Inheritance of chromosomes (DNA) Inheritance of genes

egg + sperm → zygote
on the chromosomes passed from Mom

& Dad to offspring are genes for a trait
 may be same information
 may be different information

eye color eye color

egg
(blue or (blue or
brown?) brown?)

zygote

sperm

Effect of genes What will we find out?

_____________________________________
genes come in “versions”
 ex. brown vs. blue eyes  brown (B) vs. blue (b) eye color
 ex. brown vs. blonde hair  __________________________________

 different forms of genes are called _______

alleles are inherited separately from
each parent
 brown (B) & blue (b) eye colors are
separate & do not blend

either have brown or blue eyes, not brue

Some alleles mask others
 brown (B) eye color masks blue (b)
 that’s why we capitalized brown!
Genes affect what you look like…

X X
bb BB bb Bb

Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb bb bb

How does this work?

paired chromosomes have same kind of
X genes
Bb Bb  but may be different alleles
eye eye
color color
(blue?) (brown?)

BB or Bb BB or Bb BB or Bb bb hair hair
color color

Making gametes
BB
BB = brown eyes
bb = blues eyes
Bb = brown eyes
bb
→ brown is ________ over blue
→ blue is ________ to brown
Bb
Genetics vs. appearance

There can be a difference between
how an organism looks & its
genetics
 _________________ = phenotype

brown eyes vs. blue eyes
 _________________ = genotype

BB, Bb, bb
2 people can have the same appearance but
have different genetics: BB vs Bb
B B
2 of the same alleles
____________ BB
B B
BB = brown eyes
bb = blues eyes
b b
homozygous dominant (brown)
homozygous recessive (blue) bb
b b
B 2 different alleles B
____________ Bb
b Bb = brown eyes b
genetics: __________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________

Modern genetics began in the mid-
1800s in an abbey garden, where a
monk named Gregor Mendel
documented inheritance in peas
 used good experimental design
 used mathematical analysis

collected data & counted them
 excellent example of scientific
method
 Mendel chose peas wisely Mendel chose peas luckily

Pea plants are good for genetic research
Pea plants are good for genetic research
 ______________________ with distinct  ____________________________________
heritable features with different variations
most characters are controlled by

flower color, seed color, seed shape, etc. a single gene

each gene has only 2 alleles,
 ____________________________________ (forms of a gene) one of which
____________________________________ is completely “dominant” over

each pea plant has male & female structures the other

pea plants can self-fertilize

Mendel could also cross-pollinate plants:
moving pollen from one plant to another

white X white purple X purple

white X white purple X purple
white X white purple X purple Looking closer at Mendel’s work…

he bred easy-to- Pollen transferred from white
flower to stigma of purple flower
grow pea plants Parents true-breeding true-breeding
generation purple-flower peas X white-flower peas
 cross-pollinate (P)
true breeding
parents
 raised seed and
1st
then observed all purple flowers result
generation
(F1 hybrids)
easy-to-see traits
 allowed offspring
self-pollinate
to self-pollinate
& observed next 2nd
self-pollinate
generation generation
? (F2)
 What did Mendel’s findings mean?
I. Mendel’s Principal of
I’ll speak for
Dominance both of us!
 purple & white flower colors
are separate traits that do not
blend

purple x white ≠ light purple

purple masked white
 dominant allele homologous
chromosomes

masks other alleles

_____________________________
_____________________________
 recessive allele

not expressed when dominant
allele is present

What did Mendel’s findings mean? Dominant ≠ most common allele

traits come in alternative versions that
Because an allele is dominant
can be passed down does not mean…
 purple vs. white flower color  it is better, or
 alleles = different forms of a gene
 it is more common

different alleles vary in the sequence of
nucleotides (DNA letters) in the code
purple-flower allele &
white-flower allele are
2 DNA variations at
flower-color spot
different versions of
Polydactyly
gene on homologous
dominant allele
chromosomes
 Polydactyly individuals are born with What did Mendel’s findings mean?
extra fingers or toes

homologous (similar) chromosomes have
the allele for >5 fingers/toes the same order of genes…however…
is DOMINANT & the allele for
5 digits is recessive
these chromosomes might not have the
exact ________________ of a gene!

these different forms are called ________
 ex. eye colors: brown, hazel, green, blue
recessive allele far more eye eye
common than dominant color color
→ only 1 individual out of 500
has more than 5 fingers/toes
→ so 499 out of 500 people are
homozygous recessive (aa)

What did Mendel’s findings mean? Genotype vs. phenotype

in simple patterns of inheritance, there
difference between how an organism
are two different forms of a gene (alleles), “looks” & its genetics
where one is __________ and one is  ____________
__________
“physical” description of an organism’s trait

DOMINANT IS SHOWN WITH CAPITALS  ____________

recessive is shown with lowercase
description of an organism’s genetic
makeup
B – brown eyes T – tall plants P – purple Y – yellow seeds P X

shown by letters!
b – blue eyes t – short plants p – white y – green seeds
Explain Mendel’s results using purple white
R – round seeds Q – six fingers A – not-albino dominant & recessive
r – wrinkled q – five fingers a – albino phenotype & genotype F1
all purple
Making crosses

can represent genotypes alleles as letters
 flower color alleles →
 true-breeding purple-flower peas →
 true-breeding white-flower peas →
P X x
purple white
F1
all purple
What did Mendel’s findings mean?
II. Mendel’s Principal of Segregation and
Recombination
 when gametes are formed during meiosis
(DIPLOID  HAPLOID), the homologous
chromosomes (which may contain the different
allelic forms of a gene) separate randomly
 this is called ____________________
Describing Genotypes

the 2 copies of the gene can be the same
 homozygous = same alleles = PP, pp

the 2 copies of the gene can be the different
 heterozygous = different alleles = Pp
What did Mendel’s findings mean?
II. Mendel’s Principal of Segregation and
Recombination
 if the organism has a ______________ (the same
alleles) genotype for a given trait, then all
gametes will also have that allele for that trait
P p
PP pp
P p
 What did Mendel’s findings mean?
II. Mendel’s Principal of Segregation and
Recombination
 if the organism has a ________________ (NOT the
same alleles) genotype for a given trait, then half
of the gametes will have one allele and the other
half will have the other allele
P
Pp
p
What did Mendel’s findings mean?
II. Mendel’s Principal of Segregation and
Recombination
 when the haploid gametes fuse during
fertilization, the diploid number of chromosomes
is restored
 this can result in a new combination of alleles!
 this is called ____________________

Looking even closer at Mendel’s work… To show segregation and recombination, we use
Punnett squares!
true-breeding true-breeding
Parents
generation purple-flower peas X white-flower peas 1st Pp x Pp % genotype % phenotype
generation
(P)
PP pp (hybrids) PP 25%
male / sperm
P p Pp 75%
1st 50%
generation
PP Pp Pp
female / eggs

(F1 hybrids) Pp Pp Pp Pp P
pp 25% 25%
self-pollinate
p Pp pp
2nd
generation
(F2) ? ? ? ?
 Goldberg’s Punnett Square Method
Punnett squares Follow these 4 steps when solving Punnett squares
and you will not get the answer wrong!
Bb x Bb
male / sperm
Problem:
A homozygous tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea
X
plant. In pea plants, tall is dominant over short. What
would the expected phenotypes (phenotypic ratio) and
genotypes (genotypic ratio) of their offspring?
female / eggs

STEP #1
set up the key that
will show how each
haploid allele and
each diploid
combination will be
represented

Goldberg’s Punnett Square Method Goldberg’s Punnett Square Method

Follow these 4 steps when solving Punnett squares
and you will not get the answer wrong!
Problem:
A homozygous tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea
plant. In pea plants, tall is dominant over short. What
would the expected phenotypes (phenotypic ratio) and
genotypes (genotypic ratio) of their offspring?
Follow these 4 steps when solving Punnett squares
and you will not get the answer wrong!
Problem:
A homozygous tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea
plant. In pea plants, tall is dominant over short. What
would the expected phenotypes (phenotypic ratio) and
genotypes (genotypic ratio) of their offspring?

STEP #2 STEP #3
set up the parents carry out the Punnett
that will be crossed; square; that is, put
use the information one parent’s
from the word segregated alleles on
problem itself! top, and the other on
the left…then fill in
 Goldberg’s Punnett Square Method Goldberg’s Punnett Square Method
Follow these 4 steps when solving Punnett squares Follow these 4 steps when solving Punnett squares
and you will not get the answer wrong! and you will not get the answer wrong!
Problem: Problem:
A homozygous tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea A homozygous tall pea plant is crossed with a short pea
plant. In pea plants, tall is dominant over short. What plant. In pea plants, tall is dominant over short. What
would the expected phenotypes (phenotypic ratio) and would the expected phenotypes (phenotypic ratio) and
genotypes (genotypic ratio) of their offspring? genotypes (genotypic ratio) of their offspring?
phenotypic ratio
STEP #4
determine the ratios
T T
of the cross;
phenotypes describe genotypic ratio
t Tt
tall Tt
hetero-
tall
zygous
hetero-
zygous

their appearance,
genotypes describe
their alleles
t Tt
tall Tt
hetero-
tall
zygous
hetero-
zygous

Problem #1: Problem #2:

Use a Punnett square to show the offspring of a Use a Punnett square to show the offspring of a
cross between two pea plants that are heterozygous cross between a pea plant that is homozygous tall
for height (Tt). Give the expected phenotypic and and one that is heterozygous. Give the expected
genotypic ratios of the offspring phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring.

phenotypic ratio genotypic ratio phenotypic ratio genotypic ratio

Problem #3:
In pea plants, yellow seeds are dominant over green
seeds. What would the phenotypic and genotypic
ratios be from a cross between a homozygous green
seeded plant and a pea plant that is a hybrid for
seed color?
Test cross
If an organism has the dominant phenotype, how
can we tell if it is homozygous dominant (AA) or
heterozygous (Aa)

PP?
Pp?
phenotypic ratio genotypic ratio

Intermediate Patterns of Inheritance

Test cross

Mendel worked with a simple system
x x  peas are genetically simple
 most traits are controlled by single gene
PP pp Pp pp
 each gene has only 2 version

p p p p
1 completely dominant (A)

1 recessive (a)

P Pp Pp P Pp Pp
But its usually not that simple!

P Pp Pp p pp pp
 4 O’clock
A) Incomplete dominance A) Incomplete dominance flowers

_____________________________________
_____________________________________ Parent RR X R′R′
generation

hybrids have “in-between/blended” (P)
true-breeding true-breeding
appearance red flowers white flowers
 RR = red flowers → 100% pink flowers
 rr = white flowers → 1st
generation RR′ RR′ RR′ RR′
 Rr = pink flowers → (F1 hybrids)

make 50% less color
self-pollinate

25% 50% 25%

red pink white
2nd
generation
RR Rr rr (F2)

Problem #4:
A) Incomplete dominance Use a Punnett square to show the offspring of a
cross between a red Four O’clock flower and one
RR′ x RR′ that is heterozygous. State the phenotypic and
% %
genotype phenotype genotypic ratio of the offspring of the cross.

male / sperm RR 25% 25%

R R′
RR′
50% 50%
RR RR′
female / eggs

R RR′

RR′ R′R′ 25% 25%

R′ R′R′ phenotypic ratio genotypic ratio
1:2:1 1:2:1
Problem #5:
What would the phenotypic and genotypic ratios be
of the offspring produced from a cross bewteen a
white Four O’clock flower and one that is pink?
B) Codominance

_____________________________________
_____________________________________
 RR = red coat color →

 rr = white coat color →

 Rr = pink coat color? →

phenotypic ratio genotypic ratio

Problem #6:
What would the phenotypic and genotypic ratios be C) Multiple Alleles
from the cross between two roan cattle?
when there are more than
just 2 alleles for a given trait

human blood types are an
example with ____________
________________________
________________________
 alleles are A, B, i and code
for ‘marker’ on red blood
cells
 ______________________

phenotypic ratio genotypic ratio ___________, but…

 ______________________
each other (that means are
equally expressed)
 A allele codes for the ________ Blood donation
B allele codes for the ________
i allele codes for ________

pheno- antigen antibodies donation

genotype
type on RBC in blood status clotting clotting

type A antigens
A A A or A i on surface
of RBC
anti-B antibodies __
clotting clotting
type B antigens
B BB or B i on surface
of RBC
anti-A antibodies __
both type A &
type B antigens universal
AB AB on surface
no antibodies
recipient
of RBC clotting clotting clotting
no antigens universal
anti-A & anti-B
O ii on surface
of RBC
antibodies donor

Problem #7: Problem #8:

If a heterozygous A person and a homozygous B Four newborn babies in the delivery room were
person have children, can they have a baby with A accidentally mixed up by the nurse who attached the
type blood? wrong wristbands to each child. The blood types of the
four babies were known to be AB, O, A, and B. The blood
types of each set of parents are also known. Using your
knowledge of genetics, carry out all possible crosses to
determine which baby belongs to which set of parents.
(HINT: You may have to do two crosses for certain
parents!)

Parental Set #1 : O and AB

Parental Set #2 : AB and B
Parental Set #3 : O and O
Parental Set #4 : O and A
 O and AB
A or B D) Sex-Linked Traits
parents

most diploid organisms have two different
types of chromosomes
1) autosomes: _________________________
AB and B
parents or AB or
A or B
___________________________________
• a.k.a. somatic chromosomes
2) sex chromosomes: ___________________
____________________________________
O and O  humans have 22 pair (44 total) of
only O
parents autosomes and 1 pair (2 total) of sex
chromosomes

O and A
parents or A or O

diploid (2n) = 2 copies 46 chromosomes diploid (2n) = 2 copies 46 chromosomes

23 pairs 23 pairs

XX XY
D) Sex-Linked Traits

_____________________________________
_____________________________________

_____________________________________
(50%-50% chance!)

this occurs along with the segregation of all
homologous autosomes during the
production of gametes—meiosis

besides the genes for sex determination,
other genes are found on these
chromosomes too!
XX XY
Thomas Hunt Morgan Thomas Hunt Morgan

he noticed that some traits were
inherited more frequently in males than
females

__________________________________
__________________________________
Thomas Hunt Morgan

embryologist at Columbia University
 1st to associate a specific gene with a
specific chromosome
 Drosophila breeding

2 week generations

4 pairs of chromosomes

XX=female, XY=male

because the Y chromosome is actually
smaller than the X chromosome, men
only have one copy of certain genes…

so… if the X chromosome has a
recessive allele, that has to be
expressed because that is all that is
there!
X Y
 D) Sex-Linked Traits D) Sex-Linked Traits

for Punnett squares, there are different ways to
set up a key for a sex-linked recessive allele… HY x XHh
XHH H Xh

X = normal X
Y = normal Y male / sperm
X = recessive X
XH XH Y
XH Y
Y

female / eggs
XH XH XH XH Y
A
X = normal X
Y = normal Y XH
a
X = recessive X XH Xh Xh XH Xh XhY
Xh

Problem #9: Problem #10:

Use a Punnett square to show the offspring of a
cross between a woman with normal (not a carrier)
vision and a color-blind male. What percentage of
each sex would you expect this condition to occur?
Use a Punnett square to show the offspring of a
cross between a woman who carries the hemophilia
gene and a man who is a hemophiliac. What
percentage of each sex would you expect this
condition to occur?