PH 1020 –GENERAL PHYSICS LABORATORY 1

GPL 119X-INTRODUCTION TO SPECTROMETER

Name :Nishadh Iqbal

Reg. No. : 2017s16205

Partner’s name : R. Gobinath

Group No : 25A
 ABSTRACT

 The use and familiarization of the spectrometer was one of the objectives of this
experiment.
 Other objective of this experiment is to determining the wave lengths of yellow doublet
lines in the emission spectrum of sodium.
 The readings obtained are (600.28±0.16) nm and (574. 36 ±0.16) nm.
 The actual wavelengths of the sodium doublet lines are 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm.
One of the calculated results is greater than the actual value by 11.28nm, and the
other is less by 15.24.
 The experiment can be considered partial successes as the difference between the
readings and the actual readings is not too great.

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 CONTENT

Page No.

Introduction 2 -8

Theory 9 - 11

Apparatus and Accessories 12

Procedure 13

Experimental Data 14

Data Analysis 15 - 17

Error Analysis 18 - 20

Final Results 21

Discussion 22

Conclusion 23

Questions 24

References 25

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 INTRODUCTION

The spectrometer is an instrument, which can be used to make accurate measurements of the deflection of
a parallel beam of light, which passes through a prism or a diffraction grating. This instrument is used to
study the spectra and to measure refractive indices of materials. It consists of three main parts such as

1. Collimator
2. Telescope
3. Prism Table

Figure 1.1- A spectrometer Figure 1.2 – Labeled diagram of a spectrometer

Collimator

The collimator consists of a horizontal tube with a converging lens at one end of the tube and a vertical
slit of adjustable width at the other end. The slit can be moved in or out of the tube by the rack and pinion
arrangement and its width can be adjusted by turning the corresponding screw. The collimator is rigidly
fixed to the main part of the instrument and can be made exactly horizontal by the screw corresponding to
it.

Telescope

Telescope which is used in the spectrometer is a small astronomical telescope with an objective lens and
eyepiece. The eyepiece is fitted with cross – wires and slides in a tube, which carries the cross wires. The
tube carrying the cross wires, in turn, slides in another tube, which carries the objective lens. The
distance between the object and the cross wires can be adjusted by a rack and pinion arrangement. The
telescope can be made perfectly horizontal by the screw of it. It can be rotated about the vertical axis of
the instrument and may be fixed at a given position by means of screw.

Prism Table

Prism table is a small table and capable of rotation about a vertical axis. It consists of three leveling
screws. A series of concentric circles with their center coinciding with the center of the table is engraved
on the surface of the prism table.

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(a) Initial Adjustment of the spectrometer for parallel light

Here the telescope and collimator are adjusted. By focusing the collimator and the telescope of a
spectrometer for parallel beam of light is to view a distant object through these components and adjust
them until a sharp image is observed. However when a distant object is not available the Schuster’s
method may be employed to observe a sharp image.

Schuster’s method of adjusting the spectrometer

1. The eyepiece of the telescope is adjusted so that the cross hairs are in sharp focus.
2. The slit of the collimator is illuminated by using sodium (Na) light.
3. The Prism is placed on the prism table with its center coinciding with the center of the table. The
prism table is rotated until the light from the collimator is incident on the face AB of the prism.
Then look through the refracting face AC of the prism and the refracted beam can be seen
through it from the naked eye bent towards BC. ( as shown in the Figure 1.3)

Figure 1.3- Top of the prism table and the refraction of light through the prism

4. Then the telescope is brought between the prism table and the eye and moved to the left or right
until the image of the slit is seen through the telescope. At this point the prism table is rotated at
the proper direction to find the minimum deviation. While doing this the image of the slit will
move towards the directed path of the light from the collimator and when it reaches the minimum
deviation point it will move away from the directed path whatever the direction the prism table is
moved.
5. The telescope is then moved about 6 degrees greater deviation.
6. In this telescope position, there are two positions of the prism which gives a blurred image of the
slit in the center of the eyepieces field of view. (see the Graph 1.1)

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 Dm-Minimum deviation

Graph 1.1-Graph of angle of incidence and angle of deviation

7. The prism is then turned to the position of these two where the light falls on the first face more
obliquely. Then the telescope is focused until the image of the slit is in sharp focus.
8. Then without moving the telescope the prism is rotated to the second position at which the image
of the slit appears. At this point the collimator should be focused to give the image a sharper
focus.
9. The prism is then rotated back to the first position and the telescope is again focused, then the
prism is rotated to the second position again and the collimator is focused.

10. The process is continued until the focus is perfect for both positions.

(b) Leveling the prism table

The prism table has three leveling screws named as P, Q and R and those screws are located at the corners
of an equilateral triangle.

1. the prism is placed on the prism table with vertex A at the center of the table and side AB
perpendicular to the line joining leveling screws P and Q as in Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 - Leveling screws (P,Q,R) and lines

marked on the prism table

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 2. The prism table is rotated until the incident beam falls approximately symmetrically at the side of
A.
3. The telescope is then rotated to position T1. By viewing from the telescope the screws either P or
Q is adjusted to bring the slit symmetrically on to the cross wires as shown in Figure 1.5. The
verticalness of the face AB is ensured by this method. However, in this method face AC not
needed to be vertical.

Figure 1.5-Field of view of the telescope showing the image of the slit symmetrically placed on cross
wires.

4. For making the face AC vertical without disturbing AB, telescope is turned to T 2 position and
view the image. Image is brought as shown in the figure 1.5 by adjusting R only.(Since AB has
been placed perpendicular to PQ, adjustment of R does not change the plane of the face AB.)
5. Telescope is turned back to position T1 and should check the image position has not been
disturbed.The spectrometer table is now leveled.

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Introduction 2

Determination of the wavelengths of yellow doublet(or D-) lines in the emission spectrum of
sodium

Yellow doublet (or D-) lines in the emission spectrum of sodium

Most of the optics experiments a sodium lamp is used as a source of monochromatic light emitter
of yellow color. They emit light in only one wave length. But in this experiment a discharge tube filled
with sodium gas is used as the source of light. At low pressures, discharge tube filled with sodium gas
produce electrical discharge.

Figure 2.1-A sodium discharge lamp

There are two electrodes in the discharge tube which are connected to a secondary coil of a powerful
induction coil that can generate a voltage in order of 2kV or more to produce discharge across the sodium
gas. Electrons which are in the discharge current collide with the gas atoms and gain higher energies to
jump high energy levels at excited state (figure 2.2). Then they return back to the ground state release
energy in the form of light (figure 2.3). The gas or vapor inside emits its characteristic light which can be
used as a source of light in spectrum analysis.

Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3

The electronic configuration of sodium alkali atom in ground state is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. Sodium atom
has one valence electron and that electron is responsible for the origin of the emission spectrum. When
this valence electron is excited and moves to higher energy levels like 3p 3d 4s 4p .It emits radiation as it
decays back to its ground state.

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 Figure 2.4-emission of radiations

In Sodium, some atomic process splits all the excited states other than the s states in to two
closely spaced states, and for example, the 3p level is split in to 3p1/2 and 3p3/2 states (figure 2.5) When the
electrons are promoted to those states and returning to ground state will emit light in two different wave
lengths. This causes the doublet lines, with wave lengths 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm.

Figure 2.5 -Energy level diagram of

sodium atom showing transitions
responsible for D- lines

Diffraction Grating

Diffraction grating is an optical instrument consists of equally identical spaced diffracting elements.There
are parallel lines of equal width ruled on a glass as in

Figure 2.6

A grating can produce the emission spectrum of the source in the form of a diffraction pattern as seen in
figure 2.6. It has a high resolution power which gives the ability to separate very closely spaced lines in a
spectrum while prism is disabled. Eg: sodium doublet lines

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 Figure 2.7

Important

1. Diffraction grating should not be touched from the surface.

2. As the grating can be easily get damaged should not be attempt to clean.

Figure 2.8- diffraction of light when passed through a diffraction grating

A parallel beam of light passing through a diffraction grating and diffracted through a direction
making an angle Ɵ is given by,

d sin Ɵ =n λ
Where d is the spacing of the grating and n=1,2,3,….. is the order of the diffraction

According to the above grating equation, the angle of diffraction θ varies with the values of λ and n.
At a fixed value of n, light should be diffracted according to the value of the wavelength of the light.
At n=0, the angle of diffraction is also 0. That means when looking at the slit of the collimator
directly through the diffraction grating a direct image is should be seen.

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 Figure 2.9

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 APPARATUS AND ACCESSORIES

Spectrometer

Glass prism

Sodium lamp

Diffraction grating

Grating holder

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 PROCEDURE

1. Collimator and telescope were adjusted for parallel light and the prism table was leveled. Then
telescope was moved until an image of the slit formed by direct light from the collimator was seen
symmetrically on the cross wires. (straight through position.)

2. Grating was mounted on the prism table with the help of the grating holder, making sure that the lines
of the grating were vertical to the prism table, and that the light from the source falls normally on the
grating. The cross wires centered on the slit. The spectrometer reading corresponding to the straight
through position (Ts) of the telescope was recorded from both left and right scales.

3. Slowly telescope was moved from the straight through position to either side and looked for the highly
intense sodium doublet on each side. Closely spaced two bright yellow lines were seen through telescope.
On each side, the first appearance of these two lines corresponded to the first order of the diffraction
pattern and the second appearance was corresponded to the second order and so on.

Grating

L.H.S. R.H.S.

Figure 4.1

4. Cross wires were brought on the each of the line of the doublet in the first and second order diffraction
patterns and read the positions of the telescope T1 and T2 on the either side of the straight through
position. Readings were recorded.

5. By using the above readings the values of θ1' and θ1'' and the average values of the angles of
diffraction were calculated as shown in the data analysis.

6. Using the grating equation the wavelengths of the sodium D-lines were then calculated.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

S - Straight-through position

L - Reading on the left side vernier scale

R - Reading on the right side vernier scale

( )' - Reading on the L.H.S.

( )'' - Reading on the R.H.S.

Table 5.1-Readings of the straight through position

Reading of the left side scale (Ts)L Reading of the right side scale (Ts)R
(± 30'') (± 30'')

202˚ 35’ 22˚ 36’

Table 5.2-Positions of the sodium doublet in the Left Hand Side

Spectral Line Reading of the left side Reading of the right side
scale (± 30'') scale (± 30'')
First line 181˚08’ (T1)’L 01˚ 08’(T1)’R
Second line 181˚13’(T2)’L 01˚ 10’(T2)’R

Table 5.3-Positions of the sodium doublet in the Right Hand side

Spectral Line Reading of the left side Reading of the right side
scale (± 30'') scale (± 30'')
First line 223˚ 17’(T1)”L 43˚16’(T1)”R
Second line 223˚ 22’(T2)’L 43˚ 21’(T2)”R

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 DATA ANALYSIS

I. Calculations for the first line of the sodium doublet

1.Calculating the angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet on the L.H.S ((θ1)'L) from the
left side scale readings

(θ1)'L = | (T1)'L - (Ts)L | = |181˚08 ’ -202˚ 35’|

(θ1)'L =21˚27 ’
2. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet on the L.H.S ((θ1)'R) from the
right side scale readings

(θ1)'R = | (T1)'R - (Ts)R | = |01˚ 08’ -22˚ 36’|

(θ1)'R =21˚ 28’

3. Calculating the average angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet of L.H.S ((θ1)')

21˚27′+21˚ 28′
(Ɵ1)’R+(Ɵ1)’L /2 =
2

(Ɵ1)’=21˚ 27’
4. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet on the R.H.S ((θ1)''L)

(θ1)''L = | (T1)''L - (Ts)L | =|223˚17’ - 202˚ 35’|

(θ1)''L=20˚42 ’
5. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet on the R.H.S ((θ1)''R)

(θ1)''R = | (T1)''R - (Ts)R|=|43˚16’- 22˚ 36’|

(θ1)''R =20˚ 40’

6. Calculating the average angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet of R.H.S ((θ1)”)

20˚42′+20˚ 40′
(Ɵ1)”L+(Ɵ1)”R /2 =
2

(Ɵ1)”=20˚ 41’

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7. Calculating the average value of the angle of diffraction for the first line of the sodium doublet (θ1)

21˚ 27′+20˚ 41′

(Ɵ1) = (Ɵ1)’+(Ɵ1)”/2=
2

(Ɵ1) = 21˚ 04’

8. Determining the value of the wavelength (λ1) of the first line of the sodium doublet

(d=1.67x10-6 m, n=1)
d sin θ1 = nλ1
λ1 = (1.67x10-6 m x sin (21˚ 04’))
λ1 =600.28 nm
II. Calculations for the second line of the sodium doublet

1. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet on the L.H.S ((θ2)'L) from
the left side scale readings

(θ2)'L = | (T2)'L - (Ts)L | =|181˚13’ - 202˚ 35’|

(θ2)'L = 21˚ 32’
2. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet on the L.H.S ((θ2)'R) from
the right side scale readings

(θ2)'R = | (T2)'R- (Ts)R | =|01˚10 ’ – 22˚36 ’|

(θ2)'R = 21˚ 26’
3. Calculating the average angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet of L.H.S (θ2)'

21˚ 32′+21˚26′
(θ2)' = ((θ2)'L + (θ2)'R) /2 =
2

(θ2)'=21˚ 29’
4. . Calculating the angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet on the R.H.S ((θ2)” L)

(θ2)''L = | (T2)''L - (Ts)L | = |223˚22’ – 202˚ 35’|

(θ2)''L =20˚ 47’

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5. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet on the R.H.S ((θ2)”R)

(θ2)''R = | (T2)''R - (Ts)R | =|43˚21 ’ – 22˚ 36’|

(θ2)''R =20˚45 ’
6. Calculating the average angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet of R.H.S (θ2)”

20˚ 47′+20˚ 45′

(θ2)” = ((θ2) ''L + (θ2)'' R)/2=
2

(θ2)” =20˚ 46’

7.Calculating the average value of the angle of diffraction for the second line of the sodium doublet (θ2)

21˚ 29′+20˚ 46′

(θ2) = ((θ2)' + (θ2)'')/2 =
2

(θ2) = 21˚ 07’

8. Determining the value of the wavelength (λ1) of the first line of the sodium doublet

(d=1.67x10-6 m, n=1)

d sin θ2 = nλ2

λ2 = 1.67x10-6 m x sin (21˚ 07’)

λ2 =574.36 nm

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 ERROR ANALYSIS

 Error of the spectrometer Vernier scale reading

Minimum reading of the vernier scale is 0 1',
Then, The error of the scale reading (δθ) = ±0 0 ' 30 ''
𝜋
δθ in radians = ± 0 0' 30'' x 180rad = ±1.45 x 10-4 rad

Calculating the error of λ1

1.Calculating the error of angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet on the L.H.S ((θ1)'L)
from the left side scale readings

(δθ1)'L = | (δT1)'L - (δTs)L | = R

𝜕𝑅 2 2 𝜕𝑅 2
((δθ1)'L )2=(
𝜕(𝑇 )′
) (𝛿(𝑇1 )′𝐿 ) + (𝜕(𝑇 ) ) (𝛿(𝑇𝑠 )𝐿 )2
1 𝐿 𝑠 𝐿

𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅
(𝜕(𝑇 )′ )=1 (𝜕(𝑇 ) ) = 1
1 𝐿 𝑠 𝐿

2
((δθ1)'L )2=(𝛿(𝑇1 )′𝐿 ) + (𝛿(𝑇𝑠 )𝐿 )2
((δθ1)'L )2=(1.45 × 10-4)2+(1.45 × 10-4)2

((δθ1)'L ) =√2 × (1.45 × 10−4 )rad

((δθ1)'L ) = 42”
2. Calculating error of the angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet on the L.H.S ((θ1)'R)
from the right side scale readings

By using the error theory we see that the error of (δθ1)'L is equal to (δθ1)'R

3. Calculating the error of the average angle of diffraction of the first line of the sodium doublet of L.H.S
((θ1)')

(δƟ1)’ =(δƟ1)’R+(δƟ1)’L /2=R

2 2
𝜕𝑅 2 𝜕𝑅
((δθ1)'L ) =( 2
𝜕(Ɵ1 )’)′
) (𝛿(Ɵ1 )’)′𝐿 ) + (𝜕(Ɵ ’
) (𝛿(Ɵ1 )R ’)2
𝐿 1 )R

𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅
(𝜕(Ɵ ′ ) = 1` (𝜕(Ɵ )= 1
1 )’)𝐿 1 )L ’

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 2
((δƟ1)’)2=1/4[(𝛿(Ɵ1 )’)′𝐿 ) + (𝛿(Ɵ1 )R ’)2 ]

((δƟ1)’)=1/2(√2 × (2.05 × 10−4 ))

((δƟ1)’)= (2.05 × 10−4 )/ √2

((δƟ1)’)= 1.45× 10−4 rad= 30”

4. Calculating the angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet on the R.H.S ((θ2)” L)

(θ2)''L = | (T2)''L - (Ts)L | = R

𝜕𝑅 2 2 𝜕𝑅 2
((δθ1)"L )2=(
𝜕(𝑇 )"
) (𝛿(𝑇1 )"𝐿 ) + (𝜕(𝑇 ) ) (𝛿(𝑇𝑠 )𝐿 )2
1 𝐿 𝑠 𝐿

𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅
(𝜕(𝑇 )" )=1 (𝜕(𝑇 ) ) = −1
1 𝐿 𝑠 𝐿

((δθ1)”L )2=(1.45 × 10-4)2+(1.45 × 10-4)2

((δθ1)”L ) =√2 × (1.45 × 10−4 ) rad

((δθ1)”L ) = 42”
5. Calculating the error of the angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet on the R.H.S
((θ2)”R)

By using the error theory we see that the error of (δθ1)'L is equal to (δθ1)”R

6. Calculating the error of the average angle of diffraction of the second line of the sodium doublet of
R.H.S (θ1)”

(θ1)” = ((θ1) ''L + (θ1)'' R)/2=R

2 2
𝜕𝑅 2 𝜕𝑅
((δθ1)”L )2=(
𝜕(Ɵ1 𝐿))"
) (𝛿(Ɵ1 ))"𝐿 ) + (𝜕(Ɵ ) (𝛿(Ɵ1 )R ")2
1 )R "

𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅
(𝜕(Ɵ " ) = 1/2` (𝜕(Ɵ )= 1/2
1 )’)𝐿 1 )L "

2
((δƟ1)”)2=1/4[(𝛿(Ɵ1 ))"𝐿 ) + (𝛿(Ɵ1 )R ")2 ]

((δƟ1)”)=1/2(√2 × (2.05 × 10−4 ))

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((δƟ1)”)= (2.05 × 10−4 )/ √2

((δƟ1)”)= 1.45× 10−4 rad= 30”

7. Calculating the error of the average value of the angle of diffraction for the first line of the sodium
doublet (θ1)

(θ1) = ((θ1) ' + (θ1)'' )/2=R

2 2
𝜕𝑅 2 𝜕𝑅
((δθ1))2=(
𝜕(Ɵ1 ))"
) (𝛿(Ɵ1 ))" ) + (𝜕(Ɵ )′) (𝛿(Ɵ1 )′)2
1

𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅
(𝜕(Ɵ )’)′
) = 1/2` (𝜕(Ɵ )")= 1/2
1 1

2
((δƟ1))2=1/4[(𝛿(Ɵ1 ))" ) + (𝛿(Ɵ1 )′)2 ]

((δƟ1))=1/2(√2 × (1.45 × 10−4 ))

((δƟ1))= (1.45 × 10−4 )/ √2

((δƟ1))= 1.03× 10−4 rad = 21”

8. Determining the error of the value of the wavelength (λ1) of the first line of the sodium doublet

d sin θ1 = nλ1
d/n sin θ1= λ1

by differentiating the equation with respect to θ1

δλ1= d/n cos(θ1) (δθ1)

λ1= 1.67x10-6 × cos( 1.03× 10−4 ) × (1.03 × 10−4 ) mrad

λ1=0.16 nm
 From the same procedure we can calculate the error of the angle θ2 and the error of λ2

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 FINAL RESULTS

 (θ1)'L =21˚ 27’ ±42”

 (θ1)'R = 21˚ 28’ ±42”
 (θ1)' = 21˚ 27’ ±30”
 (θ1)''L= 20˚ 42’ ±42”
 (θ1)''R= 20˚ 40’ ±42”
 (θ1)'' = 20˚41’ ± 30”
 (θ1) = 21˚04’ ±21”
 λ1 = (600.28±0.16) nm

 (θ2)'L = 21˚32’ ±42”

 (θ2)'R = 21˚ 26’ ±42”
 (θ2)' = 21˚ 29’ ±30”
 (θ2)''L =20˚ 47’ ±42”
 (θ2)''R =20˚ 45’ ±42”
 (θ2)'' =20˚ 46’ ±30”
 (θ2) = 21˚07’ ±21”
 λ2 = (574. 36 ±0.16) nm

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 DISCUSSION

This experiment was done to determine the wave lengths of sodium doublet lines in the
emission spectrum of sodium by using the spectrometer. First Spectrometer was adjusted for
parallel beam of light. Normally telescope of the spectrometer can be focused to a distant object
and sharp image is observed at the cross wires. But this experiment was done in a dark room it
was difficult to focus to a distant object. So the Shuster’s method was used. The eye piece of the
telescope was adjusted to see cross wires sharply to the observer. As the different observers have
different near points according to the person judgment can be varied.

By keeping the prism on the prism table, first the refraction of light is observed by the naked eye
and the telescope was moved the position and looking through the eye piece we found the angle
of minimum deviation. Turning the telescope six degrees telescope to look for two images which
appeared at that position while prism table is moved. After finding the two images by moving the
prism table to those images one after other telescope and slit of the collimator is adjusted until
sharp and clear images are visible to the observer. This adjustment also a personal judgment that
can be vary too. This adjustment is done before leveling the prism is because if the leveling of the prism
is done earlier, it may disturb the leveling of the prism during the rotation of prism table.

The next adjustment is leveling the prism table using three screws. Locating of the prism
in the prism table, perpendicular to the line joining of the leveling screw is needed. Then prism
table is rotated until the incident beam falls approximately symmetrical to the vertex of the
prism. Viewing through the eyepiece until the image is positioned symmetrically in cross wires
screws of prism table are adjusted. If this adjustment get failed grating will not refract light
perfectly horizontal. When concentric circles are located in the prism table it is convenient to
place the prism towards the direction of light beam.

As the sodium doublet lines are spaced so closer it is very difficult to focus on each line
correctly. When sodium doublet lines are brought on the cross wires, difficult to catch the exact
position of the cross wires for eyes.

The most important step is to obtain readings of the angular position of the sodium doublet lines
using left and right scale. As the readings are taken from two scales for one position at the same
time, readings will be more accurate. It is important to have a magnifier to read the vernier scale.
But the spectrometer used to get above readings did not have a magnifier. So the measurements
obtained may not be very accurate.

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 CONCLUSION

A diffraction grating of grating space one six hundredth of a millimeter and a spectrometer was
used to determine the wavelengths of yellow doublet lines in the sodium emission spectrum.
After initial adjustments of telescope, collimator and prism table, diffraction grating was placed
on the prism table by means of a grating holder. Then starting from the straight through position
sodium doublet lines were observed by moving the telescope to both left hand and right hand
side. By using main scale and vernier scales readings correspond to the first order and second
order lines were noted down from both left scale and right scale. After calculating average angles
of first order and second order lines values were substituted to the grating equation and found the
wave lengths of sodium doublet lines. They are (600.28±0.16) nm and (574. 36 ±0.16) nm.
The actual wavelengths of the sodium doublet lines are 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. One of the
calculated results is greater than the actual value by 11.28nm, and the other is less by 15.24.
The reason for the above deviation may be the spectrometer used to get above readings was not
taking the scale readings accurately without a magnifying glass. So that may have caused
parallax error in the readings.

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 REFERENCES

hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/sodium.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction_grating
https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-diffraction-grating
www.ifsc.usp.br/~lavfis/images/BDApostilas/ApEspectrRedeDif/Sodio.pdf

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