Section 7: Runoff

Processes

• Hortonian overland flow

• Kinematic wave theory of overland flow
• Saturation overland flow
• Subsurface stormflow
• Baseflow
 Hydrological Cycle

7-2
Chow et al 1988, 1.1.1
 Runoff Processes
Divide runoff processes into two sections:
1. Hillslope runoff
Migration of precipitation into the stream channel along
surface and subsurface flow paths.
2. Stream channel
Movement of water in stream channel network – this is
covered in the Open Channel Hydraulics strand of the
course.

7-3
 Hillslope Runoff Processes

1. Horton overland flow

2. Baseflow or groundwater flow
3. Shallow subsurface stormflow
4. Saturation overland flow - direct precipitation on saturated areas plus
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infiltrated water that returns to ground surface (return flow).
Runoff Hydrographs

7-5
Dunne and Leopold
 Overland Flow

When the rain rate exceeds the soil infiltration rate ponding
of water occurs. Once surface depressions have been filled,
overland flow moves downslope as an irregular sheet.
7-6
Dunne and Leopold
 Hortonian Overland Flow
Hortonian overland
flow dominates the
runoff process in arid to
semi-humid catchments
where infiltration rates
are typically low.
It is also the major
runoff process in urban
catchments where
impervious areas make
up a substantial fraction
of catchment area.

7-7
Physics of Overland Flow: Kinematic Wave (1)
Idealised case: Steady rainfall with net intensity i falling on an initially
dry plane abutting catchment divide

Rainfall rate r [m/s]

Depth y [m]
Net rainfall rate i = r - f

infiltration Discharge per unit width

rate f of hillslope q into
L stream channel [m2/s]
x

Continuity Equation
i
Inflow [m3] into CV
during time dt
(q + i dx )dt
Outflow [m3] from CV ⎛ ∂q ⎞
- ⎜q + dx ⎟ dt
during time dt ⎝ ∂x ⎠
q y ⎛ ∂q ⎞ Change in storage [m3] ⎛ ∂y ⎞
⎜ q + dx ⎟ = within CV during dt dy dx = ⎜ dt ⎟ dx
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ⎠
dx ∂y ∂q
Continuity eqn + =i
Control volume of length ∂t ∂x 7-8
dx and unit width
Physics of Overland Flow: Kinematic Wave (2)
Momentum Equation
For hydraulically steep slopes > 0.1% to 1%
can show that friction and gravity forces in x
direction are in balance and all other terms in
momentum eqn are small
Gravity
So = Sf
where So is slope of surface and Sf is friction
slope (ie slope of total energy line)
Bed resistance

This is called the kinematic wave approximation. Hence Manning equation can be
applied as
2
1 3 1
V = y So 2
n
where n is hydraulic roughness of hillslope surface and V is flow velocity.
Note that n is different to Manning n used in open channel flow. On hillslope y ~
O(1cm) while in stream y ~ O(1m)

5
1 3 1 1 1 5
q = Vy = y So 2 = αy m where α = So 2 , m = 7-9
n n 3
 Kinematic Wave: An Intuitive Solution
P P
c
c
Variable Variable
depth depth
Constant Constant
Time t1 depth Time t2 > t1 depth

Variable depth region Constant depth region

Boundary condition at divide x=0, Inflow = outflow because y is constant
y = 0 and V = 0
y=it
Therefore inflow ≠ outflow ⇒ y
where t is time start of rainfall
varies with x
Region has not “sensed” zero-depth
Point P moves with kinematic
boundary condition
wave speed c

7-10
 Kinematic Wave: An Intuitive Solution (2)
P
tc is the time concentration , the
i tc time for the variable depth region
Time tc Variable
depth to extend to stream.

At time tc the depth of the constant depth region y(x=L) = i tc

The variable depth region is in a steady state
∂y ∂y ∂q dq dy m
=0 implies + =i simplifies to =i =α
∂t ∂t ∂x dx dx
Integrating from x=0 to x=L yields
x y 1
i ⎛ix ⎞
∫0 α ∫0 )
= m m
ds d ( z which gives
y =⎜ ⎟
⎝α⎠
When x=L, y=itc which yields the time of concentration
1
⎛ Li
t c = ⎜⎜
1− m
⎞m (nL )
0.6
⎟⎟ = 0.4 0.3 for α =
1
So , m =
5
7-11
⎝ α ⎠ i So n 3
 Kinematic Wave: An Intuitive Solution (3)
tc, time concentration, is the time for all of hillslope to contribute to outlet.
At time tc discharge from hillslope is at its maximum
m
⎛ Li 1− m
⎞
q max = αy mx=L = α(it c ) = αi m ⎜⎜
m
m
⎟⎟ = iL
⎝ α ⎠
Steady state outflow [m2/s] Steady state net inflow [m2/s]

Particle Travel Time tp

At steady state time for particle to move from divide to stream is

L L
dx dx
t p = ∫ = ∫ m−1 = mt c
0
V 0 αy
Time of concentration tc ≠ travel time tp (unless linear dynamics m = 1)

7-12
 Kinematic Wave Hydrographs
Discharge into stream qL
Storm duration tr < Time of concentration tc

α(itr)m
Peak flow < iL
Note peak flow persists after storm stops

tr t
Discharge into stream qL

Storm duration tr > Time of concentration tc

iL

Hillslope reaches a steady state

Peak flow = iL = max possible value
Note discharge drops immediately after
storm stops

t 7-13
tc
 Saturation Overland Flow
Soil moisture profiles prior to storm. Baseflow
(BF) is only source of streamflow.

After rain commences, infiltrating water

recharges water table, particularly near the
stream channel where a local rise occurs.
The saturated area near the stream expands as
the water table rises. Return flow (RF) is
subsurface flow rising to the surface. Direct
precipitation on surface (DPS) is rainfall over
saturated area.

Saturation overland flow is the sum of

baseflow and direct precipitation on surface. It
is the dominant runoff mechanism in humid
climates where footslopes are concave, valley
bottoms are wide and soils are shallow.
7-14
 Saturation Overland
Flow

Map of saturated areas, showing expansion

during a single rainstorm of 46mm.
Black = before storm
Grey = After storm 7-15
Dunne and Leopold
 Storm Subsurface Flow
Perched aquifer

Mechanism:
• Infiltration saturates surface layers.
• If surface is on a slope, lateral flow occurs in response to
piezometric gradients.

7-16
Saturation-from-below Runoff Mechanism

1. Perched aquifer forms during rainfall

event because, although Kv > rainfall
rate at surface, it decreases with
depth.
2. Water moves downslope increasing in
depth as contributing area increases
3. At point P the perched aquifer
intersects the surface. Downstream of
P rainfall can no longer infiltrate
becoming saturation overland flow
SOF

Heterogeneity in soil profile

7-17
Saturation-from-below Runoff Mechanism
Once perched aquifer intersects surface
SSF is at its maximum value. Therefore,
as rainfall rate increases, point P must
move upslope

Saturated regions grow rapidly in flow

convergence zones such as heads of
creeks

7-18
 Components of a Runoff Hydrograph

Runoff from a steep,

well drained hillside,
covered with a sandy
loam in Northern
Vermont with a 2 hour,
44mm rainstorm.

7-19
Dunne and
Leopold
 Baseflow

Baseflow refers to the discharge from unconfined and

confined aquifers into stream channels. Because of the large
storage within aquifers and slow response times, baseflow
continues well after storms have ended. In other words,
baseflow, is responsible for the bulk of dry weather flow in
streams.

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Dunne and Leopold
 A Simplified Baseflow Analysis

Under steady state conditions (i.e., no change over time) solution of

groundwater hydraulic equation yields the following equation for
the steady state water table profile:
i*
h = H + ( 2L − x ) x
2 2

K
Using Darcy’s law the discharge into the stream (ie baseflow),
expressed as m3/s per m length of stream channel, is
∂h
BF= − Kh = − i*L = rechargerate
∂x x=0 7-21
After rainfall ceases, assume that water table profile is:
⎛ xπ ⎞
h = H + a sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2L ⎠
Solution of groundwater flows equations yields
⎛ xπ ⎛ t ⎞⎞
h ( x, t ) = H + a sin ⎜ exp ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟
⎝ 2L ⎝ τ ⎠⎠
4 ⎛ L Sy ⎞
2

where τ = 2 ⎜ ⎟ and T = KH
π ⎝ T ⎠
The recession hydrograph is given by Darcy’s law exponential decay
∂h Taπ ⎛ t⎞ ⎛ t⎞
BFt = T = exp ⎜ − ⎟ = BFo exp ⎜ − ⎟
∂x x =0 2 L ⎝ τ⎠ ⎝ τ⎠
⎛ BF ⎞ t
or ln ⎜ t ⎟ = −
⎝ BFo ⎠ τ

7-22
Source: Freeze and Cherry
 Baseflow Recession

Qt = K Qo t

7-23
Note K is extremely variable from catchment to catchment
Maidment
 Partial Area Concept

Broad Run, Pennsylvania 7-24

Dunne and Leopold
Summary

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Dunne and Leopold