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V.ADITYAVAR DHAN 1 Atomic structure Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan adichemadi @

gmail.com Preparedby VAAGDEVIJUN IORCOLLEGE WARANGAL ATOMIC STRUCTURE INTRODUCTI
ON Atom:- The smallest particle which can take part in a chemical reaction with
out losing its identity is known as atom. Subatomic particles: Electrons, proton
s and neutrons are known as subatomic particles. Electron:- The negatively charg
ed fundamental particle present in an atom with negligible mass is called electr
on. The mass of an electron is 1/1836 of mass of proton or hydrogen atom. In ato
mic mass units it is equal to 0.000548 amu or 9.1095 X 10-31kg. Its charge is 1.
6022 X 10-19coulomb. Discovery of Electron : - Sir William Crookes designed a ca
thode ray discharge tube in which cathode rays are observed only at very low pre
ssures and very high voltages. These rays consist of negatively charged particle
s called electrons. + - To vacuum pump Cathode Anode High voltage Characteristic
s of cathode rays:- 1) Cathode rays are not visible but their behavior can be ob
served with the help of a fluorescent or a phosphorescent. 2) These rays travel
from cathode to anode. 3) These rays travel in straight lines in the absence of
electric and magnetic fields. 4) But these rays deflect like negatively charged
particles in electric and magnetic fields. Hence the rays constitute negatively
charged particles and are known as electrons. 5) These rays are independent of t
he nature of the cathode material and nature of the gas present in the cathode r
ay tube. These facts conclude that electrons are the negatively charged fundamen
tal particles present in all the substances. Charge to mass ratio of Electron (e
/me) : -Charge to mass ratio of electron is calculated by J.J. Thomson as follow
s. 11 1 1.75882 x 10 e e C kg m Charge on the Electron :- The charge on the elec
tron was calculated by Millikan in oil drop experiment as 1.60 x 10-19 coulombs.
The mass of the electron can be derived as follows. -31 9.1094 x 10 / e e e m k
g e m VAAGDEVIJUN IORCOLLEGE WARANGAL Proton:- The positively charged fundament
al particle present in the atom is called proton. The mass of a proton is 1.0072
77 amu or 1.67252 X 10-27 kg. Its charge is same as that of electron. Discovery
of proton : - Protons are discovered in canal ray experiment. These rays are pro
duced in modified cathode ray tube. Characteristics of canal rays : 1) Canal ray
s constitute positively charged particles. The characteristics of these rays dep
end on the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube 2. The e/m ratio of the
particles depend on the nature of gas taken. 3. Some of the positively charged
particles carry a multiple of the fundamental unit of electrical charge.
4. The behavior of these particles in the magnetic or electric field is opposite
to that observed for electron.
5. When hydrogen gas is used in the discharge tube, the positively charged parti
cles emitted are found to
possess mass of 1 amu and these are called protons. Neutron:- The neutral fundam
ental particle present in the atom is called neutron. The mass of a neutron is 1
.00898 amu or 1.67495 X 10-27kg. It has no charge. Discovery of neutrons: Chadwi
ck discovered neutrons by bombarding a thin layer of Be with par- ticles. Particl
e Charge Relative charge Mass in amu Mass in kg Electron -1.602 x 10-19 -1 0.000
542 amu 9.1 x 10-31 kg Proton +1.602 x 10-19 +1 1.00727 amu 1.672 x 10-27 kg Neu
tron 0 0 1.00867 amu 1.674 x 10-27 kg Atomic number (Z):-The number of protons o
r the number of electrons in an atom is called atomic number. It is represented
by 'Z'. Moseley discovered a simple relation between the frequencies of the char
acteristic X-rays of an element and its atomic number. v= a(Z-b) = frequency of X
-rays Z = atomic number a,b are constants which are characteristic of elements M
ass number(A):- The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called ma
ss number. It is denoted by 'A'. A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons A = Z + no
. of neutrons no. of neutrons = A - Z Isotope:- Isotopes are the atoms of an ele
ment with same atomic number but differ in their mass numbers i.e., The isotopes
of an element have same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.
eg., Hydrogen has three isotopes - Hydrogen(1H1), Deuterium (1H2) and Tritium (
1H3). They have same number of protons (one) but the numbers of neutrons are 1,2
and 3 respectively. Isobars :- The atoms of different elements with same mass n
umber but different atomic numbers are called “Isobars”. Eg.,6C14,7N14 V.ADITYAVAR D
HAN 2 Atomic structure Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan adichemadi @ gmail.com Prep
aredby VAAGDEVIJUN IORCOLLEGE WARANGAL Atomic weight:- The atomic weight of an
element is the average weight of all the isotopes of that element. Note:- Atomic
number is a whole number but Atomic weight may be a fractional number. ATOMIC M
ODELS J.J.Thomson’s model: According to this model, an atom has a spherical shape
in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons are embedde
d into it in such a manner as to give the most stable electrostatic arrangement.
Rutherford’s planetary model : Experiment: A narrow beam of - particles is passed t
hrough a thin gold foil which is surrounded by circular screen made up of fluore
scent zinc sulphide. Whenever - particles strike the screen, a tiny flash of ligh
t was produced at that point.
Source of alpha particles Lead plate Photographic plate Gold foil Ruther ford s
scattering experiment Observations: 1) Most of the - particles pass through the f
oil undeflected. 2) A small fraction of the - particles were deflected by small a
ngles. 3) A very few - particles bounced back i.e. were deflected by 180o. Conclu
sions: 1. Most of the space in the atom is empty. 2. The positive charge in the
atom is concentrated in the small dense portion called the nucleus. 3. Electrons
revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits. It resembles the so
lar system. 4. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forc
es of attraction. Drawbacks: 1) Rutherford’s model could not explain the stability
of atom. According to electromagnetic theory, the charged particle under accele
ration should continuously emit radiation. Hence the electron moving in the orbi
ts must lose energy and fall into the nucleus. But this is not happening.
2) This model could not explain the electronic structure and energy of electrons
. 3) It could not explain the atomic spectra. V.ADITYAVAR DHAN 3 Atomic structur
e Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan adichemadi @ gmail.com Preparedby V.ADITYAVAR D
HAN 4 Atomic structure Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan adichemadi @ gmail.com Prep
aredby VAAGDEVIJUN IORCOLLEGE WARANGAL NATURE OF LIGHT Light is considered as an
electromagnetic radiation. An electromagnetic radiation consists of two compone
nts i.e., Electric component and Magnetic component which are perpendicular to e
ach other as well as to the direction of path of radiation. The electromagnetic
radiations are produced by the vibrations of a charged particle.
wavelength E amplitude of electric field M amplitude of magnetic field The properti
es of light can be explained by considering it as either wave or particle as fol
lows. WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT By considering light as wave, following properties ca
n be defined for it. Wavelength: The distance between two successive similar poi
nts on a wave is called as wavelength. It is denoted by . Units:cm, Angst ro ms(A
o), nano meters(nm), milli microns(mµ) etc., 1 Ao = 10-8 cm. 1 nm= 10-9m = 10-7cm
Frequency: The number of vibrations done by a particle in unit time is called fr
equency. It is denoted by . Units: cycles per second = Hertzs = sec-1. Velocit
y: Velocity is defined as the distance covered by the wave in unit time. It is d
enoted by c . Velocity of light = c = 3.0 x 108 m.sec-1 = 3.0 x 1010 cm.sec-1 N
ote: For all types of electromagnetic radiations, velocity is a constant value.
The relation between velocity, wavelength and frequency can be given by followin
g equation. velocity = frequency x wavelength c Wave number: The number of waves s
pread in a length of one centimeter is called wave number. It is denoted by 1 unit
s: cm-1, m-1 Amplitude: The distance from the midline to the peak or the trough
is called amplitude of the wave. It is usually denoted by A (a variable). Ampl
itude is a measure of the intensity or brightness of light radiation. Problems 1
) The wave length of a radiation emitted by a sodium lamp is 300 nm. Find its fr
equency.
2) The frequency of an electromagnetic radiation is 300 Hz. Calculate its wave l
ength.
3) The wave number of a radiation is 9000 cm-1. Calculate its frequency.
4) Calculate the wave number of the yellow light of wave length 600m emitted from
sodium lamp.
VAAGDEVIJUN IORCOLLEGE WARANGAL PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT Though most of the pro
perties of light can be understood by considering it as a wave, some of the prop
erties of light can only be explained by using particle (corpuscular) nature of
it. Newton considered light to possess particle nature. In the year 1900, in ord
er to explain black body radiations, Max Planck proposed Quantum theory by consi
dering light to possess particle nature.
PLANCK S QUANTUM THEORY Black body:- The object which absorbs and emits the radi
ation of energy completely is called a black body.Practically it is not possible
 to construct a perfect black body. But a hollow metallic sphere coated inside w
ith platinum black with a small aperture in its wall can act as a near black bod
y. When the black body is heated to high temperatures, it emits radiations of di
fferent wavelengths. Following curves are obtained when the intensity of radiati
ons are plotted against the wavelengths, at different temperatures.
intensity wavelength classical theory 5000 K 7000 K Following conclusions can be
drawn from above graphs. 1. At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation
increases with wavelength and reaches a maximum value and then starts decreasing
. 2. With increase in temperature, the wavelength of maximum intensity (max ) shi
fts towards lower wave- lengths. According to classical physics, energy should b
e emitted continuously and the intensity should in- crease with increase in temp
erature. The curves should be as shown by dotted line. In order to explain above
experimental observations Max Planck proposed following theory.
1. Energy is emitted due to vibrations of charged particles in the black body.
2. The radiation of energy is emitted or absorbed discontinuously in the form of
small discrete energy
packets called quanta. 3. Each quantum is associated with definite amount of ene
rgy which is given by the equation E=h Where h = planck s constant = 6.625 x 10-3
4 J.sec = 6.625 x10-27 erg.sec = frequency of radiation V.ADITYAVAR DHAN 5 Atomic
structure Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan adichemadi @ gmail.com Preparedby VAAG
DEVIJUN IORCOLLEGE WARANGAL 4. The total energy of radiation is quantized i.e.,
the total energy is an integral multiple of h . It can only
have the values of 1 h or 2 h or 3 h . It cannot be the fractional multiple of h .
5. Energy is emitted and absorbed in the form of quanta but propagated in the fo
rm of waves.
EINSTEIN S GENERALIZATION OF QUANTUM THEORY Einstein generalized the quantum the
ory by applying it to all types of electromagnetic radiations. He explained phot
oelectric effect using this theory. Photoelectric Effect:- The ejection of elect
rons from the surface of a metal, when the metal is exposed to light of certain
minimum frequency, is called photoelectric effect. The frequency of light should
be equal or greater than a certain minimum value characteristic of the metal. T
his is called threshold frequency. Photoelectric effect cannot be explained by c
onsidering the light as wave. Einstein explained photoelectric effect by applyin
g quantum theory as follows, 1. All electromagnetic radiations consists of small
discrete energy packets called photons. These photons are associated with defin
ite amount of energy given by the equation E=h . 2. Energy is emitted, absorbed a
s well as propagated in the form of photons only. 3. The electron is ejected fro
m the metal, when a photon of sufficient energy strikes the electron. When a pho
ton strikes the electron, some part of the energy of photon is used to free the
electron from the attractive forces in the metal and the remaining part is conve
rted into kinetic energy. h = W + K.E whereW = energy required to overcome the at
tractions K.E = kinetic energy of the electron Problems 1) Calculate the energy
of one photon of radiation whose frequency is 3x1012 Hz. 2) The energy of a elec
tro magnetic radiation is 6.625x10-19 J Calculate The Wavelength of radiation. S
PECTRA When electromagnetic radiation is passed through a prism or grating it is
splitted and forms a collec- tion of lines representing different wavelengths.
This is called spectrum. Spectra can be divided into two types viz., emission an
d absorption spectra as given below. Emission Spectra Absorption Spectra 1) Thes
e are obtained due to emission of radiation from the substances. These are obtai
ned when substance absorb the radiation. 2) White lines are formed on the black
back ground. Black lines are formed on the white back ground. 3)These are formed
when atoms or molecules are de - excited from higher energy level to lower ener
gy level. These are formed when atoms or molecules are excited from lower energy
level to higher energy levels.
Spectra can also be divided into line and band spectra as given below. Line Spec
tra Band Spectra 1) It consists of sharp and well defined lines. It consists of
closely spaced lines called bands. 2) Characteristic of atoms Characteristic of
molecules. 3) Formed due to the excitation and de - excitation of electrons in t
he atoms. Formed due to the vibrations and rotations of atoms in molecules. 4) I
t is also known as atomic spectra It is also known as molecular spectra V.ADITYA
VAR DHAN 6 Atomic structure Prepared by V. Aditya vardhan adichemadi @ gmail.com
Preparedby
Atomic Structure IPE
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Uploaded:08/23/2009Category:School Work>Study Guides, Notes, & QuizzesRated:Easy
study material for 10+2 AP chemistry students. Specially prepared for Intermedi
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