EEE C364/INSTR C364

Analog Electronics

First order Filter

Lecture 17
20-03-2019
H s  
V0 RCs R s
   2
Vi LCs  RCs  1 L s  R / L s  1 / LC
2

H s   2  103
s
 
s   1  j 2 103  s   1  j 2 103 
H 0  2  103V / V
A zero at the origin
A conjugate pole pair at 1  j2 .
 H(s) and Stability

• A circuit is said to be stable if it produces a bounded output in

response to any bounded input.
• How to assess a circuit whether it is stable or not?
• Inject some energy without any applied source and study its
natural response.
1. H(s) has a real pole at s= k  j0 = k then H(s) contains the
term Ak/(s- k) and we get

 A 
L1  k   Ak e k t u (t )
s  k 

A real pole pole contributes an exponential component and

this component :
 decays if k <0
 remains constant of k = 0
 and diverges if k >0
2. H(s) has a complex pole pair at s= k  j k then H(s) contains
the term Ak/[s- (k j k)] as well as its conjugate.

 Ak* 
  2 Ak e k u (t ) cosk t  Ak 
1 Ak  t
L  
 s   k  jk  s   k  jk 

This component represents:

 a damped sinusoid if k <0
 a constant-amplitude or sustained , sinusoid if k = 0
 and growing sinusoid if k >0

• Thus for a circuit to stable all poles must lie in the left half of the
plane where  <0.
• If a circuit contains dependent sources such as opamps, its poles
may spill into the right half-plane and thus leads to instability.
• Its output will grow until the saturation limits of the opamp are
reached
 First-Order Active Filters

The simplest active filters are obtained from the basic opamp by
using a capacitor as one of its external components.
Since
1 1
ZC  
sC jC
lim Z C  
 0

lim Z C  0
 
The Differentiator:
R
V0   Vi   RCsVi
ZC
H s    RCs
1
Putting s  j and defining the scaling frequency 0 
RC
we express H(j ) in the normalised form as
 
H  j    j     90
0  0 
expressed in dB
 
H dB  20 log10  
 0 
 Integrators
ZC 1
V0   Vi   Vi
R RCs
H s   
1
RCs
1
Putting s  j and defining the scaling frequency 0 
RC
we express H(j ) in the normalised form as

H  j   
1 1
   90
j /  0  /  0
expressed in dB
 
H dB  20 log10  
 0 
 Non-inverting Integrator or Deboo intergrator

Vi
The charging curreny I  The magnitude response is
R same as inverting integrator
1 1 V with the phase +90
Vp  I   i
s 2C s 2C R
 R Vi
V0  1  V p 
 R sRC

H s  
1
sRC
 Low-Pass filter with gain
R2

1 1 1 sR C  1
   2
Z 2 R2 1 / sC R2

H s   
Z2 R 1
 2
R1 R1 sR2C  1
R2
H0  
R1
|H|dB
1
0 
R2C
|H0|

0 1
 High-Pass filter with gain

1 sR C  1
Z1  R1   1
sC sC
H s    2   2
R R R1sC
Z1 R1 sR1C  1
R2
H0  
R1
|H|dB
1
0 
R1C

|H0|

1 0
 Band-Pass filter with gain

|H|dB

|H0|

L H
Sl_No Passive filter Active filter
1 Uses only passive Uses R, L &C with an
elements R,L, & C active device, op-amp
2 Output is less than Gain can be adjusted
input
3 Suitable for higher Suitable for low
frequencies frequencies
4 Not possible to It is possible to
approximate ideal approximate ideal
characteristics characteristics
5 No need of voltage Requires voltage sources
sources
11
Choice of filter type as a function of the operating frequency

Discrete analog active RC filter

Switched capacitor active filters

Integrated analog active filters

Passive LC filters

Distributed (wave
guide) filters

1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
Hz
Filters response characteristics

Av

Butterworth
Bessel
Chebyshev

f
13
Bessel Characteristics

• Flat response in the Av

passband.
• Role-off rate less than
20dB/decade/pole.
• Phase response is linear.
• Used for filtering pulse f
waveforms without
distorting the shape of
the waveform.

14
Butterworth characteristics

• Very flat amplitude, Av(dB) , Av

response in the passband.
• Role-off rate is
20dB/decade/pole.
• Phase response is not
linear.
• Used when all frequencies
f
in the passband must have
the same gain.
• Often referred to as a
maximally flat response.

15
Chebyshev Characteristics

• Overshoot or ripples in Av
the passband.
• Role-off rate greater than
20dB/decade/pole.
• Phase response is not
linear - worse than
Butterworth.
f
• Used when a rapid roll-
off is required.

16
Pole

• A pole is nothing more than an RC circuit –

• n-pole filter  contains n-RC circuit.

17
Simplified Laplace Transforms

• Represents complex (frequency dependent)

impedance, i.e., magnitude & phase
• Uses the Laplace Operator, s, where
s = complex frequency variable = jω = j2πf
– Resistor Impedance = R (freq. independent)
– Capacitor Reactance = 1/sC
– Inductor Reactance = sL
• Allows writing a circuit’s transfer function by
summing circuit currents using Kirchoff’s Law

18
Transfer Functions (TF)

• Transfer functions mathematically describe the

frequency domain behavior of filters.
• TF = ratio of Laplace Transforms of a circuit’s input
and output voltages:

T(s) = Vo(s) / Vi(s)

19
Filter Transfer Functions
• General filter transfer function is the ratio
of two polynomials:
m 1
bm s  bm 1s  ...  b1s  b0
m
T( s)  n 1
an s  an 1s  ...  a1s  a0
n

b1s  b0
when m  n  1, T ( s ) 
a1s  a0
b2 s  b1s  b0
2
when m  n  2, T( s ) 
a2 s  a1s  a0
2

20
TF Poles & Zeros
b1s 2  b1s  b0
T( s) 
a2 s 2  a1s  a0
• “Zeros” = values that make numerator equal
zero, i.e., the roots of the numerator.
– Makes amplitude response rise of 6 dB/oct.
– Shifts phase +90°/zero (+45° @ fc)
• “Poles” = values that make denominator
equal zero, i.e., the roots of the denominator.
– Makes amplitude response rollsoff 6 dB/oct.
– Shifts phase –90°/zero (–45° @ fc)

21
Filter Order

• The order or degree (equivalent terms) is the

highest power of s in the transfer function.
• For analog circuits usually equals the number of
capacitors (or inductors) in the circuit.
• 2nd-order most common.
• For common audio filters the order equals the
rolloff rate divided by 6dB/oct, e.g. 24 dB/oct
rolloff = 4th order (24 /6 = 4)
22
Filter Order

Rule: 6 dB/oct & 90° per order

Examples:
1st-order = 6 dB/oct; θ = 90° (+ 45° @ fc)
2nd-order = 12 dB/oct; θ = 180° (+ 90° @ fc)
3rd-order = 18 dB/oct; θ = 270° (+135° @ fc)
4th-order = 24 dB/oct; θ = 360° (+180° @ fc)
… etc.

23
Filter Order
Why 6 dB/octave Slope?
The impedance of a capacitor is half with twice the
frequency, i.e., XC = 1/sC = ½fC
The impedance of an inductor is twice when frequency
doubles, i.e., XL = sL = 2fL
Twice or Half Impedance = 6 dB change
Twice or Half Frequency = One Octave change

24
Filter Order
Why Phase Shift?
• Phase shift is the flip side of time
• It takes time to build up a charge on a capacitor --
that’s why you cannot change the voltage on a
capacitor instantaneously.
• It takes time to build up a magnetic field (flux) in
an inductor -- that’s why you cannot change the
current through an inductor instantaneously.
• All this time = phase shift

25
Filter Order
Why 2nd-Order?
• Maximum phase shift is 180 degrees
• Guarantees circuit is unconditionally stable
• No oscillation problems under any conditions
• Get higher order circuits by cascading 2nd-
order sections … or
• Design 4th-order section to mathematically
emulate two cascaded 2nd-order
26
Filter Transfer Functions

T ( j )  Re T(j  )  j Im T(j  ))
T ( j )  Re T(j  )  j Im T(j  )
| T ( j ) |  T ( j )T ( j )  T ( s )T ( s )
2

1
| Tn ( j ) | 
2
2n
 
1   
 c 
1
if  c  1, then | Tn ( j ) | 
2

1  2n
27
 1
| Tn ( j ) |  2

1  2n

1. Butterworth filter is an all-pole filter; it has zeros only at infinity ()

2. |Tn(j0)| = 1 for all n. This is a consequence of normalisation.
3. |Tn(j1)| = 0.707 for all n, corresponding to –3dB.
4. For large , |Tn(j )| exhibits n-pole roll-off, that is the attenuation
increases by 20n dB per decade.
5. The fig below illustrates this magnitude of Butterworth filters of orders 2
through 8.
Butteroworth Pole locations
1
| Tn ( j ) |  Tn ( s )Tn ( s ) 
2

1   2n
substituting   s/j,
1 1
Tn ( s )Tn ( s )   - - - (1)
s
2n
1  (1) n s 2 n
1   
 j
The poles of eqn (1) are the roots of the equation
Bn (s)Bn (-s)  1  (-1)2 s 2n , where Bn designates Butterworth polynomial
Let n  1, then 1 - s 2  (1  s) (1 - s)  0
Thus the poles are located at  1.
1
B1  s  1 , T1 
s 1
If we Let n  2, then 1  s 4  0 or s 4  -1
This equation has four solutions.
If we write - 1  j0 in the polar form - 1  1(180  k360 )
k  0,1,2,3, then we see that the angles of this equation are
(180  k360 )
k   45 ,135 ,225 ,315
4
B2 ( s )  ( s  0.707  j 0.707)( s  0.707  j 0.707)  s 2  2 s  1
1
T2  2
s  2s  1
If we Let n  3, then 1 - s 6  0 or s 6  1
This equation has six solutions.
k  0,1,2,3, 4,5 then we see that the angles of this equation are
k360
k   0 ,60 ,120 ,180 ,240 ,300
6
 1 3  1 3
B3 ( s )  ( s  1)  s   j  s   j   ( s  1)(s 2  s  1)
 2 2  2 2 
1
T3  3
s  2s 2  2s  1
1 1
Bn  or
( s 1)  ( s 2  2 cos s  1)
k
k

Two simple rules permit us to determine k :

 90
1. If n is odd, then there is ploe at   0 ; if n is even, then there are poles at  

.
n
2.Poles are separated by   180 / n.
I-order LPF Butterworth type

33
• RC N/W used for filtering action
• R1 & R1’ used for gain adjustment
• OPAMP is configured in non-inverting model

34
35
36
37
 Normalized Transfer Function

s
• Bandpass (BP) =
(1 zero, 2 poles) s  s 1
2

1 pole = -6 dB/oct

Amplitude 1 pole = -6 dB/oct

1 zero = +6 dB/oct

Frequency
38
 Normalized Transfer Function

2
s
High-Pass (HP) =
(2 zeros, 2 poles) s  s 1
2

2 poles = -12 dB/oct

Amplitude

2 zeros = +12 dB/oct

Frequency
39
Coefficients Determine Performance

K K
LP = 2 =
s  As  B ωo
s 
2
s  ωo
2

Q
• Butterworth: maximally flat passband
s2 + 1.414s + 1
• Chebyshev: steeper rolloff w/magnitude ripples
s2 + 1.43s + 1.51
• Bessel: best step response, but gentle rolloff
s2 + 3s + 3 41
Response Comparison

42
 Second order Passive and Active low pass filter

• At low frequencies H  1V/V

• At high frequencies a single RC section gives H  1/j(/0)
• At high frequencies a two stage RC section gives
• H  1/j(/0) 1/j(/0)=1/j(/0)2, 1
0 
1 2
 In fig (b) there will be considerable positive feedback only in the vicinity
of  = 0 .
 For  <<0 , the impedance of C1 is very high to feedback much signal
 For  >>>0 , the shunting action of C2 makes output V0 too small
 Filters of this type are called KRC filters or Sallen-Key filters, for their
inventors.
 Sallen-Key (VCVS) Filters

KCL at Node V1
(VS  V1 )Y1  (V1  V2 )Y2  (V1  V0 )Y3
KCL at node V2
(V1  V2 )Y2  V2Y4

Y2  Y4
But V0  KV2 so that V1  V0
KY2
V0 KY1Y2
H (s)  
VS Y1Y2  (1  K )Y2Y3  Y4 (Y1  Y2  Y3 )
VCVS Low-pass filter
 VCVS Low-pass filter

V0 KY1Y2
H (s)  
VS Y1Y2  (1  K )Y2Y3  Y4 (Y1  Y2  Y3 )
RB 1 1
K  1 , Y1  , Y2  , Y3  sC1 , Y4  sC2
RA R1 R2
V0 Kc2
H (s)   2
VS s  2kc s  c2
 1 1- K 
R 1R 2 C1C 2 1/ 2
1 1
where c2  and 2k    
R 1R 2 C1C 2  R 1C1 R 2 C 2 R 2 C 2 
comparing with the standard transfer function for a butterworth filter, 2k  1.414
Impedance Scaling: To scale impedance while maintaining a constant
corner frequency, use the following factor
Z new
KZ 
Z old
C
So R will change to K Z R and C to
KZ

Frequency scaling: To scale frequency while maintaining a constant

impedance, use the following factor
new
K 
old
So C will change to C/K  , R will have no change

Combining two factors, the new values of R and C

1
R new  K Z R and Cnew  C
K ZK
High pass filter
 High pass filter

V0 KY1Y2
H (s)  
VS Y1Y2  (1  K )Y2Y3  Y4 (Y1  Y2  Y3 )
V0 Ks 2
H (s)  
VS s 2  2kc s  c2
 1 1- K 
R 1R 2 C1C 2 1/ 2
1 1
where   2
c and 2k    
R 1R 2 C1C 2  R 2 C 2 R 1C1 R 2 C 2 
comparing with the standard transfer function for a butterworth filter, 2k  1.414
Design of High Pass filter with C1 = C2 = 1 and K=10

Then R 1R 2  1
1 1 9
2k     2
R 2 R1 R 2
Solving this equation gives R 1  0.4 and R 2  2.5
Now suppose we want to scale c  200 and C1  C 2  1F
1 1
Then K Z    5k
C1 K  1 106  200
 R 2  5k  2.5  12.5k and R 1  5k  0.4  2k
R A and R B is chosen such that the K  10  R A  1k and R B  9k
 VCVS Band-Pass filter

----------------------------------------------------------------------------
To transform normalized Substitute for s in T(s)
low-pas filter to
-----------------------------------------------------------------
c
High Pass filter
s
s 2  H L
Band - Pass filter
s ( H   L )
s ( H   L )
Band - reject filter
s  H L
2
 VCVS Band-Pass filter
We substitute s in the expression of low pass filter with c  1,
s 2  H L
s ( H   L )
We define 02   H  L and BW   H   L
For 0  1, the transformation can be written as
1  1
s  
BW  s
f0 1
The quality factor Q   for 0  1
BW BW
T0
Replacing s in the low pass filter transfer function T(s) 
s 1
T0 BWs
we get T(s) 
s 2  BWs  1
 T0 s
 Q
or T(s)   
s 2   1 s  1
 Q
VCVS Band-Pass filter
 VCVS Band-Pass filter

 T0 s
KRC 0 s  Q
T ( s)  comparing with the equation T(s)   
R 2C 202 s 2  RC0 (3  K ) s  1 s 2   1 s  1
 Q
The centre frequency f 0  1/(2RC)
Gain at f 0 : T0  K/(3 - K)
Q - factor : Q  1/(3 - K)
Amplifier gain : K  1  (R B /R A )
 VCVS Band-reject filter
We substitute s in the expression of low pass filter with c  1,
s ( H   L )
s 2  H L
We define 02   H  L and BW   H   L
For 0  1, the transformation can be written as
BW
 1
s  
 s
f0 1
The quality factor Q   for 0  1
BW BW
T0
Replacing s in the low pass filter transfer function T(s) 
s 1
T0 ( s 2  1)
we get T(s)  2
s  BWs  1
T0 (s2  1)
or T(s) 
s 2   1 s  1
 Q
 Two-Stage Band-Pass Filter
C2 R4

+V
R2 R1 +V
+ C4 C3
vin +
C1 - R3
Rf1 - vout
-V
Rf3
-V
Rf2
Rf4
Stage 1 Stage 2
Two-pole low-pass Two-pole high-pass
Av

Stage 2 Stage 1
response BW response
BW = f2 – f1
Q = f0 / BW

f
f1 fo f2

57
 VCVS Band-reject filter

K ( s 2  1) T0 (s2  1)
T (s)  2 comparing with the equation T(s) 
s  2( 2  K ) s  1 s 2   1 s  1
 Q
The centre frequency f 0  1/(2RC)
Gain at f 0 : T0  K
1
Q - factor : Q 
2(2 - K)
Amplifier gain : K  1  (R B /R A )
 Band-Stop (Notch) Filter
The notch filter is designed to block all frequencies that fall within its
bandwidth. The circuit is made up of a high pass filter, a low-pass filter
and a summing amplifier. The summing amplifier will have an output
that is equal to the sum of the filter output voltages.
Low pass Av(dB)
filter low-pass high-pass

f1
Summing
amplifier
{
-3dB

High pass
filter

vin vout

f2
f
f1 f2
Block diagram Frequency response

59
Notch filter

60
 VCVS all-pass filter
Consider the general transfer function of a low - pass filter
T0
T(s)  replacing the T0 with the conjugate complex denominator, we get
1  a1s  b1s 2
1  a1s  b1s 2
T(s) 
1  a1s  b1s 2
The general transfer function of an all pass filter is written as
 (1  a s  b s
i i
2
)
T(s)  i
 1e  2 j  e j
 (1  a s  b s
i
i i
2
)

 a 
where   -2  -2 tan -1  i 2 
i  1  bi 
d
group delay is given by, t gr  -
d
t gr  1 d
Normalized group delay, Tgr   t gr c  
Tc 2 2 d
1 ai (1  bi 2 )
For c  1, Tgr  
 i 1  (ai2  2bi ) 2  bi2 4
1
At low frequencies (  0), Tgr 

a i
i

bi
The quality factor is defined as Q 
ai
 First Order all-pass filter

 jX C
V0  VS  VS  2
R  jX C
 2  V0 1  j 2fRC

V0  VS   1    
 j 2fRC  1  VS 1  j 2fRC
 First Order all-pass filter

V0 1  jRC
T ( j )  
Vs 1  jRC
which gives the magnitude as
1   2 R 2C 2
| T ( j ) |  1 and phase   -2 tan -1 (RC)
1   2 R 2C 2
Thus ai  2f c RC and t gro  2RC
 Multiple feedback (MFB) filters

V0  Y1Y3
T (s)  
Vs Y3Y4  Y5 (Y1  Y2  Y3  Y4 )
MFB low-pass filter
 1 1 1 V0  Y1Y3
Here Y1  , Y2  sC1 , Y3  , Y4  , Y5  sC2 T (s)  
Vs Y3Y4  Y5 (Y1  Y2  Y3  Y4 )
R1 R2 R3
1
-
R1 R2
T(s) 
1 1 1 1 
 sC2   sC1   
R2 R3  R1 R2 R3 
1
-
R1 R2C1C2

1  1 1 1 
 s s  
R2 R3C1C2  R1C1 R2C1 R3C1 
1
-
R1 R2C1C2 Kc2
  2
1  1 1 1  s  2kc s  c2
 s  s
2
  
R2 R3C1C2  R1C1 R2C1 R3C1 
R3  1 1 1  1
where K  - , 2k     ( R2 R3C1C2 )1/ 2 , c2 
R1  R1C1 R2C1 R3C1  R2 R3C1C2
c C1 R1 R2 R3
The quality factor Q is defined as Q  
BW C2 R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
1 1 1
where BW   
R1C1 R2C1 R3C1
MFB high-pass filter
 1 1
Here Y1  sC1 , Y2  , Y3  sC2 , Y4  sC3 , Y5 
R1 R2
- s 2 C1C 2
T(s) 
1  1 
s 2 C 2 C3   sC1   sC2  sC3 
R2  R1 
CC
- s2 1 2
C 2C3

1  1 
s2   sC1   sC2  sC3 
R2 C 2 C3  R1 
C1
- s2
C3 Ks 2
 
 C  C 2  C3  1 s 2  2kc s  c2
s  s 1
2
 
 R2 C 2 C3  R1 R2 C 2 C 3
C1 1  1 1 C  1
where K  - , 2k     1 ( R1 R2C2C3 )1/ 2 , c2 
C3 R2  C2 C3 C2C3  R1 R2C2C3
R2
c R1
The quality factor Q is defined as Q  
BW C1 C2 C3
 
C2 C1 C1C2
MFB band-pass filter
 Ks 1
T (s)  2 whe re K  -
s  2kc s  c
2
R1C2
1  1 1 
2k    ( R1 R2C1C2 )1/ 2

R2  C1 C2 
1
c 
2

R1 R2C1C2
R2
c R1
Q 
BW C1 C2

C2 C1
 Switched Capacitor filter

Phase 1:
Capacitor C is charged to V1 with S1 closed, S2 open.
Phase 2:
The charge is transferred from C to V2 via switch S2 closed, with S1
open.
The two switches never closed at the same time. So the switches needs
two non-overlapping clock phases as shown in Fig (b).
Assume that v1(t) and v2(t) are nearly constant during time T.
The average value of current i1(t) flowing from v1(t) into the
capacitor C is given by
T
1
i1av   i1 (t )dt
T 0
Since i1 (t ) only flows during the time 0  t  T/2
q1 (T / 2)  q1 (0) C VC T / 2   VC 0 
T /2 T /2
1 1
i1av 
T 0 1
i (t ) dt 
T 
0
dq1 (t ) 
T

T

VC(T/2) is equal to the value of V1(T/2) and

VC(0) is equal to the value of V2(0).
C V1 T / 2  V2 0
Therefore i1av 
T
If v1(t) and v2(t) are approximately constant over the period T,
then
V1(0)  V1(T/2)  V1(T)  V1 and V2(0)  V2(T/2)  V2(T)  V2
CV1  V2  V1  V2 T 1
i1av   where R eq  
T Req C fC
Switched Capacitor filter
 Switched Capacitor integrator

TC 2 C2
Time constant  R eq C 2  
C1 C1 f
Switched Capacitor integrator
 Switched Capacitor integrator

The charging current I  f c C1Vi

f c C1
 Vout
 for inverting integrator
Vi
jC2
f c C1
 Vout
 for non - inverting integrator
Vi
jC2
Second order filter using integrators
 Second order filter using integrators

K02 R4
T (s)  2 whe re K  -
s  2k0 s  c
2
R1
1
2k  ( R1 R2C1C2 )1/ 2
R3C2
1
 
2
0
R1 R2C1C2
c
Q  0 R3C2
BW
Second order filter using integrators
Fig. A two-integrator-loop active-RC biquad and its switched-capacitor counterpart.
Block diagram of IC MF10 (National Semiconductor)
IC MF10 as Low –pass filter

f CLK  50 f c or 100fc
R3 R2
Q Gain  
R1 R1
 Voltage Regulators

1. Introduction

2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

3. Voltage Regulator circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

(ii) Emitter Follower Regulator

(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator

(iv) Feedback Voltage Regulator using Op-amp

4. Short Circuit Protection

5. Foldback Current Limiting

6. Thermal Shutdown
 Introduction

Fig 7.1 (a) Block diagram of ac to dc converter

Fig 7.1 (b) Block diagram of dc to dc converter

 2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

The factors for poor regulation are:

(i) The line voltage changes and the ripple content
in the dc voltage

(ii) The voltage drop across the internal resistance

of the regulator due to load current changes

(iii) The temperature dependence of the device

parameters which caused change in the
output voltage

The change in output vol tage of a regulator can be defined as

Vo  S V Vi  R o I L  S T T
2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

The change in output vol tage of a regulator can be defined as

Vo  S V Vi  R o I L  S T T

where Sv is the voltage stability factor, Ro is the output resistance

and ST is the temperature coefficient

Vo Vo
Sv  Ro  
Vi I L  0 , T  0
I L Vi  0 , T  0

Vo
ST 
T Vi  0, I L 0
2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

Fig 7.2 Voltage variations in ideal and practical

regulators with load current
3. Voltage Regulator Circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

 Zener Diode Regulator

The zener diode voltage VZ remains almost

constant in the breakdown region so long as

I z (min)  I z I z (max)
PZ
where I z(max) is decided by the power rating PZ of the zener diode, I z(max) 
VZ

An ideal zener diode acts as a constant voltage source, Vz.

ΔVz
A practical zener diode has a finite zener resistance, rz 
ΔI z
 Zener Diode Regulator
The value of Rs is selected such that it fulfill the following requirements:

1) When the input voltage is minimum and load current is maximum,

Iz is sufficient to keep the zener diode under breakdown region.

2) When the input voltage is maximum and the load current is minimum, the
zener diode current must not exceed the maximum value(Iz(max)).

The optimum value of Rs can be found using the following equations:

Vin (max)  V z Vin(max)  V z
I z (max)   I L (min) Rs (min) 
Rs I z (max)  I L (min)
Vin (min)  V z Vin(min)  V z
I z (min)   I L (max) and Rs (max) 
Rs I z (min)  I L (max)

Hence Rs should be chosen such that Rs(min) < Rs < Rs(max)

Rs  Rs (max)  Rs (min)
 (i) Zener Diode Regulator
Sv and Ro can be obtained by replacing zener diode by its
equivalent zener resistance rz. The values are:

Vo Vo
Sv  Ro 
Vi I L  0 , T  0
I L Vi  0 , T  0

Sv 
rz
Ro  Rs || rz
Rs  rz
Disadvantages:
1. The maximum load current is limited to Iz(max) – Iz(min)
2. A large amount of power is wasted in the zener resistance and series
resistance.
3. The regulation factor Sv and output resistance Ro are not very low.
 Voltage Regulators
1. Introduction

2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

3. Voltage Regulator circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

(ii) Emitter Follower Regulator

(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator

(iv) Feedback Voltage Regulator using Op-amp

4. Short Circuit Protection

5. Foldback Current Limiting

6. Thermal Shutdown
 (ii) Emitter Follower Regulator

Vo = Vz - VBE

Vo   VBE   I B   I C   VCE   VO 

Sv 
rz
and R o 
rz || ( Rs  R)  rx  r 
rz  R  Rs 1 
where rx – base spreading resistance and r small signal resistance
between base and emitter terminals of the transistor
(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator
(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator
 R  R1 
VO  VZ  2 
 R2 
R2
and VB  VO  nVO
R1  R 2
nVO
ib 2 
RB  r x 2  r 2  (1   2 )rz

and i c2   2 i b2

RB  r x 2  r 2  (1   2 )rz
Therefore R eq 
n 2

ib2 and ic2 denote the incremental

changes in base and collector
currents
Req
 VO Sv 
ic 2  R3  Req
Req ( R3 || Req )  rx1  r 1
and RO 
1  1
(iv) Feedback voltage regulator using op-amp
(iv) Feedback voltage regulator using op-amp contd..
(iv) Feedback voltage regulator using op-amp contd..
4. Short Circuit Protection

2VD  VBE
I RSC 
RSC

Vi  2VD
I SC   I RSC
R3
5. Foldback Current Limiting

0.6 V
I L (max) 
R SC
6. Thermal Shutdown
 Voltage Regulator ICs
General Purpose Voltage Regulator IC
 Voltage Regulators
1. Introduction

2. Performance measures of voltage regulators

3. Voltage Regulator circuits

(i) Zener Diode Regulator

(ii) Emitter Follower Regulator

(iii) Feedback Voltage Regulator

(iv) Feedback Voltage Regulator using Op-amp

4. Short Circuit Protection

5. Foldback Current Limiting

6. Thermal Shutdown
Positive low voltage (2V to 7V) regulator using IC 723

R2
Vout  Vref
R1  R2
High voltage (above 7V) regulator using IC 723

R1
AV  1 
R2

 R 
Vout  7.151  1  volts
 R2 
Current limiting and current foldback in 723 circuits

Vsense 0.6
Current limiting I limit  
Rsc Rsc
Current limiting and current foldback in 723 circuits
VR 4  Vreg  0.6 V

V1 R4
VR 4 
R3  R4

V1  Vreg  IRSC

R4
VR 4  (Vreg  IR SC )
R3  R4

R3  R4 Vreg
I (Vreg  0.6)  , This is the knee current
R4 RSC Rsc

At shirt circuit, Vreg=0, I=Isc. Therefore,

R3  R4
I sc  (0.6)
R4 Rsc
Current Boosting
Negative Voltage Regulator
Fixed Voltage Regulators
Tracking Voltage Regulator
Adjustable Voltage Regulator

V0  R1 I1  Rv I1  I adj 
R1 I1  Vref  1.25 V
 Vref  R 
V0  Vref  Rv   I adj   Vref  v  1
 R1   R1 
Switched Capacitor Voltage Converters
Voltage Inverter
Voltage Inverter
Voltage Inverter
Voltage Inverter
Switching Regulators
Buck Regulator
Bulk Regulator
Buck Regulator
Boost Regulator
Boost Regulator
Buck-Boost ( Inverting )Regulator
Switching IC Regulators
Inverting Buck-Boost Regulator using LM 2575
LM 2577 boost regulator