represent each digit in a basic calculator.
Advanced calculators may use dot matrix displays.
o A printing calculator, in addition to a display panel, has a printing unit that prints results
in ink onto a roll of paper, using a printing mechanism.
 Processor chip (microprocessor or central processing unit).

Processor chip's contents

Unit Function
 When a calculator is powered on, it scans the keypad waiting to pick up
Scanning (Polling) unit
an electrical signal when a key is pressed.

Encoder unit Converts the numbers and functions into binary code.

They are number stores where numbers are stored temporarily while
X register and Y register doing calculations. All numbers go into the X register first; the number
in the X register is shown on the display.

The function for the calculation is stored here until the calculator needs
Flag register
it.

The instructions for in-built functions (arithmetic operations, square

roots, percentages, trigonometry, etc.) are stored here in binary form.
Permanent memory (ROM)
These instructions are programs, stored permanently, and cannot be
erased.

The store where numbers can be stored by the user. User memory
User memory (RAM)
contents can be changed or erased by the user.

Arithmetic logic The ALU executes all arithmetic and logic instructions, and provides the
unit (ALU) results in binary coded form.

Converts binary code into decimal numbers which can be displayed on

Binary decoderunit
the display unit.

Clock rate of a processor chip refers to the frequency at which the central processing
unit (CPU) is running. It is used as an indicator of the processor's speed, and is measured
in clock cycles per second or the SI unit hertz (Hz). For basic calculators, the speed can vary
from a few hundred hertz to the kilohertz range.

An office calculating machine with a paper printer

Example
A basic explanation as to how calculations are performed in a simple four-function calculator:
To perform the calculation 25 + 9, one presses keys in the following sequence on most
calculators: 2 5 + 9 = .
  When 2 5 is entered, it is picked up by the scanning unit; the number 25 is
encoded and sent to the X register;
 Next, when the + key is pressed, the "addition" instruction is also encoded and
sent to the flag or the status register;
 The second number 9 is encoded and sent to the X register. This "pushes" (shifts)
the first number out into the Y register;
 When the = key is pressed, a "message" (signal) from the flag or status
register tells the permanent or non-volatile memory that the operation to be done is
"addition";
 The numbers in the X and Y registers are then loaded into the ALU and the
calculation is carried out following instructions from the permanent or non-volatile
memory;
 The answer, 34 is sent (shifted) back to the X register. From there, it is converted
by the binary decoder unit into a decimal number (usually binary-coded decimal),
and then shown on the display panel.
Other functions are usually performed using repeated additions or subtractions.
Numeric representation
Main article: Binary-coded decimal
Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD rather than a floating-point
representation. BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be
displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a
microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be
greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much
more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a
series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for
example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to
such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations
are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system
than converting to and from binary.
The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller
or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally
in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on
such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD
arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.[3][4]
Where calculators have added functions (such as square root, or trigonometric functions),
software algorithms are required to produce high precision results. Sometimes significant
design effort is needed to fit all the desired functions in the limited memory space available
in the calculator chip, with acceptable calculation time.[5]

Calculators compared to computers

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The fundamental difference between a calculator and computer is that a computer can
be programmed in a way that allows the program to take different branches according to
intermediate results, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such
as addition, multiplication, and logarithms) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some
devices classed as programmable calculators have programming functions, sometimes
with support for programming languages (such as RPL or TI-BASIC).
For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating
point mathematics with code in read-only memory (ROM), and compute trigonometric
functionswith the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require much
multiplication. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit
parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design
minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles. This distinction blurs with
high-end calculators, which use processor chips associated with computer and embedded
systems design, more so the Z80, MC68000, and ARM architectures, and some custom
designs specialized for the calculator market.

History
Precursors to the electronic calculator
Main article: Mechanical calculator
See also: Human computer
The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items),
pebbles, and counting boards, and the abacus, known to have been used
by Sumeriansand Egyptians before 2000 BC.[6] Except for the Antikythera mechanism (an
"out of the time" astronomical device), development of computing tools arrived near the
start of the 17th century: the geometric-military
compass (by Galileo), logarithms and Napier bones (by Napier), and the slide
rule (by Edmund Gunter).

17th century mechanical calculators

In 1642, the Renaissance saw the invention of the mechanical calculator (by Wilhelm
Schickard[7] and several decades later Blaise Pascal[8]), a device that was at times
somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four arithmetic operations with
minimal human intervention.[9] Pascal's calculator could add and subtract two numbers
directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition.
Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of
mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the
adding machine as a means of completing this operation. (Because they were different
inventions with different aims a debate about whether Pascal or Schickard should be
credited as the "inventor" of the adding machine (or calculating machine) is probably
pointless.[10]) Schickard and Pascal were followed by Gottfried Leibniz who spent forty
years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the stepped reckoner, inventing in
the process his leibniz wheel, but who couldn't design a fully operational machine.[11] There
were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century.[12]

The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877

The 18th century saw the arrival of some notable improvements, first by Poleni with the
first fully functional calculating clock and four-operation machine, but these machines were
almost always one of the kind. Luigi Torchi invented the first direct multiplication machine
in 1834: this was also the second key-driven machine in the world, following that of James
White (1822).[13] It was not until the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution that real
developments began to occur. Although machines capable of performing all four arithmetic
functions existed prior to the 19th century, the refinement of manufacturing and fabrication
processes during the eve of the industrial revolution made large scale production of more
compact and modern units possible. The Arithmometer, invented in 1820 as a four-
operation mechanical calculator, was released to production in 1851 as an adding machine
and became the first commercially successful unit; forty years later, by 1890, about 2,500
arithmometers had been sold[14] plus a few hundreds more from two arithmometer clone
makers (Burkhardt, Germany, 1878 and Layton, UK, 1883) and Felt and Tarrant, the only
other competitor in true commercial production, had sold 100 comptometers.[15]

Patent image of the Clarke graph-based calculator, 1921

It wasn't until 1902 that the familiar push-button user interface was developed, with the
introduction of the Dalton Adding Machine, developed by James L. Dalton in the United
States.
In 1921, Edith Clarke invented the "Clarke calculator", a simple graph-based calculator for
solving line equations involving hyperbolic functions. This allowed electrical engineers to
simplify calculations for inductance and capacitance in power transmission lines.[16]
The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and, although costly, became popular for its
portability. This purely mechanical hand-held device could do addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. By the early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended
manufacture of mechanical calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable
item.
Development of electronic calculators