Flexible Mechanical Elements

Dr Sanjay H Upadhyay
Associate Professor
Mechanical & Industrial Engineering Department
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee- 247 667 , Uttarakhand
Office No: 235 (East Block)
Contact No: 285520 (O)
Belts, ropes, chains, and other similar elastic or flexible machine
elements are used in conveying systems and in the transmission of power
over comparatively long distances. It often happens that these elements
can be used as a replacement for gears, shafts, bearings, and other
relatively rigid power-transmission devices. In many cases their use
simplifies the design of a machine and substantially reduces the cost.

In addition, since these elements are elastic and usually quite long, they
play an important part in absorbing shock loads and in damping out and
isolating the effects of vibration. This is an important advantage as far
as machine life is concerned.

Most flexible elements do not have an infinite life. When they are used,
it is important to establish an inspection schedule to guard against
wear, aging, and loss of elasticity. The elements should be replaced at
the first sign of deterioration.
• The belts or ropes are used to transmit power
from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different
speeds.
• Amount of power transmitted depends upon the
following factors :
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the
pulleys.
3. The arc of contact between the belt and the
smaller pulley.
4. The conditions under which the belt is used.
• The points to be take in mind while designing of
belt.
(a) The shafts should be properly in line to insure
uniform tension across the belt section.
(b) The pulleys should not be too close together, in
order that the arc of contact on the smaller pulley
may be as large as possible.
(c) The pulleys should not be so far apart as to cause
the belt to weigh heavily on the shafts, thus
increasing the friction load on the bearings.
(d) A long belt tends to swing from side to side,
causing the belt to run out of the pulleys, which in
turn develops crooked spots in the belt.
(e) The tight side of the belt should be at the
bottom, so that whatever sag is present on the
loose side will increase the arc of contact at the
pulleys.
(f) In order to obtain good results with flat belts, the
maximum distance between the shafts should not
exceed 10 metres and the minimum should not be
less than 3.5 times the diameter of the larger
pulley.
• Types of Belt Drives:-
• 1. Light drives.
 Small powers
 Belt speeds upto about 10 m/s
 In agricultural machines and small machine tools.
• 2. Medium drives.
 Medium powers
 Belt speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s
 In machine tools.
• 3. Heavy drives.
 Large powers
 Belt speeds above 22 m/s
 In compressors and generators.
The four principal types of belts are shown, with some of their characteristics, in
Table 17–1.
• Types of Belts:-
1. Flat belt. Mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to
another when the two pulleys are not more than 8 metres apart.
Flat belts are made of urethane and also of rubber-
impregnated fabric reinforced with steel wire or
nylon cords to take the tension load. One or both
surfaces may have a friction surface coating. Flat
belts are quiet, they are efficient at high speeds,
and they can transmit large amounts of power over
long center distances.

Usually, flat belting is purchased by the roll and

cut and the ends are joined by using special kits
furnished by the manufacturer. Two or more flat
belts running side by side, instead of a single
wide belt, are often used to form a conveying
system.
2. V- belt. Mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to
another, when the two pulleys are very near to each other.

A V belt is made of fabric and cord, usually

cotton, rayon, or nylon, and impregnated
with rubber. In contrast with flat belts, V
belts are used with similar sheaves and at
shorter center distances. V belts are slightly
less efficient than flat belts, but a number of
them can be used on a single sheave, thus
making a multiple drive. V belts are made
only in certain lengths and have no joints.
3. Circular belt or rope. Mostly used in the factories
and workshops, where a great amount of power is
to be transmitted, from one pulley to another,
when the two pulleys are more than 8 metres
apart.
• Material used for Belts:-
Must be strong, flexible, and durable.
1. Leather belts.
2. Cotton or fabric belts.
3. Rubber belt.
4. Balata belts.
• Working Stresses in Belts:-
• The ultimate strength of leather belt varies from
21 to 35 Mpa.
• Factor of safety may be taken as 8 to 10.
• However, the wear life of a belt is more important
than actual strength. It has been shown by
experience that under average conditions an
allowable stress of 2.8 MPa or less will give a
reasonable belt life.
• An allowable stress of 1.75 MPa may be expected
to give a belt life of about 15 years.
• Types of Flat Belt Drives:-
1. Open belt drive.
• 2. Crossed or twist belt drive.
• 3. Quarter turn belt drive.
• 4. Belt drive with idler pulleys.
• 5. Compound belt drive.
• 6. Stepped or cone pulley drive.
• 7. Fast and loose pulley drive.
• Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive:-
• d1 = Diameter of the driver,
• d2 = Diameter of the follower,
• N1 = Speed of the driver in r.p.m.,
• N2 = Speed of the follower in r.p.m.,
• Length of the belt that passes over the driver, in one minute
= π d1 N1
• Similarly, length of the belt that passes over the follower, in one
minute = π d2 N2
• Since the length of belt that passes over the driver in one minute is
equal to the length of belt that passes over the follower in one
minute, therefore
• ∵ π d1 N1 = π d2 N2
When thickness of the belt (t) is considered, then
velocity ratio,

The peripheral velocity of the belt on the driving

pulley,

and peripheral velocity of the belt on the driven

pulley,
• When there is no slip, then ν1 = ν2.

In case of a compound belt drive, the velocity ratio is

given by
• Slip of the Belt:-
• the motion of belts and pulleys assuming a firm
frictional grip between the belts and the pulleys.
But sometimes, the frictional grip becomes
insufficient. This may cause some forward motion
of the driver without carrying the belt with it. This
is called slip of the belt and is generally expressed
as a percentage.
s1 % = Slip between the driver and the belt,
s2 % = Slip between the belt and follower,
∴ Velocity of the belt passing over the driver per
second,

and velocity of the belt passing over the follower

per second
If thickness of the belt (t) is considered, then
• Creep of Belt:-
• When the belt passes from the slack side to the
tight side, a certain portion of the belt extends and
it contracts again when the belt passes from the
tight side to the slack side. Due to these changes of
length, there is a relative motion between the belt
and the pulley surfaces. This relative motion is
termed as creep.
• The total effect of creep is to reduce slightly the
speed of the driven pulley or follower.
• σ1 and σ2 = Stress in the belt on the tight and slack
side respectively.
• Length of an Open Belt Drive:-

r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller pulleys,

x = Distance between the centres of two pulleys (i.e. O 1O 2),
and
L = Total length of the belt.
The length of the belt,
L = Arc GJE + EF + Arc FKH + HG
= 2 (Arc JE + EF + Arc FK)
• Length of a Cross Belt Drive:-

The length of the belt,

L = Arc GJE + EF + Arc FKH + HG
= 2 (Arc JE + FE + Arc FK)
Expanding this equation by binomial theorem
• Power Transmitted by a Belt:-

∴ Work done per second = (T1 – T2) ν N-m/s

and power transmitted = (T1 – T2) ν W

 = Velocity of the belt in m/s. (1 N-m/s = 1W)

• Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belt Drive:-

Resolving all the forces horizontally,

Consider a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig.

T1 = Tension in the belt on the tight side,

T2 = Tension in the belt on the slack side, and
θ = Angle of contact in radians (i.e. angle subtended by the arc AB,
along which the belt touches the pulley, at the centre).

Now consider a small portion of the belt PQ, subtending an angle δθ at the
centre of the pulley as shown in Fig. The belt PQ is in equilibrium under
the following forces:
1. Tension T in the belt at P,
2. Tension (T + δT) in the belt at Q,
3. Normal reaction RN, and
4. Frictional force F = μ × RN, where μ is the coefficient of friction
between the belt and pulley.
• Since the angle δθ is very small, therefore putting sin δθ/2 = δθ/2

Resolving the forces vertically,

• Since the angle δθ is very small, therefore putting cos δθ/2 = 1

Equating the values of RN

Integrating the above equation between the limits T2 and T1 and from
0 to θ,

The above expression gives the relation between the tight side and slack
side tensions, in terms of coefficient of friction and the angle of contact.
• Centrifugal Tension:-
• Since the belt continuously runs over the pulleys,
therefore, some centrifugal force is caused, whose effect is
to increase the tension on both the tight as well as the
slack sides. The tension caused by centrifugal force is
called centrifugal tension.
• At lower belt speeds (less than 10 m/s), the centrifugal
tension is very small, but at higher belt speeds (more than
10 m/s), its effect is considerable and thus should be taken
into account.
• length of the belt
PQ = r.dθ
• Mass of the belt
PQ = m.r.dθ
• Centrifugal force acting
on the belt PQ,
• Resolving the forces (i.e. centrifugal force and centrifugal
tension) horizontally,

Since the angle dθ is very small

• When centrifugal tension is considered, then
total tension in the tight side,
Tt1 = T1 + TC
• Total tension in the slack side,
Tt2 = T2 + TC
• Power transmitted,
P = (Tt1 – Tt2) v
= [(T1 + TC) – (T2 + TC)]v = (T1 – T2) v
• The ratio of driving tensions,
• Maximum Tension in the Belt:-
•  = Maximum safe stress,
• b = Width of the belt, and
• t = Thickness of the belt.

• The maximum tension in the belt,

T = Maximum stress × Cross-sectional area of belt
= σ.b.t
• When centrifugal tension is neglected, then
T (or Tt1) = T1
• When centrifugal tension is considered, then
T (or Tt1) = T1 + TC
• Condition for the Transmission of Maximum Power
P = (T1 – T2) ;  = Velocity of the belt in m/s.

Where,

T = Maximum tension to which the belt can be subjected in newtons

T1 = T – TC
P = (T – TC) v × C
= (T – mv2 ) v × C = ( T.v – m.v3) C
• For maximum power, differentiate the above expression with respect
to ‘v’ and equate to zero,

It shows that when the power transmitted is maximum, 1/3rd of the

maximum tension is absorbed as centrifugal tension.
The velocity of the belt for maximum power,
• Initial Tension in the Belt:-
• Even when the pulleys are stationary, the belt is
subjected to some tension, called initial tension.
• T0 = Initial tension in the belt,
• α = Coefficient of increase of the belt length per
unit force.
• The increase of tension in the tight side = T1 – T0
• Increase in the length of the belt on the tight side
= α (T1 – T0)
• Decrease in tension in the slack side = T0 – T2
• Decrease in the length of the belt on the slack side
= α (T0 – T2)
• increase in length on the tight side is equal to
decrease in the length on the slack side.
α (T1 – T0) = α (T0 – T2)
T1 – T0 = T0 – T2
V-BELT
Introduction:

from 30 to 40 degrees.
The cross-sectional dimensions of V belts have been standardized by
manufacturers, with each section designated by a letter of the alphabet for
sizes in inch dimensions. Metric sizes are designated in numbers. Though
these have not been included here, the procedure for analyzing and
designing them is the same as presented here.
Dimensions, minimum sheave diameters, and the horsepower range for
each of the lettered sections are listed in Table 17–9.

Table 17–9 Standard V-Belt Sections

17–3 V Belts
To specify a V belt, give the belt-section letter, followed by the inside
circumference in inches (standard circumferences are listed in Table 17–10).
For example, B75 is a B-section belt having an inside circumference of 75
in.
Table 17–10 Inside Circumferences of Standard V Belts

Table 17–11 Length Conversion

Dimensions (Add the Listed
Quantity to the Inside
Circumference to Obtain the
Pitch Length in Inches)
17–3 V Belts
Calculations involving the belt length are usually based on the pitch length.
For any given belt section, the pitch length is obtained by adding a quantity
to the inside circumference (Tables 17–10 and 17–11). For example, a B75
belt has a pitch length of 76.8 in. Similarly, calculations of the velocity ratios
are made using the pitch diameters of the sheaves, and for this reason the
stated diameters are usually understood to be the pitch diameters even
though they are not always so specified.

The groove angle of a sheave is made somewhat smaller than the belt-section
angle. This causes the belt to wedge itself into the groove, thus increasing
friction. The exact value of this angle depends on the belt section, the sheave
diameter, and the angle of contact. If it is made too much smaller than the
belt, the force required to pull the belt out of the groove as the belt leaves the
pulley will be excessive.
Optimum values are given in the commercial literature.

The minimum sheave diameters have been listed in Table 17–9. For best
results, a V belt should be run quite fast: 4,000 ft/min is a good speed.
Trouble may be encountered if the belt runs much faster than 5,000 ft/min or
much MEslower than 1,000 ft/min.
The pitch length Lp and the center-to-center distance C are

where D = pitch diameter of the large sheave and d = pitch diameter

of the small sheave.

In the case of flat belts, there is virtually no limit to the center-to-center

distance. Long center-to-center distances are not recommended for V
belts because the excessive vibration of the slack side will shorten the
belt life materially. In general, the center-to-center distance should be
no greater than 3 times the sum of the sheave diameters and no less
than the diameter of the larger sheave. Link-type V belts have less
vibration, because of better balance, and hence may be used with longer
center tocenter distances.
17–3 V Belts
The basis for power ratings of V belts depends somewhat on the
manufacturer; it is not often mentioned quantitatively in vendors’
literature but is available from vendors. The basis may be a number of
hours, 24,000, for example, or a life of 108 or 109 belt passes. Since the
number of belts must be an integer, an undersized belt set that is
augmented by one belt can be substantially oversized. Table 17–12 gives
power ratings of standard V belts.

Table 17–12
Horsepower
Ratings of
Standard V Belts

17–3 V Belts
Table 17–12
(Continued)

ME 17–3 V Belts
59
• Advantages and Disadvantages of V-belt Drive
over Flat Belt Drive:-
• Advantages:-
1. The V-belt drive gives compactness due to the small
distance between centres of pulleys.
2. The drive is positive, because the slip between the belt and
the pulley groove is negligible.
3. Since the V-belts are made endless and there is no joint
trouble, therefore the drive is smooth.
4. It provides longer life, 3 to 5 years.
5. It can be easily installed and removed.
6. The operation of the belt and pulley is quiet.
7. The belts have the ability to cushion the shock when
machines are started.
8. The high velocity ratio (maximum 10) may be obtained.
9. The wedging action of the belt in the groove gives high
value of limiting ratio of tensions. Therefore the power
transmitted by V-belts is more than flat belts for the same
coefficient of friction, arc of contact and allowable tension
in the belts.
10. The V-belt may be operated in either direction, with tight
side of the belt at the top or bottom. The centre line may
be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
• Disadvantages:-
1.The V-belt drive can not be used with large centre distances,
because of larger weight per unit length.
2.The V-belts are not so durable as flat belts.
3.The construction of pulleys for V-belts is more complicated
than pulleys of flat belts.
4.Since the V-belts are subjected to certain amount of creep,
therefore these are not suitable for constant speed applications
such as synchronous machines and timing devices.
5.The belt life is greatly influenced with temperature changes,
improper belt tension and mismatching of belt lengths.
6.The centrifugal tension prevents the use of V-belts at speeds
below 5 m/ s and above 50 m / s.
• Ratio of Driving Tensions for V-belt:-

Resolving the reactions vertically to the groove,

R = R1 sin β + R1 sin β = 2R1 sin β
• The frictional force

The relation between T1 and T2 for the V-belt drive

will be
2.3 log (T1 / T2) = μ.θ.cosec β