13

Entangled, connected or protected?

The power of knots and knotting in ancient Egypt.

Willeke Wendrich

The excavations of Barry Kemp in the Amarna workmen’s village yielded

many interesting insights in the daily life of the inhabitants of this New
Kingdom settlement. One of the objects that gave a tantalizing glimpse of
practices of which we are not otherwise aware is a knotted circular object
found in the Eighteenth Dynasty refuse dump in the quarry area south of the
workmen’s village.1 These knots probably were not just decorative, but carried
a very specific meaning and the object may have functioned as an amuletic
bracelet. It was made of fine flax yarn, which was spun in s-direction, the
normal spinning direction for flax in Pharaonic Egypt. It is unclear whether
the material was prepared specifically for the bracelet. The knots, however, are
quite remarkable, as is the looped string holding a bunch of very fine green
dyed yarn (see Fig. 1).2 To understand the potential meaning of this bracelet
one needs to look into the amuletic function of knots.

Fig. 1. Line drawing of the amuletic knotted

bracelet found at the workmen’s village at
Tell el-Amarna.

Knotting has a range of functions in the sphere of Egyptian religion/

magic/mythology/medicine, four terms which in European thinking are
quite disparate, but should be considered as a closely knitted complex in the
context of ancient Egypt. The terminology for knotting and the different
meanings that knotting has in this complex have been dwelled upon by
different authors ( Jacq 1985, 57–9; Lexa 1925, 95–8; Murray 1922; Ogdon

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1987; Pinch 1994, 83–4, 126, 129; Raven 1997; Ritner 1993, 43, 142–4;
Rochholz 2002, 210–5; Staehelin 1970; Wiedemann 1910, 21–3).
References made to ‘knotting’ or ‘binding’ in the modern literature
are generally made without a specification of the types of knot or binding
medium that the text, object or depiction refers to. In this chapter I will
explore the relevance of discerning the actual knots used in depictions or
spells by relating their use in daily life to their functionality in the realm of
Egyptian magic. Secondly, emphasis will be put on the action of knotting as
part of performing magic and thirdly, the question should be raised which
persons or institutions were considered to have the right or the ability to use
knots in magic. Thus knotting will be considered in the context of the spoken
and written word (spells), ritual activity and ritual performers.
Knots can be employed for a wide variety of purposes and the relation
between type and use of knots is very specific. Knot properties differ widely,
depending on the general direction of knotting, whether the knot is made
in one, two or more strands, and the material the knotting strands are made
of (Ashley 1944). Fig. 2 lists four general directions of knotting: point, line,
circle and fabric made with one or multiple strings. Schematic drawings of
these knots are found in Figs. 3–7.

Table 1. Schematic overview of the number of knotting strands, general knotting direction and
function of knots, as well as the types of knots most frequently found archaeologically for these
specific applications.
No. of knotting Direction Function Knot used in Egypt
strands
One point end knot, stopper knot overhand knot (Fig. 3)
line measure, count overhand knot (Fig. 3)
circle surround, tie, keep bundled together reef knot (Fig. 4)
fabric netting netting knot or knotless
looping (Figs. 5 and 6)
Two or more point thick stopper overhand knot
line connect, extend reef knot, overhand knot
circle connect, surround reef knot
fabric netting reef knot, overhand knot
in double strings (Fig. 7)

An end or stopper knot is a thick knob at the end of a string that prevents
it from unraveling, or from slipping through a loop or hole. Such stopper
knots are rarely made in multiple strands, but if they occur they have basically
the same function as those made in a single strand and form merely a stronger
or thicker knob. From looking at extant knots in the archaeological context,
it is apparent that for both applications the overhand knot was used most
often (Fig. 3, left).

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Linear knotting in one strand (Fig. 3, right) results in a series of distinc-

tive markers. The function of linear knotting is often quite abstract and
usually strongly connected to repetitive actions or numbers. A series of knots
in a string can be used for counting, accounting or as mnemonic device.
A rosary, for instance, is basically founded on the same principle as a string
with a number of knots: one passes the knots (or beads) through one’s fingers
in order to keep track of the number of required recitations. A line with knots
was used to measure the speed of ships, and hence also used as equivalent of
nautical miles per hour. Linear knotting has, furthermore, been developed
into a sophisticated communication and accounting system in the quipus or
khipu of the Incas (Day 1967; Quilter and Urton 2002). In ancient Egypt the
knot used in linear knotting is without exception the overhand knot (both
in S and Z orientation, see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. From left to right: a Z-oriented

overhand knot as stopper knot; and
S-overhand stopper knot; linear knotting
with Z-overhand knots; linear knotting
with S-overhand knots.

Linear knotting in multiple strands is employed to connect different

lengths of rope to create a longer rope. In the archaeological context of
daily life, either an overhand knot in two parallel strands or the reef knot is
found to be used for this purpose. Unless the two ropes are made of the same
material and are the same thickness, a reef knot is not suitable to make such
a connection: inequality of the diameter, flexibility, tightness and texture of
the rope will cause the reef knot to slip.
Circular knotting refers to tying a string around an object. The knot
best suited for this is the reef knot (also known as square knot), tied in the
two ends of the knotting strand (Fig. 4). The reef knot is in principle the
combination of two half knots on top of each other, in opposite orientation
(SZ or ZS). If the orientation of the two half knots is the same (SS or ZZ)
then the knot is referred to as granny knot, a connection that is not very
strong and becomes undone easily. Using the reef knot to tie two different
strands around an object presents the same problems as sketched above for
the reef knot in general: unless the ropes have equal properties, the reef knot
has a tendency to become undone, unless the ends have been secured with
stopper knots.
A fabric can be made with one strand by using the netting knot (Fig. 5)
or looped (knotless) netting (Fig. 6). Knotted netting has been attested at

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least as early as the Fourth Dynasty, while knotless netting has been found in
Eighteenth Dynasty contexts (Wendrich 1999, 189–291). Both techniques
are probably much older than that. Netting with two strands occurs rarely,
and if it does the knots used are either the overhand knot (in two parallel
strands, see Fig. 7), or the reef knot. This type of netting is practically limited
to the production of carrying nets.

Fig. 4. Circular knotting. From left to right: SZ oriented reef knot; ZS reef knot; ZZ
granny knot; SS granny knot; looped reef knot (bow) with overhand stopper knots.

Fig. 5. Knotted netting. The knot used in ancient Egypt, made with the help of a netting
needle, is the netting knot.

Fig. 6. Knotless or looped netting.

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Fig. 7. Knotted netting with two strands

and overhand knots, a production method
for amphora carrying nets.

Although actual rope and knots do not often survive the ages, the unique
preservational circumstances in Egypt have provided us with a relative wealth
of evidence from archaeological contexts. In spite of this, there is a dearth of
published information on ropes and knots and the phenomenon of knotting
is understudied. From the limited work that has been done, it is clear, however,
that the knots mentioned above have been attested from at least the Old
Kingdom onwards and there are reasons to surmise that these knotting tech-
niques were known and well developed as early as the Neolithic period.3

Table 2. Schematic overview of the potentially positive or negative application of knotting

power, related to different types of knot functionality.

Action: Tie Untie

Knot: Positive result Negative result Positive result Negative result

Stopper knot hold good in, block hold evil in, remove blockage admit harmful power
(overhand knot) evil out, prevent block good out allow to unravel
unraveling

Linear knots mnemonic, contain restrain release power unleash power,

(overhand knots) good (protection) remove protection

Circular knot include, support, bind, restrict, remove restriction disconnect, remove
(reef knot) protect render powerless protection

Fabric protect restrict, render remove restriction, remove protection,
(netting knots) powerless restore power make vulnerable

Multiple string block evil, prevent block good remove blockage admit harmful power
stopper knot unraveling allow to unravel

Multiple string connect, unite force together free forced undo unification
linear connection connection

Multiple string contain, connect, restrain, bind remove restriction undo unification,
circular unite connection
connections

Fabric protect restrict, render remove restriction, remove protection,

(reef/overhand powerless restore power make vulnerable
knot)

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To start mapping the application of knots in Egyptian magic we take this

corpus of frequently employed ‘daily use’ knots with their specific purpose
and orientation, and link a theoretical religious, magical, symbolic or
medical dimension to these. Similar to HkA , which is a power that is morally
neutral and can be either generative or destructive (Ritner 1993, 20–5), the
power of knotting and binding is potentially positive or negative, providing
protection or forming a threat. Fig. 8 outlines the variations that occur when
applying different types of knots in a positive or a negative fashion. This
does not represent an Egyptian classification of knotting. It is, rather, a tool
to reconsider Egyptian magical knotting starting from very practical daily
life notions, which can be demonstrated in the archaeological assemblage
of several settlement sites. The second caveat to be given with the scheme in
Fig. 8 is that we should not put our classificatory notions onto the Egyptian
material. Considerable care should be taken with the associations we have
with certain words used to translate Egyptian terms. Terms like binding,
restricting, restraining and knotting have a very rich meaning in English,
which does not coincide exactly with the Egyptian range of meanings. ‘To
tie the knot’, for instance, has the very specific meaning in English of getting
married. Similarly, Egyptian words for knots and knotting have very specific
associations and meanings. Take for example the root Tz , from which derives
the common Egyptian word for knot and tying. Examples are the use of wHa
Tzzwt (‘untied what is knotted’) to express that problems have been solved,
while Tzw is also used to denote a metrical verse (Parkinson 1999, 81).
In addition the Tz hieroglyph ( , see Fig. 9) is often used in sign play
or as an iconographic abbreviation. Good examples are several depictions
of gods on a reef knot, carried by either priests or other gods. The reliefs are
dated to the Eighteenth and Twenty-fifth Dynasties and the legend specifies
that the god is Hr Tztf , ‘on his knot’.4 This is a reference to the verb Tzj , ‘to
raise, to lift’, which from the Eighteenth Dynasty onwards is often written
with the reef knot sign. Similarly, wordplay occurs with other meanings of
Tz , such as ‘opening’ (used in references to the seven openings in the head
in relation to seven knots), ‘vertebrae’ and specifically the seven cerebral
vertebrae, ‘word’ or ‘spell’ (where Tz is replaced by DAjzw ) and terms for
‘creation’, ‘building’.5 Depending on how freely one chooses to interpret the
associations of the root Tz , it could be argued that ‘knotting’ as a connective
action is closely related to ‘creating’ or ‘building’. The verb ‘to raise, to lift’
in its older forms is never written with the knot determinative and seems to
be a different root. The terms Tzt ‘mountain range’ (attested since the Old
Kingdom) and Tz ‘sand bank’ (Middle Kingdom) could be interpreted as
related to the concept of ‘raised’ land, which are ‘knotted’ (created). Grapow
has taken the root of ‘knotting’ as the etymological source of all of these:

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‘creating’ is a form of knotting, and a group of persons is a ‘knot of people’

(Grapow 1983, 174–5). Word play and sign play provide in some contexts
such strong associations that meanings completely overlap and interweave.
Such references to Tz vary over time in character. They are present in the
Pyramid Texts, but in quite a different way than we encounter them in later
texts, such as the magical and medical papyri.
A further remark that should be made in relation to the table in Fig. 8
is that we have different information sources for either tying or untying
knots. Ancient texts and ethnoarchaeological or ethnohistorical accounts
can potentially provide information about the untying of knots. It is much
more difficult to judge from an actual object, such as a piece of string from
an archaeological context, whether it once has been tied and subsequently
untied.
The importance of tying knots can be gleaned from magical/medical
texts, extant knotted amulets, amulets depicting knots, depictions of knotted
amulets or symbolic knots, and ethnoarchaeological or ethnohistorical refer-
ences. Actual objects provide evidence of the action of tying knots (resulting
in knotted string amulets) or represent the concept of tied knots (skeuo-
morphs and representations of knots in other materials such as wood, stone,
faience and metal).6

Stopper knots
The common use of stopper knots, to prevent a string from unraveling or
to provide a knobbed end that blocks a string from slipping through a loop
or a hole, has several demonstrable parallels in magical knotting. The New
Kingdom magical and medical papyri offer a number of applications of knots
that are meant to prevent women from the bleeding that might cause a mis-
carriage. Incantation 29 of the London Medical Papyrus (BM EA 10059)
evokes the mythical event of blocking the Nile flood from reaching the
sanctuary of Tait, goddess of weaving, mistress of woven textiles,7 as a ritual
technique to prevent blood from flowing in the patient. The rubric specifies
that the spell has to be spoken while a knot (Tz ) is made in a specified type
of linen. The knot then has to be placed inside the vagina (Leitz 1999, 69,
Incantation 29; cf. Wreszinski 1912, Incantation 41). The rubric of a second
incantation (Leitz 1999, 70, Incantation 30; cf. Wreszinski 1912, Incantation
42) specifies that two knots should be made in the same prescribed type of
linen and put at the opening or inside the vagina. The incantation mentions
that the Nile flood threatens to encroach on the sandal of Tait. In both cases
Anubis is the deity that has the magic power to keep safe what is within the
womb. The textiles in which the knot has to be made are characterized as
from rA jAAt . Whether this a specific weave, as suggested (Wb II 393, 1) or

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a strip of linen, with a specific use (medicinal rather than funerary) is unclear.
The association with Anubis has been based on his presumed intimate
knowledge of knotting, because he is involved in wrapping the mummy
(Pinch 1994, 84). It seems, however, that the involvement of Anubis and Tait
is related to the fact that these knots were knotted in textile bandages, rather
than thread, hair or string. More will be said on Anubis’ role in the section
on circular knotting below.
The tjt knot, related to the goddess Isis and also tied in a band of fabric,
equally seems to have a protective, blocking function. Because it is regularly
depicted as a red object and mostly red stone, such as red jasper, red glass
or cornelian (although blue faience is used also) it has been suggested that
the tjt knot is a type of sanitary towel, or perhaps tampon, used to block the
monthly flow of blood (Andrews 1994, 44–5; Pinch 1994, 116). Perhaps
the tjt knot should also be associated with protection of the fetus in the
womb, although references to such protection use the more general term
Tz , either as stopper knot (see previous paragraph) or as a form of protec-
tive circular knotting (see below). The rubric with Book of the Dead spell
156 specifies that the tjt amulet should be made of red jasper, moistened
with juice of the anx-jmj fruit, embellished with sycamore-bast and placed
on the neck of the deceased on the day of interment. The spell refers to the
blood, power and magic of Isis (Faulkner 1985, 154–5). Alternatively the
tjt has been interpreted as the girdle of Isis, in which case the knot would be
a looped reef knot, with two loops and two ends protruding from the knot
(see below under ‘circular knotting’). References to knots or knotting that
block evil usually refer to a series of knots, which brings us into the realm of
linear knotting.

Linear knotting
Most textual references to magical/medical knotting practices mention
a number of knots and thus seem to refer to linear knotting: a string in which
several overhand knots are made. Jacq goes as far as saying ‘The magic of
numbers is inseparable from that of knots. A number is considered to be an
abstract knot’ ( Jacq 1985, 58). This refers to the mnemonic function of linear
knotting, the use of knotted strings to, literally, keep count of a number of
items. Much more is at play, however.
In Egypt the linear knots are used as a protection against illness, either
as prophylactics or curatives. In the Magical Papyrus Leiden I 348 several
spells refer to knotting, usually in analogy with medicinal practices in myths.
In spell 8 Seth heals Horus from his headache by tying a string with seven
knots around his left foot (Borghouts 1971, 18, plate 4). A child is given the
same treatment as Isis gave to Horus: seven knots are tied in seven strings

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and applied to the neck of the child (Grapow 1958, 1, 293 ). A headache is
cured by applying a string with seven knots at the neck (Borghouts 1971, 19,
plate 4). Other examples are found in Papyrus Berlin P 3027 (Erman 1901)
in which five spells are dealing with knots. A spell for protection against evil
spirits requires one knot to be put at the throat of a child, a second spell for
the same purpose requires four knots. A spell that makes sure that a woman
has milk to feed her child takes three knots to be put on the throat of Horus
(the child). Protection against the spirits of the dead can be found in a series
of seven knots: one in the morning, one in the evening until seven knots have
been knotted. This spaces the ritual out in time over four days.
As a cure for a scorpion sting pTurin 135.8–136.1 and oDeM 1048 invoke
the seven daughters of Re, equalled by several authors to the seven Hathors
(Borghouts 1971, nr. 108, note 268; Rochholz 2002, 66) to make seven
knots in their seven jdnw (translated by Rochholz as ‘bänder’). It is perhaps
no coincidence that the tail of a scorpion with the poisonous stinger at the
end consists of seven segments.
Often the number of knots is specified in the rubric at the end of the spell,
as in the rubric of Incantation 28 from the London Medical Papyrus (Leitz
1999, 69; cf. Wreszinski 1912, Incantation 40). The incantation should be
spoken over four knots that should be made in a fine thread of a fabric, the
hair of a black fibre, the hair of a donkey (of specific colour or age). These
have to be twisted left-ward and the incantation needs to be spoken four
times, once for each individual knot. Papyrus Chester Beatty VII contains an
anti-venom spell that has to be recited over soaked plant material in which
seven knots have to be knotted. A Graeco-Roman magical papyrus prescribes
that the magician has to tie 365 knots in black thread, reciting with each knot
‘Keep him who is bound’(Pinch 1994, 83). In most cases there is a clear link
between the repetitions of the spoken word and the number of knots.
This is corroborated by extant amulets that comprise or consist of a length
of string or textile with a specific number of overhand knots spaced at regular
intervals. Often these pieces of string are part of a larger amuletic ensemble
consisting of a text written on papyrus or linen, or of pouches and small bags
of leather or linen which contain powerful objects or substances. Several
extant examples are known, such as, for instance, several rolled up and artfully
tied papyrus fragments with magical texts in the collection of the Rijksmu-
seum van Oudheden in Leiden (Leemans 1853–62, CLXIX–CLXX; Lexa
1925, Tome III, Figs. 80–2). In some of these the string from which the
amulet hangs has been adorned with a number of overhand knots. Interest-
ingly, in catalogue numbers 353 and 356 there seems to be a consistent link
between the number of gods hailed in the text and the number of knots in
the string (respectively three and twelve).

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A similar connection has been found between the instructions as given in

the magical Papyrus Leiden I 346, containing spells for protection during the
epagomenal days, and five amuletic linen bandages in the collection of the
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (RMO) in Leiden (Bommas 1999; Borghouts
1971; Massart 1954; Raven 1997). Papyrus Leiden prescribes that 12 knots
have to be made in a bandage of the finest linen on which 12 specific gods
are drawn. Raven concludes that the five examples from the RMO which
at some point during their stay in the museum have been untied and partly
straightened, were made of exceedingly fine linen. All linen straps originally
were twisted in the same direction (S), while the ends that were not flattened
still show the characteristic curves of knots. It is difficult to say, however,
whether there were originally 12 knots, as prescribed in column II.3 of the
Leiden papyrus.
The number of knots that occur in this type of prescription are 3, 4, 7, 12
and 365. Three denotes completeness, four may refer to the number of recita-
tions needed to cover all four cardinal points. Twelve knots were knotted in
relation to twelve specific gods referring either to the 12 hours of the day, or
the 12 months of the year, while 365 provides protective recitations for each
day of the year. A count of seven can be explained in different ways. Raven
has pointed to the seven cervical vertebrae (for which the term Tzt is used).
The expression 7 Tzt nt DADA in P. Leiden 343 and 345 has been related
to the number of openings in the head: two eyes, two ears, two nostrils and
the mouth, but may also refer to the seven cervical vertebrae (Raven 1997;
Rochholz 2002, 15).
The materials the knots are made in range from unspecified string to
precisely prescribed linen bandages, soaked plant material, ‘desert reed’,
and string made in a specific way (left-twisted) from specified materials
(dark fibre and donkey hair; human hair, flax), or of a specific colour (white,
black, red).
Based on these examples, there are two possible interpretations of knotting
power, which do not necessarily exclude each other. Amuletic knots have
often been considered as means that bind or block harmful powers, each knot
forming an obstacle for evil forces (Bommas 1999, 70; Lexa 1925, III 53;
Pinch 1994, 108). Based on the specific character of linear knotting, I would
like to propose a slightly different angle and consider knots as the physical
media that contain spoken words, such as incantations. By knotting a string or
a strip of cloth while reciting a spell the power of the words is anchored, tied
up and can be applied at certain parts of the body, or in different localities.
The use of the word Tz as a string of words, either meaning ‘spell’, ‘sentence’ or
‘saying’ is perhaps originally related to the ritual action of knotting, although
Tz could be considered ‘knotted words’ in a broader sense. The concept of

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storing power in knots would not be unique to Egypt, and has actually been
attested in antique literary sources. Day mentions the ‘wind-knots’ that were
taken aboard ships to ensure that enough wind is available to bring the ships
to their destination. Such wind knots are mentioned in the Odyssey and in
Byzantine literature from the third century ad (Day 1967, 44). In the wider
Near Eastern region linear knotting occurs frequently in medical/magical
contexts. Prescriptions of material and colour of the knotting yarns are
similar to those in Egypt, with specifications of the material, colour and
composition of the strands, as well as the number of knots. In many cases
reference is made to the magician blowing on the knots after the words have
been spoken and the knots have been tied. Some of these knots, however, are
explicitly called ‘evil’ and have to be made powerless either by untying them,
or throwing them away (Thompson 1908, 161–74)
In contrast, linear knotting in ancient Egypt has only beneficial purposes,
providing protection by containing protective spells or blocking off the
enemies. In addition, it has to a certain extent also a mnemonic function,
registering the number of incantations that have been recited, or the number
of gods that have been invoked or held at bay. Most importantly, these knots
represent the tangible proof that words have been spoken and rites have been
acted out: they are the material residue of volatile words and performances.
Activating or unleashing the power that is stored in linear knots is never
done by untying the knots, an activity that is referred to much less frequently.
As indicated above, from the Middle Kingdom Period onwards the term wHa
Tzwt should mostly be taken in the metaphorical sense of ‘solving problems’
(Wb V 397). Only in one instance the combination wHa Tzwt has been
interpreted as ‘knotted bonds are loosed’, namely in Faulkner’s translation for
Pyramid Text Utterance 358 (Faulkner 1969, 116). More will be said about
this in the section on circular knotting below.
Linear knotting with multiple strands, knotting together two different
items, also has a medical/magical equivalent. In Egyptian ‘real life’ the reef-
knot is used for such connections. Skeuomorphs of the reef knot have been
found in funerary contexts from the Middle Kingdom onwards. Reef knots
in gold were found as clasps of anklets and bracelets in the Twelfth Dynasty
burials of Khnumet, in the pyramid complex of Amenemhat II in Dahshur;
Sithathoriunet, buried in the Senusret II complex in Lahun; Sithathor and
Mereret who rested in Senusret III’s pyramid complex in Dahshur and as
part of the jewellery of Senebtisy who was buried in Amenemhat I’s pyramid
complex in Lisht. Probably during the same period reef-knot amulets in
lapis lazuli, cornelian, amethyst and chrysoprase were employed (Andrews
1994, 44). Two reef-knot amulets made out of sheet gold were included
in the mummy wrappings of Tutankhamun, on the thorax parallel to the

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upper arms (Reeves 1990, 112–13).8 The purpose of a reef-knot amulet is to

guarantee the integrity of the body. ‘Knotting together’ the body is what Isis
did for Osiris after his body was cut in pieces and spread out over Egypt by
Seth. Knotting the head to the body is a special concern in this context. The
neck is a vulnerable area, which after death is under serious threat of demons
with knives. As said above, the term Tz is used for vertebrae, especially the
seven cervical vertebrae. The Pyramid Texts allude to the Osiride myth by
assuring the deceased king that his body parts will be knotted together (e.g.
Pyr. 572a, Utt. 355). It is ironic that the ancient Egyptians used the reef knot
as the pre-eminent symbol for integrity and wholeness of the body, while
knot-specialists consider the reef knot unsuitable for connecting two parts.9
The reef knot is used extensively in Egyptian daily life as the pre-eminent
binding knot to connect two strands. Use of the reef knot to ensure the
connection of body parts is, therefore, a reflection of daily use of the knot,
and was not considered to represent a ‘weak’ , ‘bad’ or ‘frail’ connection, but
rather the opposite.

Circular knotting
Circular knotting with one strand occurred widely in ancient Egyptian
daily life. Girdle knots, tied around the waist, are depicted in a standardized
fashion and represent either a reef knot or a looped reef knot/bow (Fig. 9).
It has been suggested that the tjt , or Isis knot is the girdle of Isis (Pinch 1994,
116). Presumably the loop at the top would represent the girdle surrounding
the body, while the four strands at the bottom would represent two large
loops and the two ends of the girdle, tied with a looped reef knot (Fig. 10).
The connecting part of the tjt , where the circle, the two loops and two
ends come together, is usually represented as a number of horizontal or
vertical stripes, the latter very similar to the base of the Sn -ring or the
cartouche. Considering the stylized way in which many of the girdle knots,
as well as the hieroglyph for Tz are usually depicted, this seems an unneces-
sary simplification of the symbol. The vertical stripes in the Sn -ring and the
cartouche may denote an area in which a second string was wound around
a thicker circular rope, or one strand of a composite rope was wound around
the two ends of the coil. This would be consistent with the two ends sticking
out of the wound part. Simple striped patterns are used to indicate standard
bound objects, such as twined mats. These are usually depicted as a narrow
rectangle with horizontal stripes, intersected with a number of small blocks,
often subdivided with vertical stripes. From detailed executed hieroglyphs it
is clear that zA , the word for ‘protection’, ‘magical protection’ is represented
by a folded mat. The twining is but schematically indicated ( Fig. 11a).

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 Entangled, connected or protected? The power of knots … in Ancient Egypt

Fig. 9. The Tz sign and representations of the girdle knot (after Engelbach 1929, 41),
which is sometimes a reef knot, but most often a looped reef knot as depicted in Fig. 4
(without the stopper knots at the two hanging ends).

Fig. 10. Different representations of the tjt and the Sn -ring. From left to right: vignette
with BD spell 156 (P. Ani), faience tjt amulet from the Saite period (interior of the loop
is filled in), late Eighteenth Dynasty red jasper tjt amulet; faience Sn -ring from the Saite
period (interior of ring is filled in). The striped loops on the top of the second tjt amulet
and the Sn -ring are standard attachments to allow the amulet to be threaded on a string
or necklace and are not part of the representation.

Fig. 11. The zA hieroglyph, as a schematic representation of a folded twined mat (a),
next to the usual representation of twined matting (b) and the appearance of one of the
many varieties of twined matting found in archaeological contexts (c).

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Textual references to circular knotting do not occur regularly in the

medical/magical papyri. One can presume that amulets that are prescribed
to be put at the throat of the patient will be knotted around that part of the
body, but rarely explicit references are made to the action of knotting the
amulet around the patient. The expression Tz zA , ‘to knot (magical) protec-
tion’, in the sense of fastening an amulet around someone (the neck, toe, or
other body part) has not been attested before the Greco-Roman period (Wb
IV 415).
In funerary texts there are some clear references to circular knotting.
Especially spells 50 a and b of the Book of the Dead (and their predecessor,
spell 640 of the Coffin Texts) are of interest. BD 50a is a spell not to enter
the slaughter place (nmt ) of the god.
Four knots were knotted around me by he who belongs to the heaven
(50b: One knot knotted by Ra in the sky when it was still on the earth)
He tied the knot to the one who is tired on his legs,
on this day of the cutting of the hair lock

A knot was knotted around me by Seth

when the ennead was still in its first strength
before the fighting had started

A knot was knotted around me by Nut

in the primeval period, when I had not yet seen Maat
when the images of the god had not been created.

Who am I, I am in the presence of the great gods (50b: ‘I am Penty’)

Because this is a funerary text, it is likely that the trice repeated expression Tz
Tzt hA refers to an apotropaic or protective measure. The term HA (around,
behind) is indicative of circular knotting. The deceased is protected similar to
‘the one who is tired on his legs (nnyw )’. Zandee interpreted nnyw as demons
who have to be kept at bay (1960, 84), but nnyw is a term that is sometimes
used for the dead who are too weak to resist the demons and are threatened
to be caught in their nets (BD 7, 153). nny can occur alone, but is often
combined with wrD and especially wrD jb (tired of heart).10 In the context of
BD 50 the term refers probably to a specific deceased, namely Osiris.11
The knotting takes place on the day of cutting the hair lock. Since knotting
in relation to protective amulets is an expression that occurs only in the
Greco-Roman period (see above), we have to think of another object that is
knotted, such as a girdle or a head band. The pyramid texts refer to Isis who
is involved of the action of Tz mDH for Horus. Staehelin interprets this as
the tying of the girdle around Horus as a sign of adulthood (Staehelin 1970,
126). Cutting off the (children’s) hair lock would perhaps be another aspect

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 Entangled, connected or protected? The power of knots … in Ancient Egypt

of a rite de passage. Another association with the child Horus is the protective
knotting around the egg in Isis’ womb, as outlined in the Coffin Texts (CT
II, 218 c–e). 12
There is, however, a reason to place the cutting of the hair, as well as the
protective circular knotting in a different context. The spell has an increasing
intensity in references to primeval times. The first paragraph refers once to
the earliest times (clearest in version 50b), the second paragraph twice and
the third paragraph three times. The parallel that is drawn is not between the
deceased and Horus, but the reference to nny places the text in an Osirian
context and likely refers to another ‘day of cutting off the hair lock’, namely
the day of the funeral, when mourners cut off their hair after having left it
uncut and unkempt for the days of the mummification process. Although
Herodotus’ reference to such a habit (Book II, 36, 1) should be considered
with extreme caution, there are other reasons to presume that a mourning
practice which involved a period of unrestricted hair and beard growth
existed in the pharaonic period (Desroches-Noblecourt 1947, 217; cf.
Kaplony 1966, 68). In those circumstances the item that is knotted could be
the head band that mourners wear on the day of the funeral and which the
deceased is often depicted wearing as well. If the latter suggestion is valid, this
head band is not just a sign of mourning, but also has a protective function,
similar to surrounding by the Sn -ring.
The gods that perform the protective knotting are Ra, Seth and Nut
and the number of knots made is either 6 (50a) or 3 (50b). The protective
knotting around the deceased has to give him strength to withstand the
demons and prevents him from being brought to the slaughter place. Despite
the reference to Osiris, this seems to be a different type of knotting than the
‘knotting together’ of body parts, but rather we should see Tz Tzt HA in
relation to protective encircling (pXr ) or surrounding (Snw ) (cf. Ritner 1993,
57–67, 143, and n. 637). The result, however, is the same: the deceased’s
bodily integrity is safeguarded.
The sign depicting the folded zA -mat, is frequently used as an amulet,
especially in the Middle Kingdom Period, such as the little skeuomorph
made from electrum wire Fig. 11a). In contrast, the other sign used regularly
for zA , apparently a cord wound or tied in ten loops, does not occur as
amulet. Erman and Grapow conclude that this sign ( ) has a relation to the
protection of livestock (Wb V 413). The interpretation that this looped rope
is a ‘hobble’ is not necessarily correct, because it has a very positive connota-
tion. The other sign that is interpreted as hobble, the T –sign ( ) in contrast,
has a potentially negative connotation in funerary literature. The latter sign
is used to express the notion of deprivation of liberty (cf. TT , ‘fetter’). This
brings us to the double entendre that many of the words for ‘binding’ and

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‘fettering’ have. In the funerary literature terms like ‘rope, string’ (nwH , jH ,
xAw ), bindings (qAs ), fetter (abAwt , sdf , TT ), strap (DHrt ), snare (swSt ); to
tie (nTT ), to bind (snH , ssnH , qAs ), to fetter (antt ) are extremely dangerous,
because the deceased may be taken for a sinner by mistake and then shares
the fate of the enemies of Re (Ogdon 1987; Zandee 1960, 125–33). On the
other hand, these same terms are used to indicate potentially very powerful
protective forces because they control the dangers that the enemies of Re
present to the deceased.13 The zA -mat, for instance, refers to the herder who
guards and protects his flock or herd. But in several instances in the Coffin
Texts, sinners are the prisoners of demons, who are said to be guards. They
form a potential threat to the freedom of the deceased, who has to implore
them that he does not belong with this group (Zandee 1960, 128–30).
The bivalence of protection and restriction is not just the ever present
threat that the (innocent) deceased might be mistaken for a sinner, but the
action of binding itself can be positive or negative, protective or restrictive
(Ritner 1993, 142–4). In contrast I would argue that the action of knotting
and its results (the knots), in funerary literature, mythology and magical
texts are unequivocally positive. This seems to be true for the Egyptian
context from the Old Kingdom onwards, perhaps with exception of the
Greco-Roman period when there seems to be a slight shift in the complex
of associations (cf. Ritner 1993, 143, and n. 637). There are no references to
the knotting of knots in order to harm someone. The magical knots found
are protective measures and so are skeuomorph knot amulets.
Staehelin has argued that knots were considered dangerous in some
circumstances, especially at child birth. From antique and ethnographic
parallels she suggested that when the time had come for a woman to give
birth all knots present in an Egyptian household, and especially girdle
knots, had to be loosened in order to guarantee a smooth delivery (Staehelin
1970). This assumption rests, however, on one reference (in P. Westcar) to
the disarray of the clothing of Ra-user a priest of Re, whose wife is about to
deliver a baby. The text does not mention that the priest loosens the knot of
his girdle. Although the true Egyptological detective work by Staehelin is
a joy to read, the parallels she quotes for untying knots in order to guarantee
an unhindered birth are all from outside the Egyptian realm.
Others have suggested that in the funerary sphere knots could present
a danger: knots could function as bonds. What is beneficial for the deceased
in one phase, binding in the process of mummification, could turn against
him in the next, when the mummy wrappings potentially prevent his
freedom of movement in the afterlife. In relation to this, the assumption
is that Anubis is associated with knotting, because he is involved in tying
the mummy bindings (Pinch 1994, 84). The emphasis on Anubis, and as

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 Entangled, connected or protected? The power of knots … in Ancient Egypt

we saw above, also Tait, in relation to the binding process is, however, not
directly related to knotting, but to the textiles and the bandages in which
the magical knots were made. The textiles used for mummy wrappings (wt )
were made from large, often used, sheets of linen with the maximum length
of approximately 1.80 m.14 ‘Anatomies’ of mummy bindings have shown
that the bandages thus are of limited length, based on the size of the linen
sheet they were cut from, but were nevertheless not frequently tied together
to form one ongoing winding strap. Knots are not avoided, as a danger to
the deceased, but occur only occasionally and usually in the outer layers to
finish off the last lengths of wrapping cloth. The tightness of the windings in
combination with resin and in some cases bitumen are sufficient to keep the
bandages in place and a minimum of actual knotting is required (Goyon et
al. 1988, 84–102; Pettigrew 1834, 89–102; Taylor 1995, 69–83).15
In spite of the process that actually takes place during the wrapping of
the mummy, it is important to check whether the principle of knotting in
relation to mummification is considered dangerous. It is, therefore, of impor-
tance to make an inventory of terms that reference the loosening of knots,
to gain insight in the potential threatening or beneficial effects of such an
action (cf. Fig. 8).
The combination wHa Tzwt has been interpreted as ‘knotted bonds
are loosed’, for instance in Faulkner’s translation for Pyramid Text 593a,
Utterance 358 ‘O First-born of Shu, your knots are loosened by the two
Lords of Nun.’ Faulkner translates this as ‘your knotted bonds are loosed by
the two Lords of the Abyss’ (Faulkner 1969, 116), Zandee as ‘your ties are
loosened’ (Zandee 1960, 108). The spell is very short, occurs only in two
pyramids and is flanked by texts referring to the conflict of Horus and Seth,
mentioning that Seth is bound (qAs , Pyr. 587b) that Isis has re-assembled
the dead king (Pyr. 592a not using Tz , but jab ) and assuring that Horus will
protect the king (Pyr. 592c).16 The notion of loosing bonds, equivalent to
a removal of the restrictions of the mummy windings, seems a suitable trans-
lation in this context, and is in keeping with references to freeing the king
from his bonds elsewhere in the Pyramid Texts. In all these cases, however,
specific terms are used to express the notion of being restricted, such as j wt
nTT (Pyr. 285c in Unas and Teti) which can be translated as ‘fetters’, or refer-
ences are made to the loosening of ‘bonds’ wHa qAsw (Pyr. 1292c in Pepi
I). Given the fact that for binding enemies, including Seth, a very specific
terminology is used (and the same terminology is used to keep the deceased
king safe of a similar fate), the undoing of knots, rather than fetters, may
refer to something else. Furthermore, the ‘Firstborn of Shu’ is Geb, so a close
parallel of the deceased king with the mummifed Osiris is perhaps not called
for here. Considering the type of metaphors used in the Pyramid Texts, it

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is unlikely that we should understand ‘loosening your knots’ in the later

attested figurative meaning of ‘solving your problems’, known from Middle
Kingdom administrative texts.
Other terms for ‘loosening’ are wnx and sfx . The latter term is sometimes
used in funerary literature (e.g. Coffin Texts spell 407, 691) especially as
word play with Tz and the double meaning of sfx as ‘seven’ and ‘untying’
(Rochholz 2002, 211). Graefe has argued that there is not only a verb wnx
‘to be clothed’, but that in some cases the translation ‘to loosen’ is prefer-
able (Graefe 1979). He refers to the combinations wnx nwH (‘loosening
the rope’), wnx jdr (‘loosening string’, an expression used in relation to the
opening of a sealed papyrus roll) and its parallel wnx xtm (‘opening the seal’,
namely the seal attached to the jdr -string). The text is of Greco-Roman date
(Edfu) and part of a ritual scene to ‘protect the house’. The expression wnx
jdr occurs possibly as parallel opposite to the action of Tz znb (‘knotting
of the seneb plant’) which is referred to in the title of the ritual text. What
the knotting of the seneb plant refers to exactly is unclear, but Graefe has
shown convincingly that the ‘opening of the string’ refers to the unsealing of
the papyrus roll, in preparation for its reading. The loosening of the string,
therefore, is not a protective measure in itself.17
Circular knotting with two strands occurs as Tz tAwy , an expression that
is found rarely as an alternative to the common smA tAwy . The knot used for
the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt is, again, the reef knot, tied with
two separate strands around the respiratory tract (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12. smA tAwy from the throne of Senusret I in Lisht.

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 Entangled, connected or protected? The power of knots … in Ancient Egypt

The expression Tz tAwy is found in the temple of Seti I in Qurna (Wb
Belegstellen 5, 80). Several objects in the tomb of Tutankhamun show the
traditional enemies of Egypt tied up in the ends of the lotus and the papyrus
strands that are knotted around the symbol for unification. The symbolism
is clear: the two lands have been knotted together and in this symbol the
creation of something new reverberates. The entanglement of Egypt’s
enemies is secondary and not directly related with the knot symbol, but with
the concept of binding or fettering.

Knotted fabrics
Knotted fabrics do not occur in magical texts, but there are several refer-
ences to nets in love poetry. The beloved is caught in a net, trapped or snared,
beyond escape. Sometimes this metaphorical use of language evokes magical
procedures, but there are no explicit descriptions. This terminology is related
to hunting and describes the nets as finished objects, but does not refer to the
procedure of knotting the nets, or the individual knots that make up the net.
References to nets occur often in the funerary literature and mostly in
a very negative sense. Nets, as part of an array of hunting tools, can be used to
render the enemies of Egypt harmless, but might turn against the deceased, if
he is mistaken for a sinner by an overzealous demon (Zandee 1960, 226–34).
Thus nets form a serious threat to the freedom of movement of the dead.
Examples of spells safeguarding the deceased from being caught in the nets of
demons can be found, for instance, in Coffin Texts IV 348a (spell 343) and in
the Book of the Dead spells 153a and b and its predecessor Coffin Texts VI 3
(spell 473 and variants spells 474, 476, 477, 479 and 480) (cf. Bidoli 1976).
The funerary texts refer mostly to jAdt , which seems to be a general term for
net and can refer both to clap nets used to catch migratory birds, or vertical
fishing nets with net weights and floaters. The demons especially catch the
weak ones and we can perhaps see a word play with the term jAd (weak). The
term jbTt seems to denote a bird trap or clap net, while jssT is associated both
with birds and with fish. The word aH may refer to large vertical nets set up in
the wadis to catch game. The fear of nets in the funerary texts is not reflected
in an avoidance of netting around the dead body. The beaded mummy nets
that are included in burials from the Twenty-second Dynasty onwards and
were particularly popular in the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth Dynasties,
seem to have evolved from the bead net dress, sometimes found included
in some of the Old Kingdom burials (Ikram and Dodson 1998, 145). The
association seems not to be with hunting as a life-threatening force, but on
the contrary with sexuality as a life enhancing force.

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Conclusion
The verb Tz and the noun Tzt are used as general terms for ‘knotting’ and
‘knot’. The same term is used for linear, circular and connecting knots. The
notions and functions of these different types of knotting are, however,
discernable, especially in the rubrics of medical/magical incantations. In
these texts Tzt is mostly used for linear overhand knots, even though the
determinative for Tzt clearly depicts a reef knot. In funerary literature the
term Tzt mostly refers to the reef knot and that is also the type of knot that
is consistently depicted in skeuomorphs. The rich associations and sign play
in the Egyptian language enable the use of the symbol for ‘knot’ as determi-
native and even replacement of the verb Tzj , ‘to lift up, to rise’ and the verb
Tz , ‘to create’ or ‘to build’ may even have a closer etymological connection
to the concept of knotting.
One of the questions related to the entire complex of knotting is whether
the procedure should be considered as positive or negative. Does it present
protection or does it have a potential shadow side of restriction and entangle-
ment? Can magic knots potentially turn their power against one? Through
a careful consideration of the textual and epigraphic evidence it is clear that
we should discern ‘knotting’ in a strict sense of ‘making a knot’ from the
much broader category of binding magic. The latter is definitely bivalent:
binding (and other verbs and nouns related to surrounding, encircling,
supporting and guaranteeing integrity) has a clearly positive association,
but is also strongly negative through associations of binding with hunting,
catching or restricting movement. Since our own terminology is heavily
coloured with multiple associations as well, we should be very careful and
explicit in how we translate and represent the Egyptian terms.
If we limit ourselves to knots and knotting we have to conclude that the
connotations are almost entirely positive. The terminology for binding as
potential threat, found in magical texts as protection against dangers and
in the funerary literature either as weapon against enemies, or as demonic
danger of being mistaken for one, makes use of specific terms. Although
binding usually requires tying, it is extremely rare to find explicit mention of
knots or knotting in a context of threat. Returning to the schematic overview
of knots and knotting, the table clearly illustrates this, when filled in with
notions that have been attested in ancient Egyptian.
Analyzing objects, depictions, texts or ethnoarchaeological evidence, we
should take into account that the power of knots can be concentrated in the
action (the knotting or untying of the knot), the situation (things are tied
or untied), or the mere existence (versus non-existence) of the knot In other
words, in the texts we can look at the use of the nouns Tz and Tzt , versus the
verb Tz and at passive versus active use of the verb.

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 Entangled, connected or protected? The power of knots … in Ancient Egypt

Table 3. Schematic overview of the predominantly positive application of knotting power,

related to different types of knot functionality, as derived from textual sources and extant material
evidence.

Action: Tie Untie

Knot: Positive result Negative result Positive result Negative result

Stopper knot protect: hold inside, restriction at birth? remove restriction –

(overhand knot) block evil, Tzt, tjt at birth?

Linear knots contain: hold power – – –
(overhand knots) (spells), mnemonic
(numbers), blockage
of evil, Tzt

Circular knot include, support, restriction remove restriction –

(reef knot) protect: Tz Tzt HA deceased? deceased? wHa Tzt

Fabric – (restrict, render (preventive measures –

(netting knots) powerless) against being caught in
a net. No references to
removal or freeing
from net)

Multiple string protect, hold inside, – – –

stopper knot block evil: Tzt

Multiple string connect body parts, – – –

linear connection create, build: Tz

Multiple string connect, unite upper – – –

circular and lower Egypt: Tz
connections

Fabric – – – –
(reef/overhand
knot)

In the material evidence we can only look at what is present. Knotted

amulets indicate that the action of knotting has been performed and that
these knots have not been untied subsequently. The power of the linear
overhand knots lies in the action of knotting, as physical evidence of recited
incantations. In contrast, representations of reef knots in tomb reliefs and
amulets mean to depict the existence of knots. Skeuomorph knots of wood,
faience or gold clearly were not meant to be untied: their rendering in more
permanent materials clarifies that the knot itself represents the protective and
perhaps also enduring power
From Fig. 13, which summarizes the medical/magical/religious function
of knotting for the ancient Egyptian situation, it is apparent that the use of
knotting is predominantly positive. The apotropaic notion of knotting varies

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Willeke Wendrich

slightly over time and seems to be less clear cut towards the Late Period and
the Greco-Roman period, but certainly continues. In early Islam references
to magical knotting are extremely negative, but this should be seen as a con-
demnation of magical practices in general, rather than a negative function of
the knotting itself. It shows that knotting was an important part of magic in
a wide region and over a long period.18
An inventory of who performs the knotting and when the knotting is
done is very brief. In the funerary literature several gods are listed: Isis, Re,
Seth, Nun. In the magical texts Isis, Anubis and Tait are mentioned, as well
as the seven daughters of Re, perhaps to be equalled with the seven Hathors.
Except for the magical powers of Isis and her care for the infant Horus,
there do not seem to be very clear mythological reasons why these gods
are mentioned. Anubis’ role in knotting medical amulets, has been sought
in his familiarity with knotting the mummy wrappings, but, as outlined
above, it seems much more likely that his involvement is related to the use
of textile bandages (in contrast to hair or string). The human counterparts
of Isis and Anubis, the performers of magic, were specialists who had access
to the books with prescriptions. The medical/magical treatments could be
employed prophylactic or curative, but it seems reasonable to suggest that
sufferers of an ailment sought relief and help from the magician/priest. With
the exception of the spell from Papyrus Berlin P3027 that prescribes seven
spells to be knotted in the morning and evening of four subsequent days, no
specific indications of time are given. Knotting seems to be a convenient cure
that can be tied in at any time.
This brings us back to our possibly amuletic bracelet from Amarna. The
knots in this object are much more complicated than those described in
known medical/magical texts. The combination of parallel threads, a thick
stopper knot and the bundle of green coloured yarns has no equivalent in any
known rubric or incantation. Coloured threads are mentioned (mostly black,
white or red), particular materials are listed (hair, linen) sometimes with
very detailed specifications about the quality or the spinning direction. The
course flax bracelet from Amarna, however, has a combination of features
for which no convenient written prescription is known. Nevertheless, based
on the inventory of meaningful knotting in ancient Egypt, we can be certain
that its purpose was positive and its power strongly curative and apotropaic.
Probably knotted by a specialized priest or magician we can only guess at
the words spoken and the danger or illness it warded off. In its own incon-
spicuous way, it will have brought comfort, confidence and perhaps health
and happiness to a slight-wristed person in the Amarna workmen’s village.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my colleague Jacco Dieleman for many fruitful discussions and his
reading of a first draft of this text.

Notes
 1
  The context is square L11 layer [41], excavated in 1982 (Kemp 1983; 1984, 81–8)
and the object was studied by the author in 1987 (Wendrich 1989).
 2
  The green staining is limited to the small bundle of yarns held in a loop of naturally
hued string and seems to be purposefully coloured. The meaning of this is unclear and
care has to be taken in interpreting the colour symbolism, because flax and linen are
notoriously difficult to dye and the employed dye has not been identified. The yarn may
originally have been blue.
 3
  The discovery of highly developed Neolithic basketry techniques in the Fayum
makes it plausible that tying, binding and knotting techniques were equally well matured
(Caton-Thompson and Gardner 1934).
 4
  Karnak, unpublished 18th Dynasty relief depicting Seth and another god carrying
Orion (Belegstellen V399, 11); Edifice of Taharqa in Karnak: Dedun (Nubia), Sopdu
(Asia), Sobek (Libya) and Horus (Egypt), each depicted ‘on his knot’ and carried by
a priest and priestess (Barguet 1962, 145; Cooney 2000; Leclant 1965, 76; Parker et al.
1979, 81). Karnak room XIX south of the granite sanctuary, four gods on reef knots in
the presence of Hatshepsut, usurped by Thutmosis III (Porter and Moss 1972, 105).
 5
 Rochholz argues that it is not possible to clearly discern the associatively interwoven
Tzw or DAjzw , as knots or creation words, personified as seven creator gods, linked
closely to Mehet Weret (Rochholz 2002, 116–17).
 6
 A skeuomorph is an object that copies the appearance of an artefact in another
material. The shape of a knot made of wood or faience is a skeuomorph. A representation
is an image of a knot as part of a larger scene in, for instance a relief, statue or painting.
 7
  The goddess Tait is connected to the city of Tait in Upper Egypt, a centre of
weaving. In Edfu she is depicted carrying textile bandages to decorate the image of the
god. Most often she is depicted in funerary contexts, providing mummy bandages. She
is associated with Isis and Nephthys who weave the shroud and mummy windings for
Osiris (Derchain-Urtel 1986).
 8
  Inventory numbers 256tt and 256kkk. On the card of 256tt Howard Carter refers
to skeuomorphs of reef knots in wood which he found among the foundation deposits
for Hatshepsut’s temple in Deir el-Bahari. These may be a sign or word play with yet
another layer of meaning of Ts : ‘put together’ or ‘build’ (Wb V 398). See http://www.
ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4tut.html quick search ‘Amuletic knot’ for Howard Carter’s original
finds cards and Harry Burton’s original photographs.
 9
  ‘One of the best but most misused knots is the Reef Knot (…). Employed as
a Binding Knot, to reef and furl sails or to tie up parcels, it’s invaluable. But employed as
a bend (to tie two rope ends together), the Reef Knot is probably responsible for more
deaths and injuries than have been caused by the failure of all other knots combined. (…)
Tied in two ropes’ ends of different size, texture or stiffness, it is almost bound to capsize
and spill.” (Ashley 1944, 18, original italics).
10
  BD 5, 7, 149, 154a. BD 168 employs the term bAgj for the same notion.

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Willeke Wendrich
11
 Osiris is sometimes characterized at the ‘tired god’, who wakes up from death/
sleep and regains control over his body (Griffiths 1966, 40), based on Pyr. Utt. 2092a
and 2093a which have the term bAgj . Osiris’ penis is also said to be ‘tired’, but in this
instance the reference is probably to the god as a parallel for the deceased.
12
  Hannig presumes that this refers to the Isis knot (1990, 93 n. 7), but the phrasing
Tz.n.f Snwt HA.f refers to circular protective knotting, see also the section on loosening
knots.
13
 Perhaps a similar notion of protective binding is behind the metal signet ring found
in two cases around the lower legs of a feetless statuette of a woman with the character-
istic hairdo of a woman in childbirth. The metal (iron) gives these statuettes a terminus
post quem of approximately 700 bce (Morenz 1958).
14
 Apart from wt other terms used are: afnt and ann .
15
  The mummies unwrappings that are described by these various authors are dated in
different periods: 21st Dynasty (Taylor), Greco-Roman (Goyon) and various, mostly
unspecified dates (Pettigrew). In none of the descriptions mention is made of knotting
the bandages. On one photograph it is clearly visible, however, that the ends of the
wrapping of the mummy of Horemkenesi are knotted with a large reef knot which sits
aproximately over the umbilicus (Taylor 1995, 80–1, plates 51–2).
16
  The text occurs only in the pyramids of Teti and Pepi II. It is part of a longer
sequence (Pyr. 593b, Utt. 359) which describes the deceased king crossing the Winding
Water Way (the Milky Way). Utt. 359 refers to the conflict of Horus and Seth and
describes how the king crosses to the other side of the Winding Water Way on the wing
of Thoth.
17
  In a magical context sealing is a form of protection to close the mouths of snakes
(BM EA10309 II19) and crocodiles (as in the Harris Magical Papyrus III7 and VIII3) or
to seal the opening of the womb (London Medical Papyris X7) (Leitz 1999). In funerary
literature references to sealing have important notions of locking in and restriction of
the movement of the deceased (Zandee 1960, 131).
18
  Qur‘an 113:4 [I take refuge in God from] ‘the evil of the women who spit on knots’.
Which in the exegesis is explained as ‘women spell-casters who spit on the knots they tie
in a cord; they blow on them and say something, without expelling saliva (…)’.

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