CHAPTER 5

ECOLOGY

The Philippines, as an archipelago, has acquired and cuddled a diverse and unique
biodiversity creating an extraordinary high level of endemism and is undisputedly one of the
richest and most important in the world according to The World Checklist of Plant Families
(WCSP, 1997). However, despite this high biodiversity presence in the Philippines, only 6%
of its original forest remains from the 20% estimated forest cover in the country (Posa et al,
2006) making it the “hottest of the biodiversity hot spots in the world” for having a high level
of biodiversity threat (Myers et al, 2000).
The archipelagic property of the country is defined historically as numerous islands that
make up the country have been isolated for thousands of years from mainland Asia that lead to
the evolution of exceptional and diverse flora and fauna that’s endemic only in the Philippines
(Esselstyn et al, 2004; Heaney et al, 2005). As of 2007, as assessed by the World Database of
Key Biodiversity Areas, the Philippines homes 20,000 endemic species of plants and animals,
making it one of the world’s mega-diverse countries that collectively characterizes two-thirds
of the earth’s biological diversity.
Meanwhile, as recognized by Wallace, the flora and fauna species found in the
Philippines are largely Oriental in character even it lacks the Oriental representative species
that’s best represented in the eastern region of Mindanao. The Visayan islands, even at a close
distance from each other, have surprisingly different faunal species where Leyte and Samar’s
are closely related to those in Mindanao.
The province of Leyte, as characterized by its heavily forested area and mountains, is a home
of two key biodiversity areas- Anonagi-Lobi Range and Mt. Nacolod, which are threatened by
illegal logging, agricultural encroachment, kaingin and land conversion. Politically, it’s
divided into two provinces – (Northern) Leyte and Southern Leyte. Five years ago, Visayas
was slayed by a ravishing 280 km/hr storm Yolanda that had heavily damaged numerous areas
including the remaining forests in the island. Until now, the island of two provinces are still
recovering from the damages brought by Yolanda.

5.1 Objective of The Study

This study will provide a preliminary and baseline information on the current and
existing ecological setting along Bao River that stretched from Barangay San Ignacio of the
Municipality of Kananga and Barangay Nueva Vista in Ormoc City, both in the province of
Leyte. Furthermore, the study will evaluate how to dramatically mitigate the long-term effects
of various changes in the ecological environment in the riverine area.
In essence, the specific objectives of the study are as follows:
 To document the existing ecological conditions of site-specific areas;
specifically, flora and fauna inventory, river quality, and aquatic
environments;
 To identify the presence of several endangered species around
Greater Mindanao biogeographic region and Mindanao and Eastern
Visayas Endemic Bird Area (EBA);
 To provide a baseline documentation on the riverine environment
situation that might be directly and indirectly affected during the
construction and operation phases of the project.

5.2 Scope of The Study

The proposed hydropower plant is proposed to be constructed along Bao River that
borders the Ormoc City and the municipality of Kananga province of Leyte. The research team
had conducted prima facie ocular assessment and concentrated mainly on the following
environments:
 Terrestrial Ecology
o Terrestrial Flora
o Terrestrial Fauna
 Aquatic Ecology
o Aquatic Flora
o Aquatic Fauna
The research team will put more concentration on the areas that are adjacent the exact
location of the proposed structures of the hydropower plant. Ideally, the proposed power plant
will have six (6) major structures which are the weir, headrace, forebay, penstock, powerhouse
and the substation.
The environment on these areas will surely be affected by any reduction on the river’s
flow, thus the curtailed length of the river can either continue the system of sustainability or
curtail and slowly diminish in time. The curtailed reach is the stretch of the river where water
is reduced due to diversion. From the weir, the water is diverted and conveyed via steel pipes
down to the powerhouse. At the powerhouse, the water is returned to the river via tailrace. The
length of the curtailed reach is 5,027.07 m. Abstraction of water from the river generally affects
its natural flow regime which, consequently, influences the water quality and the organisms in
the river. The technical team conducted a topographic survey, water quality sampling, and
meteorological survey to assess the impact of diversion. All of the data gathered were used in
channel flow analysis that is carried-out thru running simulations in a software called HEC-
RAS (Hydrologic Engineering Center – River Analysis System).
Figure 5.1 Scope 1: Cross Sectional Areas, 3x30mx10m
 Figure 5.2 Scope 2: Curtailed Reach Length

5.3 Methodology
The research team conducted a biological survey to assess the ecological condition of
the project area. Biological survey aimed to gather data relevant to the study such as: terrestrial
flora and fauna and aquatic fauna that will be affected during the construction phase and
operation of the project.

This method is applicable to a wide, variety of vegetation types as long as the plants do
not exceed waist height. This method is relatively simple and rapid to use. A limitation is that
there can be large changes in canopy cover of herbaceous species between years because of
climatic conditions, with no relationship to the effects of management.
In general, quadrats are not recommended for estimating cover (Floyd and Anderson
1987; Kennedy and Addision 1987). This method cannot be used to calculate rooted frequency.
Careful establishment of studies is a critical element in obtaining meaningful data
The most important factor in obtaining usable data is selecting representative areas
(critical or key areas) in which to run the study. Study sites should be located within a single
plant community within a single ecological site. Transects and sampling points need to be
randomly located within the critical or key areas

5.3.1 Flora Survey Data Collection Method

For the flora community of the barangay, transect and quadrat method was used. The
researchers established one (1) transect line stretching from the weir location down to the
powerhouse. Then, the researcher randomly chose five (5) (quadrats) stations to conduct the
flora diversity assessment with an area of 100 m2. The flora identified in the area is divided
into two categories: trees and understory. Understory is further divided into four (4) sub-
groups: shrubs, grasses, vines, and ferns. These will then compose the three (3) types of cover
– basal cover, foliar cover, and canopy cover. The trees and some vine species compose the
canopy cover. While, the shrubs, and secondary growth trees compose the foliar cover. Lastly,
the grasses, ferns, and mosses compose the basal cover.
The conducted study measures only the diversity of a flora community, thus the
analysis was focused on the inventory of the flora species. Species richness or abundance was
recorded per category in the transect. Moreover, species individual count per category were
also tallied which will then be used to identify three relevant diversity indices – Species
Richness, Simpson and Shannon indices. The species’ dominance was obtained by identifying
the Simpson Index (1949) while species frequency was acquired by identifying the Shannon
Index (1949). Both indices were then converted to Effective Number of Species (ENS), a true
diversity value, for an even and effective interpretation. Usually, the cover forms according
to the characteristics of the landform and the presence of river flow.
For areas that has great access to the floodplain, trees can nowhere be found along or
around it since the foundation (composed of rocks and organic soil) has already been eroded
by strong floods and river flows paving the way for wider rivers. This gives rise to shrubs and
riverine grasses that become homes for dragonflies, small fishes, snakes and frogs. However,
systems with this type of physical formation is not sustainable.
Ocular survey was performed to identify the species thriving in the area and the area
cover of species according to categories, which in this case are trees and understories. In order
to obtain the expanse of the area covered by flora, the researchers used the Daubenmire Cover
Class Method (Table 5.1). This was performed in 5 different stations that are assigned
significantly in the target area.
Flora identification was done in situ using their local names which was then identified
for genus/species level afterwards. While for the unidentified plant species, specimens were
collected and preserved for further comparisons and identification. Unidentified plant
photographs were also used for identification.
Moreover, for a reinforced reliability, some data were gathered from a pre-conducted
biodiversity study by private institutions namely “Biodiversity Baseline Assessment in the
REDD-Plus Pilot Area on Leyte lsland as an Input for the Elaboration of a MRV System for
REDD-Plus Including Biodiversity Co-benefits
The method adopted in estimating the terrestrial flora cover was the Daubenmire
Cover Class Method where ocular assessment on the estimated cover of the basal, foliar, or
canopy covers in the target area is identified by using 6 cover classes shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Daubenmire Class Cover Classification Table
Class Est. Cover Range Midpoint
Class 1 5% 0%-5% 2.5%
Class 2 25% 6%-25% 15.0%
Class 3 50% 26%-50% 37.5%
Class 4 75% 51%-75% 62.5%
Class 5 95% 76%-95% 85.0%
Class 6 100% 96%-100% 97.5%

5.3.2 Fauna Survey Data Collection Methods

Faunal assessment was done through ocular and gathering secondary sources such as
environmental and biodiversity assessment since the research team didn’t have to stay longer
in the study area. Several interviews were also conducted with the locals to identify the fauna
species found in the area both terrestrial and aquatic.
Sight observations and Standardized, Open-ended Interviewing Method was used to
identify different faunal communities around the riparian environment. Moreover, we have
grouped the types of faunas to: birds (fowls), mammals, aquatic species, and reptiles.
5.3.3 Aquatic Fauna Survey
Terrestrial flora and fauna is the concern for the established transects/quadrats along
the riverine area. Additionally, the team has also conducted aquatic fauna survey in the reach
length. The aquatic species were identified to assess its vulnerability to the possible changes
of river flow regime and water quality caused by diversion.
Captured specimens of some aquatic species were examined closely to check the
validity of field identifications. These specimens were immediately released back to the wild
after taking their measurements. Sight observations and Standardized, Open-ended
Interviewing Method was used to identify different faunal communities around the riparian
environment.
The same methods were applied for surveying reptiles and aquatic animals.
In this report, residency status of each faunal specie was classified based on the
definition used by Kennedy, et al. (2000) as follows:
 Endemic = species unique and found only in the Philippines
 Near endemic = species found mainly in the Philippines but also occur on a few
nearby small islands in neighboring countries
 Resident = species that breed or are suspected of breeding in the Philippines
 Migrant = species that breed outside the Philippines and migrate only during winter
season to the country. Some migrants may stay through the summer, while some, like
the area passage migrants may pass through the Philippines reroute to other
destinations.
 Accidental = species that do not normally migrate, travel to or live near the
Philippines
The common name, scientific name, uses and status of the recorded faunal and flora
species were identified. The conservation status of the species listed was assessed according to
the definition of the Threatened Plants of the Philippines by Fernando et al. (2008) and by the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Administrative Order 2007-01
National List of Threatened Philippine Plants and Their Categories, and the List of Other
Wildlife Species. This served as the index for the categorization and or classification of each
species, including the criteria such as:
1. Critically Endangered Species - refers to a species or subspecies facing extremely
high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. This shall include varieties, formae
or other infraspecific categories.
2. Endangered Species - refers to a species or subspecies that is not critically endangered
but whose survival in the wild is unlikely if the causal factors continue operating. This shall
include varieties, formae or other infraspecific categories;
3. Other Threatened Species - refers to a species or subspecies that is not critically
endangered, endangered nor vulnerable but Is under threat from adverse factors, such as over
collection, throughout its range and is likely to move to the vulnerable category in the near
future. This shall include varieties, formae or other infraspecific categories;
 4. Other Wildlife species - refers to non-threatened species of plants that have the
tendency to become threatened due to destruction of habitat or other similar causes as may be
listed by the Secretary upon the recommendation of the National Wildlife Management
Committee. This shall include varieties, formae or other infraspecific categories;
5. Threatened Species - is a general term to denote species or subspecies that is
considered as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable or other accepted categories of
wildlife whose populations are at risk of extinction. This shall include varieties, formae or
other infraspecific categories;
6. Vulnerable Species - refers to a species or subspecies that is not critically endangered
nor endangered but is under threat from adverse factors throughout its range and is likely to
move to the endangered category in the future. This shall include varieties, formae or other
infraspecific categories;

5.4 Data Gathered

The data gathered upon ocular assessment was categorized according to plant and
animal types.

5.4.1 Flora
The plant species were divided into two (2) major groups – trees and understories.
Majority of the Kananga is agricultural land since 2001 as shown in Figure 5.5 from a
study conducted by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature, Conservation and
Nuclear Safety of Germany entitled “Landsat Land Cover Classification of Leyte, Island,
Eastern Visayas, Philippines”. However, there are still some areas where forest trees grow
but does not really occupy a huge area.
It is also worth emphasizing that half of the known plant species in Leyte are found in
Southern Leyte Province which include 133 out of 182 bird species (Mallari et al, 2014). This
means that there was only a small amount of biodiversity existent in the target area because of
the prevalence of land conversion in the past 2-3 decades from forested area to agricultural
lands that lead to the municipality’s losses on forest covers. However, it is also remarkable that
various vegetations will possibly thrive due to the long duration of periods without typhoons
that could damage and destroy secondary and tertiary growth trees and tree saplings.

Figure 5.3 Differentiated Forest Cover Map of Leyte

a. b.
 c.

Figure 5.3a. Map of Leyte Island showing

the location of Kananga; Figure 5.3b.
Deforestation Map of Leyte Island in 2001;
Figure 5.3c. Map of Leyte Island’s forested
cover in 2010.

Figure 5.4 Surveyed flora and riparian environment along Station 0

 Along the weir area, the floodplains are not easily accessible because of the steep
protection of the landform along the river. Natural forest ecosystem can be found in both sides
and are composed of multi-later canopies, but not canopy level trees, since the presence of
primary forest trees is scarce in the area. This is due to the morphology of the valley and the
channel that dictate the behavior of water in those areas especially during typhoon seasons.
There is quite a presence of fruit trees along the riparian area 10 m from the riverbank,
creating a mix of exotic and native vegetation due to the combination of seeds contributed by
birds and bats as they take refuge excreting undigested seeds which in turn, grows into new
plants.
It can also be well-emphasized that during the survey, it was a rainy day which brought
out the bloom of the leafy and green foliar vegetation that includes species of ferns and some
bulb families.

Figure 5.5 Surveyed flora and riparian environment along Station 1

 Station 1 is composed of a vast grassland and some gully natural forest patches. It may
be also observed that there were several untouched trees in the area, but are unable to hold the
soil substrate in place when rains comes that would cause splash erosion. Around 500 from
the riverbank on the left side is a pineapple plantation. The presence of this agricultural crop
provide additional nutrition to the wild vegetation transported through surface runoff which
eventually ended up as sediments in the floodplains. Some farmers and especially large-scale
agro-industries also use nematicides and herbicides to prevent the growth of weeds that
compete with the desired crop in terms of soil nutrient and light. This strengthens the
possibility of herbicide component leaching during heavy rains.
Moreover, naturalized exotic forest tree species in monoculture are seldom found in
the project areas. However, some popular domesticated and lumber tree species are found with
<0.5m dbh such as ipil-ipil (Leucaena glauca), gmelina (Gmelina arborea), and some ficus
species.

Figure 5.6 Surveyed flora and riparian environment along Station 2

 Vast grasslands at mid-level elevations were also observed in Station 2 and the evident
accessibility of the river to the floodplain is very observable making the unstable growth and
thriving of basal cover which include the Sphagneticola calendulacea, a yellow non-endemic
flowering grass that spreads almost everywhere along Bao River.
Grasslands may generally look like they are single-layered vegetation. However, at a
closer investigation in the areas along the riverbank, some grass species of cogon, grasses,
shrubs and even herbs were found. The stations 1 to 3 were found to be rich grazing areas for
domesticated faunas such as goats, cows, and water buffalos.
Furthermore, while feeding animals would normally excrete in the vicinity, there is
not much organic matter left in these areas because these are constantly being maintained to
contain juvenile grasses that are more palatable to the livestock. During the dry season, these
areas may not be very productive and in fact many of the ground vegetation die exposing some
substrate. At the time of visit, it was already raining making the area greener with the new
growth of other shrubs and herbs.

Figure 5.7 Surveyed flora and riparian environment along Station 3

 In a closer look, the left side of the river in Station 3 has a high accessibility to the
floodplain, which is opposite on the other side where it’s characterized by a high steep solid
landform with multi-layered vegetation. 400 m away is the pineapple plantation that
contributes to the nutrients of the riparian vegetation especially during rainy season where
sediments from the plantation has a high chance of being transported down the river.
Riparian ecosystems are transition zones between land and water ecosystems that
encompasses the stream channel between the low and high water marks. They also encompass
the terrestrial landscape above the high-water mark where vegetation may be influenced by
elevated water tables or flooding and by the ability of the soils to hold water (Naiman and
Decamps, 1997). The riparian transition zones can be inundated at high levels which could be
due to typhoons and heavy rains. Riparian transition zones along Bao River is characterized
by the clayey zones and presence of temporary grass species. This is caused by the widening
of the river that created small pools and islets.

Figure 5.8 Surveyed flora and riparian environment along Station 4

 Station 4 is characterized by its grassland appearance with the a vast presence of
Eclipta prostrata and Sphagneticola calendulacea. Some herb and grass species can also be
found in the area and are food to several domesticated animals. Presence of wild banana trees
can also be found which is an evidence of rich presence of local birds in the area.
The Dipterocarpaceae members Shorea negrosensis, S. contorta, S. seminis and Hopea
quisumbingiana are familiar lowland Dipterocarp species, with known occurrences in Samar
and Leyte (Margraf and Milan 1996; Pelser et al. 2011). Saplings of these trees are spread
throughout the island and some are found in the project site. However, these are not well
documented and are accessible to herbivores such as cows, goats, and other domesticated
animals that feed on plants. There are no strict conservation efforts that the government
enforce on these areas thus slowing the process of building primary forests.

Figure 5.9 Moderately Steep Hills in Brgy. Nueva Vista

 The project area, as shown in Figure 5.9 is characterized by moderately steep inclines
and are covered by lush greens of secondary and third – growth forest. Majority of the forest
cover is composed of trees less than 0.5 dbh (<0.5 dbh) which is a sign that the forest cover is
not thriving due to several factors affecting the steady growth of trees. Moreover, the presence
of a rich vegetation of shrubs, grasses and vines in the project site contribute to the slow
growth of the forest trees such as gmelina, narra, lauan, and others.
On the other hand, with the accessibility of the floodplain that spans up to 100 m, the
presence of shrubs and tall grasses is highly noticeable which comprises the vegetation in the
area.
Figure 5.10 Floodplain along Bao River

One of the key findings in the study conducted by the joint agencies of Department of
Environment and Natural Resources and the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear Safety (FMENCNS) found that 12 key species of trees aren’t found
in Kananga due to some threats that’s been existing in the island since. Most of these key
species, which are forest reliant, are more prominent in municipalities around Southern Leyte.
This includes Almon (Shorea almon), Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandifloras), Bagtikan
(Parashorea malaanonan), Cebu cinnamon (Cinnamomum cebuense), Malayakal (Shorea
maxwelliana), Mayapis (Shorea Palosapis), Red Lauan (Shorea negrosensis), Tanguile (Shorea
polysperma), White Lauan (Shorea contorta), Yakal (Shorea astylosa), Yakal Kaliot (Shore
sp.), and Yakal Sapiongan (Shore sp.)

Figure 5.6 Tree Specie Richness Map

The researchers have identified several common

grass, shrubs and tree species that are non-forest
dependent or are outliers. They can be readily and
commonly found in areas even without the presence of
overwhelming nutrient supply of forest environments.
Table 5.4 shows the grass and shrub species found
during the ocular assessment along Bao River.

Table 5.4 Flora Sp. Found in Station 0

Plant Cover
Sp. Code SCIENTIFIC NAME No. of Sp.
(%)
S0SPC01 Cyperus rotundus 110 2.5
S0SPC02 Commersonia bartramia 2 15
S0SPC03 Thaumatococcus deniellii 5 2.5
S0SPC04 Dracaena fragrans 7 2.5
S0SPC05 Canavalia ensiformis 8 2.5
S0SPC06 Vigna unguiculata 25 15
S0SPC07 Mimosa pudica 14 2.5
S0SPC08 Amaranthus spinosus 3 2.5
S0SPC09 Dryopteris filix-mas 7 2.5
S0SPC10 Eupatorium cannabinum 6 2.5
S0SPC11 Digitaria ciliaris 80 2.5
S0SPC12 Colocasia esculenta 3 2.5
S0SPC13 Glycine soja 8 2.5
S0SPC14 Oplismenus hirtellus 50 2.5
S0SPC15 Ficus variegata 2 15
S0SPC16 Crassocephalum crepidioides 30 2.5
S0SPC17 Seteria palmifolia 32 2.5
S0SPC18 Centella asiatica 13 2.5
S0SPC19 Musa sapientum 2 2.5
S0SPC20 Pteris vittata 4 2.5
TOTAL 411 87.5

Table 5.5 Flora Sp. Found in Station 1

Plant Cover
Sp. Code SCIENTIFIC NAME No. of Sp.
(%)
S1SPC01 Chromolaena odorata 26 2.5
S1SPC02 Cyperus rotundus 124 2.5
S1SPC03 Digitaria sanguinalis 35 2.5
S1SPC04 Pogonatherum crinitum 31 2.5
S1SPC05 Ficus auriculata 2 15
S1SPC06 Phaseolus vulgaris 4 2.5
S1SPC07 Catalpa speciosa 2 15
S1SPC08 Cocus nucifera 0 0
S1SPC09 Dryopteris filix-mas 12 2.5
S1SPC10 Pteridium aquilinum 8 2.5
S1SPC11 Gleditsia triacanthos 4 2.5
S1SPC12 Dichrostachys cinerea 2 2.5
S1SPC13 Colocasia esculenta 9 2.5
S1SPC14 Boehmeria cylindrica 4 2.5
S1SPC15 Ficus benjamina 6 2.5
S1SPC16 Paspalum conjugatum 36 2.5
S1SPC17 Terminalia macroptera 8 2.5
S1SPC18 Phragmites vulgaris 4 2.5
S1SPC19 Sphagneticola calendulacea 47 2.5
S1SPC20 Mikania micrantha 4 2.5
S1SPC21 Dalbergia assamica 1 2.5
S1SPC22 Ficus religiosa 2 2.5
S1SPC23 Barringtonia asiatica 1 15
S1SPC24 Ficus erecta 1 2.5
S1SPC25 Dioscorea japonica 4 2.5
TOTAL 377 97.5

Table 5.6 Flora Sp. Found in Station 2

Plant Cover
Sp. Code SCIENTIFIC NAME No. of Sp.
(%)
S2SPC01 Eremochloa ciliaris 12 2.5
S2SPC02 Mimosa pudica 12 2.5
S2SPC03 Chromolaena odorata 23 2.5
S2SPC04 Heteropogon contortus 34 2.5
S2SPC05 Pueraria phaseoloides 18 2.5
S2SPC06 Malvastrum coromandelianum 64 2.5
S2SPC07 Pogonatherum crinitum 27 2.5
S2SPC08 Sphagneticola trilobata 53 2.5
S2SPC09 Miscanthus floridulus 36 2.5
S2SPC10 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 25 2.5
S2SPC11 Cyperus rotundus 107 2.5
S2SPC12 Colocasia esculenta 5 2.5
S2SPC13 Elephantopus scaber 43 2.5
S2SPC14 Euphorbia dentata 27 2.5
S2SPC15 Urena lobata 42 2.5
S2SPC16 Ambrosia trifida 27 15
S2SPC17 Sida acuta 65 15
S2SPC18 Ageratum conyzoides 36 2.5
S2SPC19 Imperata cylindrica 63 15
S2SPC20 Pueraria montana 6 2.5
S2SPC21 Axonopus compressus 59 2.5
TOTAL 784 90

Table 5.7 Flora Sp. Found in Station 3

Plant Cover
Sp. Code SCIENTIFIC NAME No. of Sp.
(%)
S3SPC01 Colocasia esculenta 7 2.5
S3SPC02 Amaranthus blitum 37 2.5
S3SPC03 Origanum vulgare 7 2.5
S3SPC04 Lantana camara 37 2.5
S3SPC05 Chromolaena odorata 27 2.5
S3SPC06 Spermacoce alata 35 2.5
S3SPC07 Artemisia argyi 73 2.5
S3SPC08 Cyperus rotundus 114 2.5
S3SPC09 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 32 2.5
S3SPC10 Mimosa pudica 15 2.5
S3SPC11 Urena lobata 37 2.5
S3SPC12 Pteridium aquilinum 9 2.5
S3SPC13 Ficus benjamina 1 15
S3SPC14 Sphagneticola calendulacea 167 15
S3SPC15 Glycine soja 47 15
S3SPC16 Bouteloua dactyloides 85 2.5
S3SPC17 Eclipta prostrata 184 15
S3SPC18 Pogonatherum crinitum 26 2.5
TOTAL 940 95
 Table 5.8 Flora Sp. Found in Station 4
Plant Cover
Sp. Code SCIENTIFIC NAME No. of Sp.
(%)
S4SPC01 Ficus benjamina 2 15
S4SPC02 Sphagneticola calendulacea 183 15
S4SPC03 Lantana camara 8 2.5
S4SPC04 Imperata cylindrica 12 2.5
S4SPC05 Urena lobata 16 2.5
S4SPC06 Colocasia esculenta 9 2.5
S4SPC07 Chromolaena odorata 21 2.5
S4SPC08 Ficus sarmentosa 4 15
S4SPC09 Pueraria montana 8 2.5
S4SPC10 Sphagneticola calendulacea 0 2.5
S4SPC11 Lantana camara 0 2.5
S4SPC12 Urena lobata 0 2.5
S4SPC13 Origanum vulgare 5 2.5
S4SPC14 Spermacoce alata 42 2.5
S4SPC15 Mimosa pudica 16 2.5
S4SPC16 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 28 2.5
S4SPC17 Selaginella moellendorffii 6 2.5
S4SPC18 Chromolaena odorata 0 2.5
S4SPC19 Malabar melastome 10 2.5
S4SPC20 Cyperus rotundus 120 2.5
S4SPC21 Arivela viscosa 58 2.5
TOTAL 548 90

Of the five stations surveyed, there were prominent species that are coherently
dominant such as the Sphagneticola calendulacea which consistently covers no less than 15%
of the surveyed area. Along with these domineering flowering plants are Eclipta prostrata and
Ambrosia trifida which roughly makes up for the huge foliar cover. On the other hand, the
basal cover is dominated by the presence of Cyperus rotundus, Bouteloua dactyloides , and
Digitaria ciliaris which are common to almost all the surveyed stations. While, the least
numbered species but has the greatest cover that compose the canopy cover is marked by the
Ficus family, Catalpa speciose, Commersonia bartramia, and Barringtonia asiatica.

Table 5.9 Flora Sp. Found in Station 4

Avg %
Common Name Scientific Name Count Cover/
Quadrat
billygoat-weed Ageratum conyzoides 36 0.5
pigweed Amaranthus blitum 37 0.5
spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus 3 0.5
giant ragweed Ambrosia trifida 27 3
apoi-apoian Arivela viscosa 58 0.5
silvery wormwood Artemisia argyi 73 0.5
braodleaf carpetgrass Axonopus compressus 59 0.5
 botong Barringtonia asiatica 1 3
false nettle Boehmeria cylindrica 4 0.5
carabao grass Bouteloua dactyloides 85 0.5
jack bean Canavalia ensiformis 8 0.5
catawba tree Catalpa speciosa 2 3
gotu cola Centella asiatica 13 0.5
hagonoy/siam weed Chromolaena odorata 97 2
taro Colocasia esculenta 33 2.5
brown kurajong Commersonia bartramia 2 3
ebolo Crassocephalum crepidioides 30 0.5
nut grass Cyperus rotundus 575 2.5
dalbergia assamica Dalbergia assamica 1 0.5
bell mimosa Dichrostachys cinerea 2 0.5
crabgrass Digitaria ciliaris 80 0.5
crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis 35 0.5
wild ube/yam Dioscorea japonica 4 0.5
fragrant dracaena Dracaena fragrans 7 0.5
male fern Dryopteris filix-mas 19 1
false daisy Eclipta prostrata 184 3
elephant's foot Elephantopus scaber 43 0.5
ladder fern Eremochloa ciliaris 12 0.5
boneset Eupatorium cannabinum 6 0.5
green poinsettia Euphorbia dentata 27 0.5
fig tree Ficus auriculata 2 3
balite/salisi/weeping fig Ficus benjamina 9 6.5
balite Ficus erecta 1 0.5
sacred fig Ficus religiosa 2 0.5
fig tree Ficus sarmentosa 4 3
green fruited fig Ficus variegata 2 3
honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos 4 0.5
wild soybean Glycine soja 55 3.5
spear grass Heteropogon contortus 34 0.5
cogon grass Imperata cylindrica 75 3.5
spanish flag Lantana camara 45 1
straits rhododendron Malabar melastome 10 0.5
broom weed Malvastrum coromandelianum 64 0.5
mile-a-minuite weed Mikania micrantha 4 0.5
shameplant Mimosa pudica 57 2
 pacific island silvergrass Miscanthus floridulus 36 0.5
banana Musa sapientum 2 0.5
basketgrass Oplismenus hirtellus 50 0.5
wild oregano Origanum vulgare 12 1
buffalo grass Paspalum conjugatum 36 0.5
common bean Phaseolus vulgaris 4 0.5
common reed Phragmites vulgaris 4 0.5
german bamboo Pogonatherum crinitum 84 1.5
eagle fern Pteridium aquilinum 17 1
ladder brake Pteris vittata 4 0.5
kudzu Pueraria montana 14 1
tropical kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides 18 0.5
spikemoss Selaginella moellendorffii 6 0.5
palmgrass Seteria palmifolia 32 0.5
common wireweed Sida acuta 65 3
winged false buttonweed Spermacoce alata 77 1
wedelia Sphagneticola calendulacea 397 6.5
creeping-oxeye Sphagneticola trilobata 53 0.5
blue porterweed Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 85 1.5
kwandari Terminalia macroptera 8 0.5
miracle berry Thaumatococcus deniellii 5 0.5
bur-mallow Urena lobata 95 1.5
cow pea Vigna unguiculata 25 3
Total 3060 90
Species Richness Index 68
Shannon Index 3.34
Simpson Index 0.93

After surveying the target areas, the biodiversity indices derived along Bao River show
that the area has a diverse composition of floral species. However, based on Simpson Index,
the distribution of these species are not equal. There are some species that are abundant in one
area and there are some species that are few to non-existent in some areas. This could be caused
by the unstable vegetation landscape and the accessibility of the floodplain.
The grass and shrub species cover an estimated area of 90% of the surveyed areas in
stations 0-4. This is due to the fact that a huge part of the tree cover has been destroyed by
several contributors such as strong storms such as Typhoon Yolanda, illegal logging, land
conversion through kaingin and flooding. This enabled the river to overflow and in due time
have gained access to the expanded area of the floodplain. This makes the species on the ground
temporary since the river can have high flows almost 50% of the year due to the Philippines’
geographic location and frequent passing of typhoons.
Moreover, the species, due to its low endemism, are not significant when it comes to
its conservation status. However, these should be maintained so in time, healthy shrubs and
grasses can enable the growth of larger forest trees which will serve as homes for birds and
other creatures. Basically, there were no endangered species of plants were found.

Because of the high accessibility of the floodplain, trees will have a hard time growing
due to frequent erosion in river banks. Thus, trees will have to grow in more steep areas,
however, the growth of the trunks will have to be delayed because of the distance of their roots
to the river. During the ocular inspection few to none were found to be second -growth trees
and only a few of them were lumber trees. Instead, fruit trees can be readily found all over the
area such as the common Filipino fruits marang, santol, jackfruit, mangoes, etc. There were
several lumber trees such as the gmelina, talisay and ipil-ipil, although they still need to have
5-7 years to become fully mature and help expand the forested area. Table 5.5 shows the tree
species found during the ocular survey.
Figure 5.7 Quadrat Sampling along Bao River

5.4.2 Fauna

Although there are several faunal species conserved in the island of Leyte, most of them
are can now only be found in the southern region. These all include the birds, amphibians,
mammals, reptiles and insects. There were no recorded of high degree of endemism in the
municipality of Kananga because of the lack of presence of forested areas that is a good
breeding grounds for endemic species. Thus, common faunal species are found in the
municipality such as the domesticated ones usually had by farmers for farming and some bird
species that contribute on the normal pollination of trees.
Birds around Bao River are not non-endemic and non-native in the area. However, there
are chances that they might fly around the area to look for food. In a study conducted to evaluate
the environmental impact of a geothermal power plant by EDC, there are at least four (4) birds
that are vulnerable of getting endangered and are decreasing in population, namely, black-
bibbed cicada bird (Coracina mindanensis), Visayan broadbill (Eurylaimus samarensis), little
slaty flycatcher (Ficedula basilanica), and Mindanao bleeding heart (Gallicolumba crinigera).
On the other hand, there’s an endemic bird species flying around Leyte that’s critically
endangered, the Negros bleeding heart (Gallicolumba keayi). All other animals throughout the
data gathering are found to be least concerned such as the Philippine fantail, barn swallow,
Eurasion tree sparrow (maya), chestnut munia, etc.

Table 5.10 Birds around Bao River

Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Status

Alcedo argentata silvery kingfisher
Coracina mindanensis black-bibbed cicada bird •
Eurylaimus samarensis Visayan broadbill •
Rhipidura nigritorquis Philippine fantail •
Gallus gallus red junglefowl •
Turnix worcesteri Worcester's buttonquail •
Streptopelia bitorquata island collared- dove •
Alcedo atthis common kingfisher •
Hirundo rustica barn swallow •
Corvus macrorhynchos large billed-crow •
Megalurus palustris striated grassbird •
Motacilla flava yellow wagtail •
Lanius cristatus brown shrike •
Dicaeum pygmaeum pygmy flowerpecker •
Passer montanus Eurasian tree sparrow •
Lonchura atricapilla chestnut munia •
Ficedula basilanica little slaty flycatcher •
Gallicolumba crinigera Mindanao bleeding-heart •
Gallicolumba keayi Negros bleeding heart •
Data deficient Least Concern Vulnerable Critically Endangered
 Fauna species found in the island of Leyte can be generally divided into two - volant
(flying mammals) and non-volant (non-flying mammals). Since there were no significant areas
where volant mammals can thrive such as tall trees, caves and dilapidated earthen walls in the
area, bats aren’t found along Bao River as often as they are in other places. Thus, there will be
no significant disturbances can be made to these mammals. Most of them visiting in the area
are thriving in nearby barangays who have convenient places to live in for bats.

On the other hand, most of non-volant mammals are found around Bao River not as
natural and free-roaming animals but as domesticated ones. Since there are no huge cover and
forested areas along it, worsened by the presence of human communities nearby, wild animals
seldom thrive around Bao River. Based from interviews to the locals, only common and
domesticated animals such as Philippine water buffalos (Bubalus bubalis carabanesis),
Philippine cattle (Bos taurus) and goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) are commonly roaming
around the area. However, some say that wild animals such as the Philippine warty pigs (Sus
philippensis), Philippine forest rats (Rattus everetti) and Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus )can be seen, and sometimes trapped by the locals.

Table 5.11 Mammals along Bao River

Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Status
Sus philippensis Philippine warty pig
Rattus everetti Philippine forest rat •
Bubalus bubalis carabanesis Carabao •
Capra aegagrus hircus Goats •
Bos taurus Cows •
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus common palm civet •
Eonycteris spelaea dawn bat •
Macroglossus minimus Dagger-toothed Long-nosed Fruit Bat •
Cynocephalus volans Flying Lemur •
Macaca fascicularis Long-tailed Macaque •
Rusa mariana Philippine Deer •
Tarsius syrichta Philippine Tarsier •
Data deficient Least Concern Near threatened Vulnerable Critically Endangered

In terms of aquatic animals, River Bao is not a highly dense aquatic community with
low specie density due to its exposure to human civilizations. Aquatic animals found in the
river are predominantly composed of small tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), snails (Cornu
aspersum), and Philippine freshwater shrimps (Macrobrachium spp.). Reptiles like Flat-
Bodied House Gecko (Cosymbotus platyurus), emerald tree skink (Lamprolepis smaragdina)
and the well-known Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko) dominate the area since they are not forest-
dependent animals. Surely, there might be some species of skinks, lizards and geckos in the
area, but according to the study conducted by the DENR and FMENCNS, a low level of
endemism is found in the rest of the Leyte Island except for some areas described in Figure 5.8
showing the species distribution that are significantly affected by the presence of 23 trigger
species that include 12 tree species, 5 birds species and 6 amphibian species that are forest –
dependent.
Figure 5.8 Species Distribution Map of Leyte Island

5.5 Findings

Leyte Island is composed of 233,770 ha of pristine forest, 152,083 ha of degraded forest

and 323,062 ha of non-forest areas. Of these figures, Kananga is part of the non-forest areas
that was heavily affected by human intervention converting forest lands to agricultural in the
last four decades. The Northern Leyte as described in the maps presented earlier, displays a
fact that biodiversity around Kananga is was effectively neutralized by the absence of forest
areas making wild species of both animals and plants have a difficulty thriving. Thus, those
areas in Northern Leyte have higher tolerance to any industrial development and environmental
disturbance due to the current ecological setting it has in the present. Furthermore, the
following are the findings of the ecological assessment done along Bao River:
 There is a high recorded diversity of floral species along the assessed riparian
environment in Bao River;
 There is a low floral species distribution at 0.93 Simpson Index along the assessed
riparian environment in Bao River;
 There are about 3,060 floral species listed during the survey along Bao River;
 There were no recorded endemic, endangered and vulnerable species thriving in
Kananga and Ormoc that can be significantly affected by any flow changes in Bao
River.
 The floodplains can be easily accessible for the water along the Bao River that could
inundate the area causing the unstable presence of floral species in the area.
 The river has fish and other aquatic animals thriving in such as the Philippine freshwater
shrimp;
More importantly, the recurring threats to the environment that’s bring forth by land
conversion would not help in making sure that environmental stability will be achieved soon.
The development of a hydropower plant in the area, as it will be reinforced by more
environmental impact assessment and environmental development in the form of planting more
floral species upstream, can have a positive impact to the propagation of both floral and faunal
species.