Cell Biology 1

Cell Biology

Cytology : Study of cell structure is known as cytology

Cell biology : Study of cell structure and function.
Father of cytology : Robert Hooke
Father of modern cytology : C. P. Swanson
Father of Indian cytology: A. K. Sharma (discovered orcein banding for chromosome)
Robert Hooke (1665) in his book “Micrographia” coined the term “Cell” (Greek word
cellula = Small hollow space), therefore the credit for the discovery of cell goes to Robert
Hooke. Leeuwenhoek (1674) first observed animal cells (Free animal cells) and called them
“Animalcule”.
1.1 Cell theory
M. J. Schleiden (1838) German Botanist and T. Schwann (1839) German Zoologist proposed
cell theory. All cells arise from pre-existing cells confirmed by Rudolph Virchow (1885) by stating
“Omnis cellula e cellula”. Virchow proposed “Cell Lineage theory”. Karl Nageli showed that plant
cells arise from the division of pre existing cells.
Exception of cell theory : Virus, viriods, prions, vaucheria and blue green algae.
1.2 Protoplasm theory
Corti first observed protoplasm. Felix Dujardin (1835) observed a living juice in animal cell
and called it ''Sarcode''. Purkinje (1839) coined the term protoplasm for sap inside a plant cell.
Hugo Van Mohl (1846) indicated importance of protoplasm.
Max Schultze (1861) established similarity between Protoplasm and Sarcode and proposed
a theory which later on called “Protoplasm theory” by O. Hertwig (1892). Huxley (1868)
proposed Protoplasm as a “physical basis of life”.
Physical properties of protoplasm
(1) Protoplasm is a translucent, odourless and polyphasic fluid.
(2) Protoplasm is a crystal colloid type of solution, a mixture of such chemical substances
among which some form crystalloid i.e. true solution (Sugars, Salts, Acids, Bases etc.) and others
which form colloidal solution (Proteins lipids, etc.)
(3) Viscosity of protoplasm = 2–20 centipoises
2 Cell Biology
(4) pH = 6.8 contain 90% water (10% in dormant seeds)
(5) Refractive index = 1.4
(6) Approximately 34 elements participate in the composition of protoplasm but only 13
elements are main or universal elements i.e. C, H, O, N, Cl, Ca, P, Na, K, S, Mg, I, Fe. Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen form the 96% part of protoplasm.
1.3 Tools and technique in cytology
Staining : Histochemistry – use of stains to locate cell organelles.
Stain Final colour Suitable for
Sudan IV Scarlet red Suberin
Sudan black and Red Black/Red Lipid
Haematoxylene Red Nuclear stain
Acetocarmine Pink Nuclear stain
Feulgen's stain Red/Purple DNA
Osmium tetraoxide Black Fats, stain for electron
Saffranine Red microscopy
Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) Red Lignin
Aniline blue (Cotton blue) Blue Polysaccharides
Eosin Pink, Red Fungal hyphae
Janus green Greenish blue Cytoplasm, Cellulose
Methylene blue Blue Mitochondria
Nuclei

Microscopy : Microscope (compound or light microscope) first invented by Z. Janssen and H.

Janssen (1590)
Compound microscope : Robert Hooke (1665)
Simple microscope : A. Von Leeuwenhoek (1674)
Light compound microscope : Wilson (1710)
(Laboratory microscope)
Phase contrast microscope : Zernicke (1935)
Electron microscope (EM) : Knoll and Ruska (1932)
Maximum magnification achieved by light compound microscope is 2000 times. (Power of
objective lens x eye piece lens). Magnification power of E. M. is 2 Lakh or more. (Use
electromagnetic lenses) (Ability to distinguish 2 close points as 2 separate points). It depends
upon numerical aperture and wavelength.
Resolution power : Human eye = 100 m Light compound microscope= 2000 Å ; E.M. =
1–10 Å.
Longest cell : Nerve cells – upto 90 cm.
Longest plant cell : Fibers of ramie (Boehmeria nivea) – upto 55 cm.
Largest cell : Ostrich egg – 11 x 17 cm.
 Cell Biology 3

Smallest cell : Mycoplasma laidlawii – ( PPLO) 0.1 

Largest plant cell : Unicellular green alga Acetabularia (8 cms)
Autoradiography : Technique traces the metabolic events inside cell and use radio isotopes
14
C , P 32, S 35, H 3.

Sectioning : Microtome was invented by W. His.

1.4 Types of cell
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells : Broadly speaking, the cells can be classified into two
categories simply prokaryotic and eukaryotic. They differ from each other in several characteristics.
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. Absence of well organised nucleus. 1. Nucleus well organised.
2. Nuclear membrane absent. 2. Nuclear membrane present.
3. DNA not associate with histones, 3. DNA associated with histones,
hence no chromosome formation. chromosomes present.
4. ER, Golgi and Lysosomes absent. 4. All these organelles present.
5. Ribosomes of 70 S type. 5. Ribosomes of 80 S type.
6. Cell wall, at least the inner most layer 6. Cell wall, when present, of cellulose or
made up of mucopeptide. hemicellulose or fungal cellulose or
chitin.
7. Flagella submicroscopic and do not 7. Flagella show usual 9 + 2 structure.
show 9 + 2 structure.
8. No cytoplasmic streaming. 8. Cytoplasmic streaming may occur.
9. Mitochondria absent, Respiratory 9. Mitochondria present.
enzymes located on the plasma
membrane.
10 Chloroplasts absent, Photosynthetic 10 Chloroplasts present.
. lamellae (Thylakoids) may be present. . eg. Other groups.
eg. Bacteria, Blue green algae
(cyanobacteria).

A plant cell differs from animal cells in several respects as detailed here under
Plant cell Animal cell
1. Presence of a cell wall. 1. Cell wall is absent.
2. Presence of plasmodesmata. 2. Plasmodesmata absent.
3. Microvilli and desmosomes absent. 3. Both present.
4. Plastids present. 4. Plastids absent.
5. Centriole absent in higher plants. 5. Centriole present.
6. Mitochondria generally tubule and 6. Mitochondria cristae type.
intermediate type.
7. Ribosomes 70 S and 80 S type. 7. Ribosomes 55 S and 80 S type.
8. Vacuoles present. 8. Vacuole usually absent.
4 Cell Biology
1.5 Structure of cell
Cell boundaries : Mucin and Sialic acid forms cell coat in animal cells. Cell coat of animal
cell is also called Glycocalyx.
Cell wall : Cell coat of plant cells is called cell wall. Robert Hooke discovered cell wall from
thin section of cork cell and published his results in ‘Micrographia’. It has following components.
(1) Primary cell wall : Outermost layer, thin and elastic, composed of cellulose (-D-
glucose), hemicellulose and pectin.
(2) Secondary cell wall : Rigid, thick and composed of cellulose, hemi–cellulose and
pectin. Secondary cell wall absent in meristem.
Primary wall (Thin) Secondary wall (Thick)
(1) Cellulose microfibrils are arranged in a (1) Microbrils are parallel to long axis of
dispersed manner. cell.
(2) Hemicellulose more (50%). Cellulose
content low (2) Hemicellulose less (25%). Cellulose
(3) Primary cell wall have lipids (5–10%) content high.
and proteins (5%). (3) Proteins and lipids either absent or very
less.

(3) Tertiary cell wall : Found only in trachieds of Gymnosperms. Composed of

Hemicellulose and Xylan.
(4) Middle Lamella : It may be outer most layer of cell. Middle Lamellae composed of Ca
and Mg Pectates. Middle lamella is a binding layer or cementing layer between the two adjacent
plant cells. Due to its dissolution at maturity the ripe fruits become softens.
 Lignin : Derivative of cellulose found in cell wall (xylem) make woody texture.
 Suberin, fatty acids mixture, imperious to water
 Cutin : Wax like substance, prevent loss of water, make cuticle.
Cell wall formation : Cell wall materials (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin)
synthesized in Dictyosome and transported outside cell by microtubules. Materials of lipid
nature, like cutin and suberin are synthesized in sphaerosomes. Main component of cell wall is
cellulose. Cell wall formation and growth takes place by two methods
(1) Intussusception : Deposition of cell-wall material between the existing micro
fibrils.
(2) Apposition : Deposition of layers.
(3) Pits : Pits are formed in lignified cell wall. Deposition of lignin occurs throughout the cell
wall leaving some small thin walled areas called pits. Pits are generally formed in pairs in cell
wall of adjacent cells. Two pits of a pair are seperated by a thin membrane called pit membrane
 Cell Biology 5
(composed of middle lamella). Plasmodesmata (Cytoplasmic strands) are present across. There
are two types of pit pairs.
(a) Simple pits : Diameter of a pit cavity is same throughout its length.
(b) Bordered pits : Diameter of pit cavity increases from inside to outside. In such pits, pit
membrane have thickening composed of suberin called Torus. Torus function like a valve to
regulate the flow of materials.
(4) Plasma membrane : Models
Denielli and Harvey (1935) : Proteins also present in addition to lipids.
Lamellar Model or Sandwitch Model : Proposed by Davson and Danielli. Osmophilic outer
& inner protein layer (20 Å) surrounds the lipid bilayer (35Å)
Robertson proposed concept of unit membrane for tripartite structure of membrane. Unit
membrane is made up of lipoprotein.
(a) Fluid Mosaic Model : By Nicholson and Singer (1972). Proteins and lipids are arranged
in a mosaic fashion. Lipids and proteins are held in a “quasifluid” structure. Fluid Mosaic Model is
the latest model. According to it plasma membrane is made up of phospholipids and proteins.
Two types of proteins –
(i) Integral or intrinsic proteins : Tightly held to phospholipid. These are 70% of the total
protein.
(ii) Peripheral or extrinsic proteins : 20–30% of total proteins. Superficially arranged in
either side of P.M. and can be seperated easily. Integral proteins have enzymatic activity and
commonly called permeases.
(b) Transport through plasma membrane : P.M. regulates transport of materials in and
outside of cell. plasma membrane is selective–permeable as it allows certain solutes to pass
through it and prevents others. The size of molecules which can pass through the plasma
membrane is 1–15 Å. Transport of materials through plasma membrane takes place by one of the
following methods –
(i) Osmosis : Movement of water (solvent) across a semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis. In process of osmosis water moves from a hypotonic solution towards a hypertonic
solution.
(ii) Diffusion : Movement of solute molecules from their higher concentration to lower conc.
is called diffusion. Permeability also depends on charges of particles.
(iii) Facilitated or Mediated diffusion : This type of diffusion occurs according to
concentration gradient but it involves carriers like permeases, translocases, etc.
(iv) Active transport or Uphill transport or Metabolically active transport : In this
type of transport, movement of substances (Transportant) takes place against their
concentration gradient and energy is required.
Carrier molecules which occur in plasma membrane become attached to transportant and a
carrier transportant complex is formed. There are different theories for carrier system –
Cyclic AMP theory : Sutherland
6 Cell Biology
Lecithin carrier theory : Bennet and Clarke
Cytochrome pump theory : Lundegardth
Sodium pump theory : Hodkin and Kenyness
(c) Pinocytosis or cell drinking : This name proposed by W.H. Lewis (1934). Ingestion of
liquid by plasma membrane in form of vesicles (Pinocytic vesicle or pinosome) is called
pinocytosis.
(d) Phagocytosis or cell eating – Metchnikoff proposed this term. Ingestion of solid
complex materials by plasma membrane in form of vesicles (Phagosome) is called Phagocytosis.
Pinocytosis + Phagocytosis = Endocytosis.
(e) Exocytosis or Emeiocytosis or cell vomiting : Egestion of complex waste materials
from cell through plasma membrane.
Cytoplasm : Name proposed by Strasburger. According to Muhlethaler and Frey– wyssling
fluid outside nucleus is called cytoplasm. 80% part of cytoplasm is composed of water. The
movement of cytoplasm is known as cyclosis.
Mitochondria : Kolliker (1880) first observed them as cytoplasmic granules in striped
muscles of insects. Flemming (1882) gave the name Fila. Altman (1894) established them as cell
organelles and called Bioplast. Benda (1897) called them mitochondria. Hogeboom (1948)
related them with cell respiration. Palade worked out ultrastructure of mitochondria. They are
stained by Janus B green. They contain 70% of total enzymes of cell. RBC of mammals and sieve
tubes Mitochondria of a cell are collectively known as chondriome. They contain 55-S type
ribosomes and synthesize their own protein for independent existence.
(1) Life span of mitochondria : 5–10 days. Mitochondria are absent in prokaryotes.
(2) Number : 1000 – 1600 per cell. One in Microasterias (alga), Chlorella fusca,
Micromonas. 5 lakhs mitochondria in an amoeba Chaos-chaos. Plant cell has less number of
mitochondria.
(3) Structure : Bounded by 2 unit membrane outer membrane is permeable while inner
membrane is impermeable and is folded into a number of finger like cristae. Cristae word coined
by Palade. Inner membrane have electron acceptors arranged in a definite sequence and form
electron transport system. Inner membrane is studded with pin head particles called
oxysomes or elementary particles or F 1 particles (104 to 106 in number). These particles first
described by Fernandez Moran(1962). Catabolic enzymes are abundant in mitochondria.
Oxysomes composed of ATPase enzymes and concerned with Oxidative phosphorylation
(Recker 1967). Mitrochondrial matrix have enzyme for Kreb's cycle. A double stranded circular
naked DNA (5 m long) is found. Mitochondrial DNA is 1% of total DNA in a cell. Mitocondria are
semiautonomous and are called “power house of cell”.
(4) Biogenesis of mitochondria
(i) De Novo formation.
(ii) New mitochondria are formed by the division of pre–existing mitochondria.
iii (iii) Endosymbiotic origin from bacteria.
Golgi apparatus : Discovered by C. Golgi – Italin neurologist in nerve cells of owl and
named “internal reticular apparatus” also called Golgi body, Dalton complex, Lipochondria (rich in
lipids), Dictyosome (plant golgi body).
(1) Number of Golgi body : One to many in a cell located near nucleus. Many in algal
rhizoids.
 Cell Biology 7
(2) Structure : Variable 3 components.
(i) Cisternae : Unbranched saccules likes smooth E.R. with dilated ends, 4–8 saccules
arranged in a stack. Cisternae is the functional unit of golgi body. Convex surface of cisternae
which is towards nucleus is called cis–face or forming face. Concave surface of cisternae called
as maturing face or trans-face.
(ii) Tubules : Branches and anastomosing tubules associated with cisternae.
(iii) Vesicles : Spherical structures arise by budding from tubules.
Enzymes : Adenosine diphosphatase, glycosyl transferase.
(3) Functions :
(i) Cell secretion
(ii) Formation of Lysosome
(iii) Synthesis of cell wall material
(iv) Cell plate formation
(v) Formation of acrosome during spermiogenesis
(vi) Glycosylation of proteins and lipids which forms Glycoprotein and Glycolipids
(vii) Golgi body is said to be “the principal director of macromolecular traffic in cell”. It
chemically modify and transport the materials received by it.
(viii) Golgi apparatus contains phospholipid, proteins, enzymes and vitamin C.
Lysosome : C. De duve (1955) established them as cell organelle and named Lysosomes,
for long they were called as “Pericanalicular dense bodies”. With the exception of mammalian
RBC they were reported from all animal cells. Lysosomes are spherical bag like structures (0.1–
0.8 m) covered by single unit membrane. They are larger in phagocytes (0.8 to 2 m).
Lysosomes are filled with 50 different types of Acid hydrolases (digestive role) Lysosomes are
polymorphic cell organelles.
(1) Types of Lysosomes
(a) Primary Lysosomes or storage granules : Store Acid Hydrolases in inactive form.
(b) Digestive vacuoles or Heterophagosomes : Formed by the fusion of primary
lysosomes and phagosomes. Heterophagosomes are also known as secondary lysosomes.
(c) Residual bodies : Lysosomes containing undigested material. These may be eliminated
by exocytosis.
(d) Autophagic lysosomes or Cytolysosomes or autophagosomes – Lysosomes
containing cell organelles to be digested. They are also called suicidal bags.
(2) Functions
(a) Heterophagy : Digestion of foreign material coming in cell by phagocytosis and
pinocytosis.
(b) Autophagy : Digestion of old or worn out cell organelles. Autophagy also takes place
during starvation of cell. Ambilysosomes – Lysosomes which perform both heterophagy and
autophagy.
(c) Extracellular digestion : Lysosomes of osteoclast (bone eating cells) dissolve
unwanted part of bones.
8 Cell Biology
(d) Cellular digestion (Autolysis) : Sometimes all lysosomes of a cell burst to dissolve the
cell completely. The enzyme acid phosphatase found in lysosome is known as marker enzyme.
(e) Biogenesis of Lysosome : G E R L – Golgi associated Endoplasmic Reticulum from
which Lysosomes arise and forms a system called 'GERL'.
Endoplasmic reticulum : Garnier (1897) first observed them and called Ergastoplasm.
E.R. name was proposed by Porter (1961) it is hollow membranous system.
(1) Structure : 3 Components
(a) Cisternae : Long flattened and unbranched units arranged in stacks. 40–50 m
diameter.
(b) Vesicles : 25–500 m in diameter, oval, arise from cisternae.
(c) Tubules : Long, isolated, branched units, anastamosing network.
(2) Types
Two types of E.R.
Rough E.R. Smooth E.R.
80s ribosomes bind by their larger Ribosomes absent
subunit. Composed of tubules. Abundantly occur
Composed of cisternae and vesicles. in cells concerned with glycogen and
Abundantly occurs in cells which are Lipid metabolism. e.g. Adipose tissue,
actively engaged in protein synthesis Interstitial cells, Muscles, Glycogen
e.g. Liver, Pancrease, Goblet cells storing liver cells.

(3) Modifications of E.R.

(a) Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (S.R.) (b) Microsome (c) T-tubules
(d) Myeloid bodies (e) Ergastoplasm
(4) Functions of E.R.
(a) Mechanical support : Microfilaments, Microtubules and E.R. form endoskeleton of cell.
(b) Intracellular exchange : E.R. forms intracellular conducting system.
(c) Rough E.R. : Attached ribosomes are site of protein synthesis.
(d) Lipid secretion : Lipid synthesized by the agranular portion of E.R stored into the Golgi
body.
(e) Cellular metabolism : The membranes of the reticulum provides an increased surface
for metabolic activities within the cytoplasm.
(f) Formation of nuclear membrane : Fragmented vesicles of disintegrated nuclear
membrane and ER elements arranged around chromosomes to form a new nuclear membrane.
(g) Formation of cell plate.
(h) Formation of lysosomes and Golgi body.
(i) Detoxification : Smooth ER concerned with detoxification of drugs and steroids.
 Cell Biology 9
Plastids : The term ‘plastid’ first used by Haeckel (1865). Schimper (1883) coined the term
‘chloroplast’ for green plastids. Meyer called them ‘Autoplast’. All types of plastids have common
origin from proplastids (sac like non–lamellar structures). Plastids are found only in plants. They
are largest cell organelle.
(1) Types of Plastids : (According to Schimper)
(a) Chromoplasts (Chromo–colour, Plast–pigment) : Plastids containing different
coloured types of pigments (Carotenes, Xanthophylls, etc.). Chlorophylls either absent or occur in
very less amount. Chromoplasts occurs mainly in pericarp and petals. Chromoplast are of
different colours such as orange, yellow, red, etc.
They may in rhodoplast (red algae), phecoplast (brown algae) and chromatophores (blue green
algae and bacteria).
(b) Chloroplasts (Chloro–green) : Green plastids with chlorophylls and other
photosynthetic pigments. Due to the conversion of chloroplast into chromoplast the colour of
tomato convert into red from green. Chloroplast is absent in typical parenchymatous cells. Size
4  8 , longer is polyploid and heliophytes. They contain circular DNA, 70S ribosomes and are
semi-autonomous. Sum total of plastids in a cell is called ‘plastidome’ Chloroplast contain
pigments chlorophyll, carotene and xanthophyll.
(c) Leucoplasts (Leuco–white (colourless) : Devoid of pigments and internal lamellar
structures. These store food in different forms like starch (Amyloplasts), Fat and oil (Elaioplasts)
and protein (Aleuronoplasts). Different types of plastids may transform from one form to another.
(d) Elaioplasts : Plastids devoid of pigments, store food and have Lamellar structures.
These occur in etiolated plants.
(e) Chromatophores : Clusters of pigment granules in cytoplasm of photosynthetic
bacteria. In Blue–green algae pigments are located on membranous lamellar structures scattered
in Cytoplasm.
(2) Structure of Chloroplast : Shape of chloroplasts vary in different plants. Discoidal or
oval – Higher plants, Girdle shaped – Ulothrix, Cup shaped – Chlamydomonas, Reticulate –
Oedogonium Spiral – Spirogyra, Stellate – Zygnema. Double unit membrane bound, organelle
next to nucleus in size (4–6 m x 1–3 m). Chloroplast is semiautonomous unit due to the
presence of circular double stranded DNA like mitochondria having a complete protein synthesis
apparatus in stroma (circular ds DNA, t–RNA, 70s ribosomes, enzymes). DNA of chloroplast
discovered by Fis and Plaut (1962) and called Plastidome. Matrix is divided into
(a) Grana : Consists of lamellar system made up of thylakoids (Menke), placed one above
the other, site of light reaction in photosynthesis.
(b) Stroma : Proteinaceous matrix, contain RUBISCO enzyme (largest protein found on
earth) site of dark reaction.
(3) Quantasomes (Park and Biggins 1964) : Quantasomes are units of photosynthesis
attached to grana thylakoids. Each quantasome composed of 230–250 chlorophyll molecules.
Cilia and Flagella : The origin of cilia and flagella takes place from basal body. Purkinje
first observed ciliary movement. Hodge (1950) studied detail structure of sperm flagellum.
10 Cell Biology
Manton studied structure of cilia in plants. Cilia and flagella are simillar in structure. There are some
external differences between cilia and flagella.

Cilia Flagella
Shorter –5 to 10 m in length Upto 150 m long
More in number on a cell Few in number
(uncountable) Undulating movement
Exhibit sweeping or pendular Action not co–ordinated
movement
Action co–ordinated

(1) Ciliary flagellary apparatus : Composed of three parts –

(a) Cilium or flagellum : Part projected outside cell.
(b) Basal body or basal granule : Intracellular organelle simillar to centriole which gives
rise to cilium or flagellum.
(c) Rootlet : Fibres arise from basal body and converge in conical bundle.
(2) Structure of cilium or flagellum : Composed of 11 microtubules. Bundle of
microtubules called axial filament or axonema. Arrangement of microtubules is 9 (double) + 2
(single). Nine microtubules are peripheral and each composed of two small tubules. Two isolated
microtubules present in center of cilium. Microtubules composed of a contractile protein Tubulin
simillar to Actin protein of muscles.
Centrioles : Found only in animal cells. H. Fol (1873) discovered spindle fibres. Centrosome
discovered by Benden and Boveri called centrosome. Two centrioles located just outside
nucleus, lie at right angle to each other. Centrioles are membraneless elongated structure (300–
700 m). Centrioles exhibit cart wheel structure (Just like body of Cillia), are self duplication units
but do not contain DNA which is made up of 9 triplet fibres.
Function : In animal cells centrioles play important role in initiation of cell division by
arranging spindle fibres between two poles of cell.
Ribosomes (engine of cell)
(1) Structure : Claude (1941) first observed them and called Microsome. Palade (1955)
discovered ribosome in animal cell and coined the term Ribosome. In plants Robinson and
Brown (1953) first observed them in bean roots. Except mammalian RBC all living cells have
ribosomes. Ribosomes are smallest cell organelles (150x250 Å) and are devoid of membranes.
Ribosome can be see only with the help of electron microscope. They are site of protein
synthesis in cell. Their number in a prokaryotic cell is approx 15000.
(2) Two types of ribosomes
(a) Eucaryotic ribosomes : 80 s (Occur in cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells).
(b) Procaryotic ribosomes : 70 s (Occur in cytoplasm of procaryotes, mitochondria, and
Chloroplast). Each ribosome composed of two subunits i.e. larger and smallest subunits. Larger
subunit is domeshaped and smaller is ovoid.
 Cell Biology 11
80s = 60s + 40s Sub units 70s = 50s + 30s Sub units
Two subunits are held together by Mg +2 (It should be 1/1000 or 0.001M). Mg +2 form ionic
bond with phosphate groups of r–RNA of two subunits. If Mg +2 concentration increased 10 times
then ribosomes form dimer.
(3) Chemical composition of ribosomes : Ribosomes are made up of r-RNA (60%) and
proteins. Proteins in ribosomes are negatively charged. At the time of protein synthesis, several
ribosomes become attached to m–RNA with the help of smaller subunits. This structure is called
polyribosome or polysome or Ergosome. The ribosomes move along the m–RNA like beads on a
string. Larger subunit contains peptidyl transferase enzyme which catalyses synthesis of peptide
bond between aminoacids. Larger subunit has two sites.
(i) A–site–Acceptor site for t–RNA, (ii) P–site–site for growing polypeptide chain
Microbodies
(1) Spherosomes : Called lysosome of plant. Hanstein (1880) first observed them and
called microsomes. Perner (1953) named them spherosomes. They occur only in plant cells, are
major site of lipid storage and synthesis.
(2) Peroxisomes or uricosomes : Smallest cell organelle in animal cells peroxisomes
concerned with peroxide metabolism. In plants, peroxisomes occur in cells of green tissues and
concerned with photorespiration. Peroxisomes is also involved in   oxidation of fatty acids.
They were discovered by Tolbert in liver cells.
(3) Glyoxysomes : (Rhodin, Beever and Briedenbach) – Glyoxysomes occur only in plants
especially in fatty seeds, guard cells of stomata and unripe fruits. Glyoxylic acid cycle takes
place in side the glyoxysome.
(4) Lomasomes : Small vesicular body between cell wall and plasma membrane found in
fungi.
Microtubules and microfilaments : Microtubules take part in cell division. De Robertis
and Franchi (1953) discovered microtubules. In plant microtubules often found associated to cell
wall. They are composed of proteins. They form cytoskeleton of cell and made up of tubulin and
actin protein respectively.
Vacuole : Vacuoles are generally absent in animal cells and meristematic cells in plants.
Cell of permanent tissue in plants have well developed vacuoles. These structure are discovered
by Spallanzani. Vacuoles are surrounded by an unit membrane called tonoplast. Inside vacuole
there is a fluid called cell sap which maintains O.P. Cell sap contains water, salts, sugars, organic
acids, vitamins and waste materials of metabolism, soluble pigments like anthocyanin (purple
colour) for insect attraction.
1.6 Metabolically inactive cell inclusions / Deutoplasmic substances / Ergastoic
material
Due to metabolic activities in the cell several nonliving substances are formed in it. These
can be divided into the following groups.
12 Cell Biology
Reserve materials : Reserve materials are the food of plants. These materials are
synthesized in the plant body from CO 2 and H 2O and accumulate in the cell. Although they are
present in larger amounts in stems, roots, buds and spores. They can be divided into
(1) Carbohydrates : These are mainly compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These
are also known as saccharides. Carbohydrates are divided into followings groups –
(a) Monosaccharides : These are simplest of carbohydrates and can not be hydrolyzed into
smaller units. They are soluble in water and sweet in taste. Their general formula is C n (H 2O )n .
e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose.
(b) Oligosaccharides : They are made up of 2–10 monosaccharides units. On the basis of
presence of monosaccharides units. They are disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides,
etc. Sucrose is the common disaccharides which is made up of glucose and fructose. Maltose
gives rise to two units of glucose.
(c) Polysaccharides : These are made up of more than two units of monosaccharides or
these are polymer of monosaccharides, these are insoluble in water, colourless, tasteless, on the
basis of presenting molecules they may be Homopolysaccharides formed of similar molecules
e.g. starch, glycogen, inulin, cellulose, pectin, etc. or Heteropolysaccharides formed of different
molecules e.g. Mucopolysaccharides, heparin, hyaluronic acid, chitin agar-agar, peptidoglycan,
pectin.
(2) Lipids : The term lipid was first used by Bloor in 1943. Lipids or fats are esters of high
molecular weight fatty acids and glycerol. These are insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvent. e.g. chloroform, acetone, and ether.
 They are poorer in oxygen and hence require more oxygen for their oxidation.
 Lipids on oxidation provide maximum energy as compared to carbohydrates and proteins.
Classification
(a) Simple lipids : These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. They are further of
two types.
 Neutral or true fats : These are ester of fatty acids with glycerol. They are also called
glycerides.
 Waxes : These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol other than glycerol.
(b) Compound or conjugated lipid : These are esters of fatty acids with alcohol, but
contains other substances also e.g. phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins.
(c) Derived lipids : These are the derivatives of lipids. e.g. Steroids, terpenes and
prostaglandins.
(3) Nitrogeneous substances (Proteins) : The term protein was coined by Berzelius. All
living cells have proteins in one form or other. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. These amino
acids are linked together by a peptide bond (– CONH) and there are many peptide bonds in a
single protein molecule. So proteins are also called polypeptide chains.
 All the protein amino acids are laevorotatory. The simplest amino acids is glycine and the
most complex is tryptophan. Asparagine was the first amino acids to be discovered from
Asparagus plant.
 Cystein, cystine and methionine are the sulphur containing amino acids.
 Cell Biology 13

 Proteins show enormous diversity because of different proportions and sequences of

twenty amino acids within the protein molecules.
 On hydrolysis by protease enzyme proteins yield amino acids. Proteins and amino acids
are amphoteric in nature it means react with both acids and basis to form salts.
 Some examples of proteins which is found in various plants or plant parts leucasins in the
seed of cereals, glutenin, a common protein of cereals, gliadin found in wheat while zein in
maize proteins also occur as storage substance in amorphous, crystal like or in solid form
e.g. Aleurone grains, which found in cereals below seed coat.
(a) Structure of proteins : Determines the spacificity of proteins i.e. primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary structure.
(i) Primary structure : The linear sequence of amino acid units in a polypeptide
chain is called the primary structure. The work of finding out the amino acids sequence of
proteins was pioneered by the double nobel prize winner Fredrick Senger. He worked out the
amino acid sequence of bovine insulin which has 51 amino acids units.
(ii) Secondary structure : A polypeptide chain is often coiled into a regular spiral, called
the alpha helix to have a 3-dimensional form. The helical structure is maintained by a
intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Two or more polypeptide chains may join together by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds and bend into parallel folds to form a  -pleated sheet. Keratin of
hair and myosin of muscles have helical structure. Fibroin of silk fibres has pleated structure.
(iii) Tertiary structure : The helical polypeptide molecule may fold on itself and assume a
complex but specific form. These geometrical shapes are known as the tertiary structure.
Secretary materials : These substances are found in special type of sacs of gland. They
are not used as food. They are colouring matter, enzymes, nectar, etc.
Excretory materials : These substances are produced as a result of metabolism. They are
useless for plants. Which are accumulated in old leaves, bark, etc. and are removed to get rid of
these metabolic wastes. They are
(1) Alkaloids : These are N 2 – Containing substances having C, H, O and N. They are found
in storage organ i.e. seed, bark, etc.
(a) Quinine : Obtained from the bark of Cinchona (medicine for malaria).
(b) Reserpine : Obtained from roots of Rauwolfia serpentina (medicine for reducing blood
pressure).
(c) Nicotine : Obtained from leaves of tobacco (acts as narcotic).
(d) Caffeine : Obtained from roasted seeds or coffee (activates nervous system and relieves
pain).
(e) Thein : Obtained from tea leaves (is a stimulant).
(f) Strychnine : Obtained from seeds of nux vomica (Strychnos) (provides strength to
body).
(g) Morphine : Obtained from unripe fruits of poppy (Opium) (used as pain releaver and
helps in sound sleep).
14 Cell Biology
(h) Atropine : Obtained from roots of Atropa belladona (It activates sympathetic nervous
system, dilates the pupil of eyes).
(2) Glucosides : They are produced by degradation of carbohydrate and some are used as
medicines. Digitoxin a glucoside used for heart diseases in obtained from Digitalis purpurea.
(3) Tannins : These are phenolic compounds are related to glycosides and show acidic
reaction. Tannins are having sour or bitter taste and are found in cell sap, cell wall, bark,
leaves, wood and fruits. The important source of tannins are heart wood of Acacia catechu, which
provides kattha or khair. Haematoxylin stain is obtained from the wood of Haematoxylon
campechianum. Tannins are also found in leaves of tea, coffee and amla.
(4) Latex : This is a yellow, white or brown coloured milky substance. It is colloidal in
nature. It is used in wound healing in plants. Rubber of commerce is made from latex of Hevea
brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). In the latex of papaya enzyme papain is found which is useful in
digestion of proteinaceous food.
(5) Organic acids : These are present abundantly in vegetable and fruits e.g. citric acid in
citrus fruits, tartaric acid in tamarindus (Imli), oxalic acid in oxalis, etc.
(6) Mineral crystals : Crystals of some minerals are found as excretory products of plants.
(a) Crystals of calcium carbonate : The crystals of CaCO 3 are present in leaves of
banyan (ficus benghalensis), Indian rubber plant (ficus elastica). Which is found in the form of
bunch of grapes. They are known as cystolith.
(b) Calcium oxalate : These crystals are mostly present in storage tissue like pith and
cortex. These are of different shapes like prismatic, pyramidal, needle like, etc. Needle like or
acicular crystal of calcium oxalate are called raphides and are found in pistia, eichhornia,
colocasia. Raphides are generally present in idioblast, i.e. mucilage containing cells.
Calcium oxalate crystals are sometimes present in groups to form spherical or star like
structures which are called sphaeroraphides / sphaerocrystals / druses e.g. papaya, pistia,
colocasia, etc.
(c) Silica : Small silica crystals are present singly in vacuoles, cell lumen of Atropa
belladona (solanaceae). It is also called crysal sand.
1.7 Nucleus
Leeuwenhoek first seen nucleus in fish R.B.C. Robert Brown coined the name nucleus. Robert
Brown observed nucleus in pollengrain and stigma cells. Hemmerling while working on unicellular
alga Acetabularia proved that nucleus regulates the activity of cytoplasm T. Boveri indicated
significance of nucleus in heredity. Except mature mammalian R.B.C. and Sieve cell of phloem
every living cell have a nucleus. Procaryotes have incipient nucleus devoid of nuclear membrane,
nucleolus and histone. Such type of nucleus is called nucleoid / false nucleus / genophore.
Structure of nucleus : E. Strasburger (1880) first studied structure of nucleus.
(1) Karyotheca or Nuclear membrane : Tomlin worked out the ultrastructure of
Karyotheca. Nuclear membrane is made up of two membrenes. Separated by a 150–300 Å wide
perinuclear space. Just beneath inner nuclear membrane, there is a fibrous layer called fibrous
 Cell Biology 15
lamina. Nuclear membrane is perforated by nuclear pores of 300–1000 Å diameter and plugged
with annulus.
(2) Nucleoplasm or Karyoplasm : Protoplasm found in nucleus is known as nucleoplasm.
Nucleoplasm and cytoplasm name proposed by E. Strasburger (1884). Nucleus obtains its own
energy by glycolytic pathway. Inside nucleoplasm,there is a network of fine threads. These
threads are called chromatin fibers and differentiated in two parts.
(a) Euchromatin : Lightly stained thin and diffused part of chromatin. This part have less
histone and more acidic proteins. Euchromatin is more active part of Chromatin and its DNA
undergoes rapid transcription.
(b) Hetrochromatin : Darkly stained thick and condensed part of chromatin. This part have
more histone and less acidic proteins. Heterochromatin is genetically a less active part of
chromatin. Nucleolar organiser, a special part of chromatin which is associated with nucleolus is
also a heterochromatin.
 In recent years various methods has been discovered to recognize the spacific parts of the
chromosomes. In which uses the fluorescent stains. By which chromosomes exibit a
spacific bands. These methods are called as bending patterns. These are
Q – Bending – Which is for recognization of Y chromosomes.
T – Bending – Which is for recognization of telomeres.
 Recently Dodge has been observed the mesokaryotic cell ( Chromosome without histone
protein).
Chemical composition of chromatin : Chromatin threads composed of DNA (31%), RNA
(2–5%) and proteins (Histone – 36%, Non histone 28%). Histone and protamines are basic proteins.
Histone protein composed of mainly arginine and lysine. Histone occupy the major grooves of DNA
at an angle of 30o to the helix, neutralise ionic charges of internucleotide phosphate in DNA. In
procaryotes polyamines have simillar functions. On the basis of relative amount of arginine and
lysine there are five types of histone proteins i.e. H 2A, H2B, H3, H4 and H1. Non Histone protein of
chromatin mainly composed of Tryptophan and Tyrosine amino acids.
Nucleolus : Discovered by Fontana. There is normally one nucleolus with each set of
chromosomes. Somatic cells of man have five nucleoli (on 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22 chromosomes)
while oocyte of Amphibians have approximately 2000 nucleoli. True nucleolus is also termed as
plasmosomes and they are stainable by acid dyes. Cell actively engaged in protein synthesis
have large nucleolus. Nucleolus is associated to a special part of chromatin called Nucleolar
Organiser Region (NOR). The synthesis of nuclear protein takes place in nucleolus.
Structure and function : Nucleolus is a membrane less structure composed of 85%
protein, 5% DNA and 10% RNA. Ca +2 maintains structure of nucleolus. Its structure is divisible
into
(1) Fibrous part : Central part composed of fibers called nucleonema, mainly made of r–
DNA and proteins.
(2) Granular part : Peripheral part composed of granules (r–RNA + proteins) which
represents maturing ribosomes.
(3) Amorphous matrix : A proteinaceous matrix which contains both fibers and granules.
16 Cell Biology
 False nucleolus (Karyosome or Chromocenters) – Heterochromatin at some places
form dense granules which appear like nucleolus hence called false nucleolus. False
nucleolus stainable by basic dyes.
Nucleic Acids : First discovered by F. Meischer (1869) in pus cells and called nuclein. The
name nucleic acid was given by Altman. They are polymer of nucleotide. Each nucleotide is made
up of Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar and phosphoric acid. Nucleic acid are of 2 types.
(1) DNA : Occurs in nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast.
(2) RNA : Occurs in cytoplasm.
(1) DNA : DNA is genetic material except plant viruses transformation experiments of F.
Griffith (1928) on bacteria Diplococcus and proved by Avery, Mc leod and Mc Carty.
 Hershay and Chase (1952) by wareing blender experiment proved that DNA of
bacteriophage enters the host (bacteria).
 Double stranded linear in eukaryotes is circular in prokaryotes and single stranded in
  174(virus) .
 Watson and Crick (1953) gave double stranded helical model on the basis of X-ray
data of Franklin and Wilkins.
 2 strands are antiparallel and complimentary and joined by hydrogen bonds. Nucleotides
and attached by hydrogen bonds. Nucleotides are attached by phosphodiester bonds to
form a chain.

 Each nucleotide has nitrogenous base  Purine(doublering)e.g.A, G

Pyrimidine
(singlering)e.g.C, T
 Pentose sugar (5 carbon)
 H 3PO4 (phosphoric acid)
 A pairs with T (A  T ) by 2 hydrogen bond
G pairs with C (G  C) by 3 hydrogen bond
A T
 Base ratio is constant for a species (Chargaff rule)
GC
 Amount of Purine = Amount of Pyrimidine
 Distance between 2 chain (or diameter) = 20 Å. One complete turn (helix length) = 34 Å.
Each helix has 10 nucleotide pair (base pair). Distance between 2 base pair = 3.4 Å.
 Right handed coiling, also called B-DNA.
 Denaturation at temperature 80o C
 Other type of DNA
Left handed (Z-DNA) repeating unit is dinucleoitde
Repetitive DNA – Multiple copies of DNA
Promiscuous DNA – Moves between nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast.
 DNA replication is semiconservative (Proved by Meselson and Stahl 1958) and catalysed
by DNA polymerase enzyme.
 Formation of m-RNA from DNA is called transcription.
 Cell Biology 17

 Palindromic DNA – It is a part of DNA in which the base sequence of strand is opposite to
that of other strand.
 Haploid DNA content of an organism is called C-value.
 c-DNA (complimentary DNA) is prepared from m-RNA by enzyme reverse transcriptase.
(a) Evidence in favour of semi conservative method of DNA duplication : During the
duplication of DNA, one strand always comes from parental strand and second strand is newly
formed. This is semiconservative method.
(i) By meselson and Stahl’s experiment (1958) : They were used N 15 on E. coli
bacteria.
(ii)By Taylor’s experiment : He used autoradiography technique on Vicia faba root tips.
(iii) By Cair’s autoradiography experiments : He used H 3 tdR (Tritiated thymidine) in
bacteria.
(b) Replication /Duplication of DNA : Formation of new DNA from old DNA is called
replication of DNA. DNA replication is semidiscontinuous. During replication, two strands of DNA
separates or double standed DNA uncoils by action of enzymes topoisomerases, helicase and
single-strand binding protein (SSB).
Under the influence of enzyme DNA polymerase-III, new strand is formed on 5 to 3 strand
continuously is called leading strand. On the other hand, using the same enzyme new strand is
formed discontinuously or in the form of small segments or pieces. This strand is called lagging
strand and small segments of DNA are called Okazaki segments (after the name of their
discoverer). These are adjoined together with the help of ligase enzyme.
 Polymerase III discovered by A. Kornberg.
 DNA ligase discovered by H.G. Khorana.
(2) RNA : Found in cytoplasm also in nucleolus. They are concerned with protein synthesis.
They are of 3 types – m-RNA, r-RNA, t-RNA.
m-RNA r-RNA t-RNA
Formed inside nucleus Inside nucleus Nucleus
Constitute 2% 80% (Most abundant RNA) 18%
Named by Jacob and Monad Hoagland
Short lived, Many types Most stable, 3-4 types Stable 20 type
Sedimentation 12S 5S, 16S, 18S, 29S 4S
Carry genetic information for Form ribosomes (60%) Pick up particular amino acid
protein synthesis
Molecular weight 500000 40000 – 1,00,000 25000
Contain usual bases Usual bases Many unusual bases present
2-D model given by Holley. It
is clover leaf shaped, 3-D
model (L-shaped) given by
kim.
18 Cell Biology

1.8 Cell division

Virchow (1885) pointed out that new cells are always formed through the division of pre–
existing cells and investigated the process of cell division.
Cell cycle : The sequence of phases in cell cycle is G 1, S, G2 and M phase. It means the life
cycle of a cell involves two distinct phases
(1) Interphase (non–dividing period) : Biologists divide interphase into three distinct
periods on the basis of synthetic activities
(a) Post–mitotic or first growth period (G1–period) : The young daughter cell grows in
size during this period. Its duration is most variable and the non–dividing cells remain
permanently in this stage.
(b) Synthetic period (S–period) : It is characterised by the replication of DNA. A diploid cell
during this phase has double the amount of DNA (i.e. 4n). Histones are also synthesized so that
two chromatids are formed in each chromosome. Time taken in 30-50% of cell cycle.
(c) Premitotic or second growth period (G2 period) : It is characterised by increased
nuclear volume. During its certain metabolic activities occur as a prerequisite of cell division.
Time taken is 10-20%.
(2) Mitotic Phase : Separated into two categories – The nuclear division or karyokinesis,
and the division of the cytoplasm or cytokinesis.
Type of Cell division : Cell division is following three types –
(1) Amitosis (Gr. Amitos = without thread) – In this type of cell division the nucleus
elongates and is constricted into two equal daughter. Discovered by Remak and also called direct
cell division eg. Protozoa, bacteria.
(2) Mitosis (Gr. mitos = thread) The study of mitosis is done in the root tip of onion. The
time taken in active mitosis is from ten minutes to some hours. Mitotic division or mitosis is the
division of a somatic cell into two, maintaining the same number of chromosomes. It is divided
into Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis.
(a) Karyokinesis : The process of karyokinesis includes the division of nucleus into two
daughter nuclei. The nucleus undergoes a number of complex but regular and well organized
steps, so that the process is separated into phases or stages – prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase.
(b) Cytokinesis in animal cells : In case of animal cells the cell cytoplasm divides by
constriction. Cytokinesis by constriction also occurs in certain plant cells and in some protists.
(c) Cytokinesis in plant cells : In plant cells, cytokinesis is accomplished by the formation
of phragmoplast from carbohydrate and lipid containing vesicles of Golgi and ER vesicles form
Cell plate at the equator of the dividing cell is formed.
(3) Meiosis : Meiosis is a specialised and much complicated type of cell division, occurring
only in the diploid reproductive cells and results in the formation of haploid sex cells or gametes.
The term meiosis was coined by Moore and Farmer (1905). The gametes formed as a result of
meiosis possess half the number of chromosome as found in the parent cells. The cells
undergoing meiosis are known as meiocytes. In animals, the meiocytes are the primary
 Cell Biology 19
spermatocytes and primary oocytes present in the gonads while in plants these are represented
by sporocytes found in sporogonia.
Process of Meiosis : In meiosis two complete cell divisions follow in close sequence with or
without a short interphase between them. The first meiotic division is known as reduction
division or heterotypic division. The second division is known as homotypic division and is a
simple mitotic division in which the two haploid cells formed as a result of heterotypic division,
divide again forming four daughter cells.
Meiosis I
First prophase : This is the longest phase of meiosis, it is divided into five stages –
(a) Leptotene
 Chromosomes are long thread like with chromomeres on it.
 Volume of nucleus increases.
 Chromatin network has half chromosomes from male and half from female parent.
 Chromosome with similar structure are known as homologous chromosomes.
 Leptonemal chromosomes have a definite polarization and form loops whose ends are
attached to the nuclear envelope at points near the centrioles, contained within an aster.
Such peculiar arrangement is termed as bouquet.
 E.M. (Electron microscope) reveals that chromosomes are composed of paired chromatids.
A dense proteinaceous filament or axial core lies within the groove between the sister
chromatids of each chromosome.
(b) Zygotene
 Chromosomes condense and get shortened.
 Homologous chromosomes make pairs.
 The pairing is called synapsis.
 The main component of synaptonemal complex is protein.This synaptonemal complex was
discovered by Moses.
(c) Pacytene
 Chromosomes become thick and short.
 Each chromosome pair splits longitudinally into 4 chromatids. This is called a bivalent or
tetrad.
 Each tetrad has four kinetochore (two sister and two homologous).
 Non sister chromatids of bivalent show exchange or segments at molecular level.
 Synaptonemal complex helps in keeping the pairs stable.,
 Exchange of segments is called crossing over.
20 Cell Biology
 Electron-Microscopy (EM) reveals a number of electron dense bodies about 100 nm in
diameter at irregular intervals within the centre of the synaptonemal complex. These
structure are called recombination nodules.
(d) Diplotene
 At this stage the paired chromosomes begin to separate.
 Cross is formed at the place of crossing over between non-sister chromatids.
 Homologous chromosomes move apart they remain attached to one another at specific
points called chiasmata.
 At least one chiasma is formed in each bivalent.
 Chromosomes are attached only at the place of chiasmata.
 Chromatin bridges are formed in place of synaptonemal complex on chiasmata.
 This stage remains as such for long time.
 In some spermatocytes and oocytes the diplotene chromosome disperse in a particular
configuration.
(e) Diakinesis
 Chiasmata moves towards the ends of chromosomes. This is called terminalization.
 Chromatids remain attached at the place of chiasma only.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus degenerates.
 Chromosome recondense and tetrad moves to the metaphase plate.
Metaphase I
 Chromosomes come on the equator.
 Due to repulsive force the chromosome segments get exchanged at the chiasmata.
 At this stage the arms are directed towards the equator and centromeres towards the
poles.
Anaphase I
 Homologous chromosomes move towards different poles after exchanging some segments
due to crossing over.
 Each chromosome has two chromatids undivided and attached at the centromere.
Telophase I
 Two daughter nuclei are formed but the chromosome number is half than the chromosome
number of mother cell.
 Nuclear membrane reappears.
 After telophase I cytokinesis may or may not occur.
 Cell Biology 21

 At the end of Meiosis I either two daughter cells will be formed or a cell may have two
daughter nuclei.
 Meiosis I is also termed as reduction division.
 After meiosis Ist, the cells in animals are reformed as secondary spermatocytes or
secondary oocytes; with haploid number of chromosomes but diploid amount DNA.
Meiosis II
 Meiosis II starts just after the end of Telophase I.
 Each daughter cell (nucleus) undergoes mitotic division.
 Meiosis II is similar to mitosis.
 The various stages of meiosis II are prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase
II.
 At the end of Meiosis II cytokinesis takes place.
 Four daughter cells are formed after the completion of one meiotic division.
 The chromosome number of daughter cells is haploid.
 Meiosis II is termed as equational division.
 In Meiosis I the kinetochores of homologous chromosomes are separated while in Meiosis II
the sister kinetochores of one chromosome are separated.
 The four daughter cells receive one chromatid each of the tetravalent.
Significance of Meiosis
 Gametes have half the number of chromosomes than the mother cell.
 This stage is important for sexual reproduction as two gametes fuse to form a zygote.
 If the chromosome number is not reduced than after every fusion the number of
chromosomes doubled in a zygote. So it is necessary that before the formation of zygote
the reduction division should take place to form the gametes.
 Sexual reproduction includes one meiosis and one fusion.
 Exchange of segments give rise to new varieties.
 This process introduce genetic variations.
 The four daughter cells will have different types of chromatids.