Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Ore Geology Reviews

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ASTER capability in mapping of mineral resources of arid region: A review

on mapping of mineral resources of the Sultanate of Oman
⁎
Sankaran Rajendrana, , Sobhi Nasirb
a
Department of Earth Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-khod, 123 Muscat, Oman
b
Earth Science Research Centre, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-khod, 123 Muscat, Oman

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) has exclusive capability to map
ASTER mapping minerals and ore deposits, and able to discriminate rock types useful for geological applications. Especially, the
Image processing improved spectral and spatial resolutions of spectral bands of the sensor are well utilized by the exploration
Mineral resources geologists working on arid region where the surface deposits are directly exposed to the sensor without dis-
Arid region
turbances of the vegetation. Several, fruitful research studies have been carried out to map mineral resources in
Sultanate of Oman
arid region with inaccessible rugged mountains and deserts area, where it is difficult to do conventional geo-
logical mapping. These were demonstrated and documented in the scientific publications using the ASTER
spectral bands and image processing methods. This study reviews scientific literatures published on mapping of
the economic mineral resources of the Sultanate of Oman using ASTER and simples image processing methods.

1. Introduction their spatial resolution is 90 m. Moreover, ASTER records the data in

Remotely sensed satellite data are being used effectively in several
geological applications which includes lithological mapping, explora-
tion of non-metals, precious and or economic minerals and hydrocarbon
deposits. Importantly, the freely available data in the shortwave in-
frared (SWIR) and thermal infra-red (TIR) wavelengths regions of
moderate spatial resolution multispectral sensors like the Advanced
Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and
Landsat are capable to map minerals and discriminate different litho-
logical formations. ASTER has relatively improved spatial and spectral
resolutions. It measures 1) the visible reflected radiation in three
spectral bands between 0.52 and 0.86 µm in the visible near infrared
(VINIR) region and have 15 m spatial resolution useful to assess the
vegetation and iron-oxide minerals in surface of the soils and rocks, 2)
the infrared reflected radiation in six spectral bands between 1.6 and
2.43 µm in the shortwave infrared (SWIR) region and have 30-m spatial
resolution able to map surface mineralogy viz. i) the band 4 centered at
the 1.65 μm has potential to show maximum reflectivity of most of the
rocks and minerals and ii) the bands 5–9 between the 2.1 and 2.4 μm
characteristic to map many –OH bearing silicate and carbonate mi-
nerals of interest to the exploration geologist, and 3) the thermal in-
frared radiation in five spectral bands between 8.12 and 11.65 µm in
thermal infrared (TIR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum are
useful for defining surface temperature and silica contents, although
band 3B (0.76–0.86 µm) with a backward looking sensor, that enables
the calculation of digital elevation model (DEM). Table 1 provides the
characteristics of the ASTER and more details of the sensor and its
platform can be referred in Fujisada (1995), Rajendran et al. (2011,
2012), Rajendran and Nasir (2015a,b; 2014a,b,c; 2013a,b), Rajendran
(2016) and http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/content/03_data/04_
Documents/aster_user_guide_v2.pdf.
Several research studies proved capability of the ASTER sensor and
potential of image processing methods include developing false color
combination (FCC), band ratios, decorrelation stretching, principal
component analysis (PCA), spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral in-
formation divergence (SID), linear spectral unmixing (LSU) etc. to
discriminate rock types and to map minerals and ore deposits useful in
the geological applications. Especially, the wavelengths regions are
highly used for mapping of ore deposits like the Cr, Cu, Mn, Au, Ag, Pb,
Zn, and Ba, and the industrial minerals namely limestone, dolomite,
clay, gypsum, kaolin, magnesite, marble, and silica, and the rock types
of kimberlite, ophiolite sequence, metamorphic sole, carbonate plat-
form, Tertiary and Quaternary rock formations occurring in arid region
(Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Rajendran et al., 2017; Rajendran, 2016;
Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a,b, 2014a,b,c, 2013a,b; Alimohammadi
et al., 2015; El Janati et al., 2014; Hosseinjani Zadeh et al., 2014a,b,
2013; Rajendran et al., 2014, 2013a,b, 2012, 2011; Pour and Hasim,
2012; Bedini, 2011; Hosseinjani and Tangestani, 2011; Pour et al.,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rajendra@squ.edu.om (S. Rajendran).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.014
Received 29 March 2017; Received in revised form 29 March 2018; Accepted 10 April 2018
0169-1368/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Sankaran, R., Ore Geology Reviews (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2018.04.014
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Sensor characteristics of ASTER instruments.
Sensors characteristics ASTER

VNIR SWIR TIR

Spectral bands with range (µm) Band 01 0.52–0.60 Band 04 1.6–1.7 Band 10 8.125–8.475
Nadir looking
Band 02 0.63–0.69 Band 05 2.145–2.185 Band 11 8.475–8.825
Nadir looking
Band 03N 0.76–0.86 Band 06 2.185–2.225 Band 12 8.925–9.275
Nadir looking
Band 03B 0.76–0.86 Band 07 2.235–2.285 Band 13 10.25–10.95
Backward looking Band 08 2.295–2.365 Band 14 10.95–11.65
Band 09 2.36–2.43
Spatial Resolution (m) 15 30 90
Swath width (km) 60 60 60
Radiometric Resolution (bits) 8 8 12
Cross Track Pointing ± 318 km ( ± 24 deg) ± 116 km ( ± 8.55 deg) ± 116 km ( ± 8.55 deg)

Table 2
Commonly used ASTER spectral indices (after Gozzard, 2006).
Feature Band or ratio Comments Reference

Iron
Ferric iron, Fe3+ 2/1 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Ferrous iron, Fe2+ 5/3 + 1/2 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Gossan 4/2 – Volesky et al. (2003)

Carbonates–mafic minerals
Carbonate–chlorite–epidote (7 + 9)/8 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Dolomite (6 + 8)/7 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Calcite and Dolomite 13/14 Heavily affected by atmospheric water Ninomiya and Fu (2001), Ninomiya et al. (2005)

Silicates
Sericite–muscovite–illite–smectite (5 + 7)/6 Phyllic alteration Rowan and Mars (2003)
Alunite–kaolinite–pyrophyllite (4 + 6)/5 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
Alteration 4/5 – Volesky et al. (2003)
Host rock 5/6 – Volesky et al. (2003)
Mafic Minerals 12/13 Inversely correlated with SiO2 content in silicate rocks Ninomiya and Fu (2001)
Mafic Minerals (improved) (12 × 14 × 14)/(13 × 13 × 13) Inversely correlated with SiO2 content in silicate rocks Ninomiya (2002), Ninomiya et al. (2005)

Silica
Quartz-rich rocks 14/12 – Rowan and Mars (2003)
SiO2 13/12 Same as 14/12 –
Quartz rich/feldspar poor rocks (11 × 11)/(10 × 12) Quite low value for gypsum Ninomiya and Fu (2001), Ninomiya et al. (2005)
SiO2 content (improved) (12 × 14 × 14)/(13 × 13 × 13) Lower value for higher SiO2 content Ninomiya (2002), Ninomiya et al. (2005)

Additional
Gypsum (11 × 11)/(10 × 12) As low value Ninomiya and Fu (2003)
Ninomiya et al. (2005)

Others
Vegetation 3/2 – –
NDVI (3–2)/(3 + 2) Normalized difference–vegetation index

2011; Tangestani et al., 2011; Mars and Rowan, 2010; Amer et al.,
2010; Corrie et al., 2010; Gabr et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2007; Di
Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007; Azizi et al., 2007; Crosta et al., 2003;
Mars and Rowan, 2006; Rowan and Mars, 2003; Abdeen et al., 2001,
2002, 2009). Such applications of ASTER are under consideration of
mining companies, exploration geologists, industrialists and mine
owners for cost-benefit exploration and characterization of such eco-
nomic important minerals, ore deposits and rock types. This study re-
views scientific literatures published on the applicability of the ASTER
data to such economic minerals resources, especially on parts of the
Sultanate of Oman, in the vision to understand capability of the sensor
and to make use the spectral bands further among the scientific com-
munities working in the field of mineral exploration and exploitation in
the arid region. Importantly, this study discusses the unique spectral
absorption characters of such resources and mapping methods to the
exploration geologists, industrialists and mine owners to avoid their
ambiguity for more exploration of similar deposits occurred in the arid
region.
2. ASTER for mineral exploration
As stated above, the VNIR, SWIR and TIR spectral bands of ASTER
are useful for mapping of minerals and lithology. In detail, the three
VNIR bands have important sources of information about absorption of
transition metals, especially the iron and some rare-earth elements
(REE) (Rowan et al., 1986), and for chlorophyll absorption of vegeta-
tion (Knipling, 1970). The increase of six bands in the SWIR region (two
spectral bands for Landsat vs. six spectral bands for ASTER) capable to
display molecular absorption features of many silicate, carbonate, hy-
drate and hydroxide minerals, and enhances surface lithological map-
ping by overtones and combination of tones (Hunt, 1977). As well as,
the five TIR spectral bands of ASTER are used by scientists to calculate
surface temperature and emissivities especially, to map important rock-
forming minerals including quartz and feldspar which do not exhibit
absorption features in the VNIR and SWIR regions, and display funda-
mental molecular absorption features in the TIR wavelength region
(Hunt and Salisbury, 1976, 1975). In 2006, Gozzard explained the

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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir
Table 3
Commonly used band/band ratios in ASTER False Color Composites.
Features Red
Vegetation and visible bands 3, 3/2, or NDVI
Vegetation, iron oxide and clay minerals 3/2
Gossan, alteration, host rock 4/2 (gossan)
Gossan, alteration, host rock 6 (gossan)
Albite granite 12/13
Silica, carbonate, mafic–ultramafic rock and gypsum (11 × 11)/(10 × 12)
Discrimination for mapping 4/1
Discrimination in sulphide-rich areas 12
Discrimination 4/7
Discrimination 4/7
Discrimination of ophiolite rocks (2 + 4)/3
Discrimination of peridotite 8 3
Listwaenite alteration zone 9/8
Silica, Fe2+ 14/12
Enhanced structural features 7 4
many OH-bearing minerals and carbonate minerals have absorption
features can be identified in the ASTER bands 5–9 in the SWIR region in
interest to geologists include 1) the Alunite–pyrophyllite minerals –
significant in mineral exploration because they can define areas of ar-
gillic alteration, 2) Kaolin-group minerals – also significant in mineral
exploration because they are useful in helping to define argillic al-
teration and mapping regolith, 3) Illite–muscovite–smectite minerals –
common minerals in the surficial environment useful for mapping re-
golith (they are also associated with both phyllic and argillic alteration)
and 4) Mg-OH minerals and carbonates – major components of many
lithological units. In 2012, Pour and Hasim reviewed the scientific lit-
eratures and documented about significance of the ASTER spectral
bands to map porphyry copper and epithermal gold deposits. The fol-
lowing Tables 2–4 provide details about similar features and the bands
and bands ratios developed using the ASTER spectral bands by research
scientists, which can be used to map such features (Gozzard, 2006).
More descriptions can be referred on the relevant published literatures
(Hewson et al., 2001, 2002, 2004a,b; Rowan and Mars, 2003; Bierwith,
2002; Volesky et al., 2003; Ninomiya, 2002; Abrams et al., 1983).
3. Economic mineral resources of Oman
In the Sultanate of Oman, the mountains host large numbers of
economically viable industrial rocks and minerals and ore resources.
Geologically, the Oman Mountains are distinct from the remainder of
the Arabian Peninsula, being part of the Alpine–Himalayan fold belt
that extends from the Western Mediterranean to the Far East result from
obduction to the southwest of Cretaceous Tethyan oceanic lithosphere
over both autochthonous and allochthonous carbonate platform se-
quences (Partington, 2010; Close and Gordon, 2003; Bucher et al.,
1988; Ghent and Stout, 1981; Searle and Malpas, 1980). The region
contain potential economic minerals resources including occurrences of
the major petroleum and ore deposits such as Cr, Cu, Mn, Au, Ag, Pb,
Zn, and Ba, and the industrial minerals namely limestone, dolomite,
clay, gypsum, kaolin, magnesite, marble and silica (Fig. 1; Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, 2012). Mapping of such minerals resources
and associated rock types through conventional geological techniques
including the study of landforms, extensive fieldwork, structural map-
ping, collection of more samples, petrography and geochemical ana-
lyses here are tedious, expensive and time-consuming for economic
exploration in this arid region which have extremely rugged topo-
graphy.
Occurrences of prospective chrome, nickel and Cyprus-type volca-
nogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits are well exposed in the Semail
Ophiolite Belt of Oman (Partington, 2010; Close and Gordon, 2003).
These occur as clusters with pyritic copper-rich mounds with gold
bearing gossans overlying lower grade feeder systems within the
Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Green Blue Reference
2 1 –
4/1 4/6 Xu et al. (2004)
4/5 (alteration) 5/6 (host rock) Volesky et al. (2003)
2 (alteration) 1 (host rock) –
11/12 14/13 Aboelkhair et al. (2010)
13/14 (12 × 14 × 14)/(13 × 13 × 13) Ninomiya (2002),
Ninomiya et al. (2005)
3/1 12/14 –
5 3 –
4/1 (2/3) × (4/3) –
4/3 2/1 Abrams and Hook (1995)
(5 + 7)/6 (7 + 9)/8 Amer et al. (2010)
1 Rajendran et al. (2014)
4/3 2/1 Rajendran et al. (2013b)
(1/2) + (5/3) MNF band 1 Rowan and Mars (2003)
2 Rowan and Mars (2003)
footwall basalts (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Hayman et al., 2015;
Galley et al., 2007; Close and Gordon, 2003; Galley and Koski, 1999;
Taylor and McLennan, 1985). Also, chromite mineralizations are
widespread in the ultramafic rocks of the Semail massifs, near the Moho
transition zone (MTZ) and/or even slightly deeper within the mantle
(Close and Gordon, 2003). The deposits are occurs as individual lenses
and varies in texture from podiform to veins. Massive chromite samples
of this region have Cr2O3 content ranging from 31.5 to 54.61 wt% with
Cr:Fe ratio from 1.84:1 to 2.96:1 (Annells, 1989). There are economic
potential stratiform manganese deposits occurred within the radi-
olarian cherts of Wahrah Formation belongs to the Late Jurassic-Cre-
taceous age in the NE margin of Oman (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a;
Kickmaier, 1995; Kickmaier and Peters, 1990; Peters, 1988). Also,
several research studies showed for presence of the base metals namely
barium, copper, lead and zinc in the listwaenites (hydrothermally al-
tered rock) occurred in thrust fault zone of parts of the Semail ophiolite
of the Oman (Rajendran et al., 2013a; Partington, 2010; Nasir et al.,
2007; Searle and Malpas, 1980).
As well as, the occurrence of economically viable industrial rocks
namely limestone, dolomite, chalky dolomite, marble, clay, gypsum
and kaolinite are being mined in parts of Oman and are well docu-
mented by Ministries of Minerals and Mining, Government of Oman.
Limestones are mostly formed by calcite and dolomite minerals and
widely used in construction material, mortar and cement, fertilizer, and
flux for smelting of iron ores (Hamilton et al., 1995). The minerals have
significance in petroleum geology in increasing the porosity of reservoir
rock by 12% during dolomitization, which is more suitable for oil re-
servoirs (Racey, 2001; Van der Meer, 1994, 1995; Hughes Clarke,
1988). The substitution process of the minerals by other minerals in
calc-silicates consisted of garnet and pyroxene produces skarns and
granitic rocks, which are a source of valuable mineral deposits such as
copper, gold, iron, lead, zinc, and or tungsten (Van der Meer, 1994,
1995). Marl is a calcium carbonate or lime-rich mud consist mixture of
clay (35–65%) and calcium carbonate (65–35%) formed under fresh-
water conditions (Pettijohn, 1957). It is used mostly for agricultural
purposes as soil conditioner or acid soil neutralizing agent. The beds of
marlstone have massive and appear to lack an orientated fabric are used
as ashlar and rubble stone, walling for local buildings, church walls,
quoins and buttresses. The occurrence of limestones and marls in parts
of the Sultanate of Oman are described in different studies (Rajendran
and Nasir, 2014b,c; Rajendran et al., 2011; Beavington Penny et al.,
2006; Jones and Desrochers, 1992). The marbles, ‘the exotic limestones’
of Oman are occurred in a large number of places in the country as
“isolated blocks” within the Hawasina formation. These are used ex-
tensively as ornamental stone as tiles and slabs in the Oman buildings
and industries, and exported to nearby countries (Rajendran et al.,
2017; Searle and Graham, 1982; Wilson, 1969). There are small-scale
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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Minerals occurrence map of the Sultanate of Oman (Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Oman 2012).

4
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir
occurrences of clay, gypsum and kaolinite deposits, which need to map
and explore for economic exploitation in the rugged terrain. Use of
ASTER spectral bands to map and explore such economic mineral re-
sources is significant in the Sultanate of Oman (Rajendran et al., 2012,
Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2014; Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a, 2014a,b,c;
Clénet et al., 2010; Kusky et al., 2005; Abrams et al., 1988; Rothery,
1987a,b; Abrams, 1986).
4. Spectral characteristics of minerals
In the spectroscopy of minerals or rocks, a certain wavelength re-
gions of incident light are absorbed, some are reflected, and some are
transmitted depending on the chemistry and crystal structure of the
minerals or textures and minerals of the rocks. Absorption of energy in
the minerals results from electronic vibration processes of molecules.
The processes include crystal field effects, charge transfers, conduction
bands and color centres, and involve stretching, bending and rotation
(Ramakrishnan and Bharti, 2015; Rajendran et al., 2009; Hunt, 1982,
1977; Hunt et al., 1971, 1974). Molecular vibration-related spectral
absorption is characteristic of functional groups and is useful in iden-
tifying minerals (Rajendran et al., 2009). Spectral absorption features of
minerals such as silicates, oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulfides, ni-
trates and borates are well established by Hunt (1977, 1982) and Hunt
et al., (1971) and identification of these minerals is possible. For ex-
ample, the presence of ferrous iron (Fe2+) in weathered surface pro-
duces absorptions centered at about 0.45 μm, 1.0–1.1 μm, 1.8–1.9 μm,
and 2.2–2.3 μm, depending on its lattice environment. The ferric iron
(Fe3+) produces absorptions at about 0.65 μm and 0.87 μm. The vi-
brational processes, which cause visible and short-wavelength infrared
absorptions, are bending and stretching vibrations of bonds within ra-
dicals or molecules. On igneous rock surfaces, the most important are
due to Al–OH and Mg–OH in clays, micas, amphiboles and serpentine.
Al–OH produces absorptions centered at about 2.2 μm, whereas Mg–OH
produces features at about 2.3 μm (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017;
Rajendran et al., 2011; Rowan and Mars, 2011; Abrams et al., 1988).
These carbonate rocks are predominantly formed by calcite (CaCO3)
and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) minerals (compare to other type of car-
bonate minerals such as siderite (FeCO3), magnesite (MgCO3), arago-
nite (CaCO3), ankerite CaFe (CO3)2, and rhodochrosite (MnCO3) etc.) in
different proportion and have a diagnostic spectral absorption feature
to distinguish each other (Clark, 1999; Van der Meer, 1995; Gaffey,
1987, 1986, 1985; Crowley, 1986; Hunt and Salisbury, 1971). The
earlier study on absorption features of the carbonate minerals in the
SWIR band (Van der Meer, 1994; Gaffey, 1987, 1986; Hunt and
Salisbury, 1971; Huang and Kerr, 1960) shows a significant difference
in the precise position of calcite and dolomite absorptions. Hunt and
Salisbury (1971) found the calcite absorption centered at 2.35 μm and
dolomite is at 2.33 μm. Gaffey (1987, 1986) reported that the absorp-
tion of calcite is centered between 2.33 and 2.34 μm and dolomite is in
between 2.31 and 2.32 μm. In 1994, Van der Meer concluded that
calcite absorption is centered at 2.3465 μm and dolomite is at
2.3039 μm. Recent studies carried out by Rajendran and Nasir (2013b),
Rajendran et al. (2013a), Mars and Rowan (2010) and Combe et al.
(2006) show that the calcite and dolomite (end members of series) can
be distinguished and identified by variations in their absorptions be-
tween 2.33 and 2.45 μm. As well as, the work of Huang and Kerr (1960)
indicates that calcite and dolomite have a strong absorption positions at
11.40 and 11.35 μm respectively in the TIR wavelength region. Reig
et al. (2002) has drawn attention through FTIR spectroscopy and de-
termined absorption features of calcite at 875 cm−1 (11.43 μm) and
712 cm−1 (14.04 μm) and dolomite at 881 cm−1 (11.35 μm) and
730 cm−1 (13.70 μm). In addition, identification of minerals is carried
out using the several ASTER spectral indices (Ninomiya et al., 2005).
Ninomiya (2003a,b,c) and Ninomiya and Fu (2002) defined a vegeta-
tion index and mineralogic indices for ASTER VNIR and SWIR bands, as
well as lithologic indices for ASTER TIR bands by considering the
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Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
spectral absorption features of vegetation and different minerals and
rocks in ASTER spectral channels. The important indices are
Band3 ⎞ ⎛ Band1 ⎞
Stabilized Vegetation Index (StVI) = ⎛
⎝ Band2 ⎠ ⎝ Band2 ⎠ (1)
Band7 ⎞ ⎛ Band4 ⎞
OH bearing altered minerals Index (OHI) = ⎛
⎝ Band6 ⎠ ⎝ Band6 ⎠ (2)
Band4 ⎞ ⎛ Band8 ⎞
Kaolinite Index (KLI) = ⎛
⎝ Band5 ⎠ ⎝ Band6 ⎠ (3)
Band7 ⎞ ⎛ Band7 ⎞
Alunite Index (ALI) = ⎛
⎝ Band5 ⎠ ⎝ Band8 ⎠ (4)
Band6 ⎞ ⎛ Band9 ⎞
Calcite Index (CLI) = ⎛
⎝ Band8 ⎠ ⎝ Band8 ⎠ (5)
(Band11∗Band11)
Quartz Index (QI) =
(Band10∗Band12) (6)
Band13 ⎞
Carbonate Index (CI) = ⎛
⎝ Band14 ⎠ (7)
Band12 ⎞
Mafic Index (MI) = ⎛
⎝ Band13 ⎠ (8)
Literatures review provides the spectral absorption characters of the
minerals and bearing rocks of the Sultanate of Oman (Kusky et al.,
2005; Abrams et al., 1988; Rothery, 1987a, b; Abrams, 1986). Abrams
et al. (1988) provided the spectra of serpentinite, which showed a re-
latively flat spectral response in which the shallow feature at 0.45 μm is
due to ferric iron and the broader absorption centered near 0.9 μm or
around 1.0 μm is due to ferrous iron. The rather sharp band at 2.3 μm is
due to vibrational processes of Mg–OH, and hydration effects are shown
by the absorption near 1.4 μm. Clénet et al., (2010) and Combe et al.,
(2006) showed spectral absorption characters of harzburgite and
gabbro of the Samail ophiolite in the hyperspectral region. The spectral
absorption characters of major economic minerals resources, miner-
alized zones and associated rocks viz. carbonate platform, ophiolite
sequence, metamorphic sole, Tertiary and Quaternary formations of
Oman have been well described by Rajendran and Nasir (2017),
Rajendran et al. (2017), Rajendran (2016), Rajendran and Nasir
(2015a,b, 2014a,b,c, 2013a,b), Rajendran et al. (2014, 2013a,b, 2012,
2011). Importantly, they well described the unique spectral absorptions
characters of 1) the minerals of the chromite mineralized rock and as-
sociated ophiolite sequence (Rajendran et al., 2012), 2) the minerals of
the VMS deposit (Fig. 2; Rajendran and Nasir, 2017), 3) the mineral of
the manganese ores (Fig. 3; Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a), 4) the mi-
nerals of the base metals rich listwaenite and associated rocks (Fig. 4;
Rajendran et al., 2013a), 5) the minerals of the REE rich carbonatite
and aillikite ultramafic lamprophyres (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013b), 6)
the minerals of the limestones (Figs. 2, 4 and 5; Rajendran and Nasir,
2015a, 2014b,c, 2013b; Rajendran et al., 2017, 2014, 2013a, 2011), 7)
the minerals of the industrial marble (Rajendran et al., 2017), 8) the
minerals of the source rock for oil occurrences (Rajendran, 2016), 9)
the minerals of the serpentinization and ophiolite sequence (Fig. 6;
Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a), 10) the minerals of the metamorphic sole
rocks (Fig. 7; Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a) and 11) the minerals of rocks
of the Moho and Moho Transition Zone (Rajendran and Nasir, 2015b)
using i) the spectra stacked from the USGS and JPL Spectral Libraries
for minerals, ii) the spectra derived over satellite image and iii) the
spectra measured in the laboratory over the minerals and rocks samples
of the Oman. Also, to show the capability of TIR spectral bands of
ASTER sensor, Rajendran et al. (2011) and Rajendran (2016) used the
QI, CI and MI and showed the distribution of major minerals of rock
types occurred in and around of Saih Hatat Window and part of the
Huqf region. Recently, Rajendran and Nasir (2017) used OH bearing
altered mineral Index (OHI), Kaolinite Index (KLI), Alunite Index (ALI),
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 4. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the listwaenite and
Fig. 2. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the hydrothermal
associated rocks stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals
alteration zones associated to VMS deposit stacked from the USGS Spectral
(Rajendran et al., 2013b).
Library for minerals (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017).

Olivine

Zone of iron
absorption
Hypersthene
Enstatite

Augite
Diopside
Serpentine

Antigorite
Chrysotile
Lizardite
Line of Mg-OH and
Brucite
CO3absorption
Fig. 3. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the manganese
deposit stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals (Rajendran and
Nasir, 2013a).
Magnesite

and Calcite Index (CLI) indices to discriminate alteration zones asso-

ciated with VMS deposits occurred near Sohar–Shinas region of the Talc

Sultanate of Oman. They well studied such absorptions characters with Line of OH and
spectral bands of the ASTER as summarized in Section 6. H2O absorption
Magnetite

5. Image processing methods

Many authors have used different image processing methods such as

band ratioing, decorrelation stretching, Principal Component Analysis Fig. 5. Shows the spectral absorptions of minerals associated to the serpenti-
(PCA) and Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM, supervised classification nization stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals (Rajendran and
method) etc. to discriminate different lithology, structures, alteration Nasir, 2014c).
zones and detecting of minerals of arid region using different satellite

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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir
Fig. 6. Shows the spectral absorptions of major minerals of the metamorphic
rocks stacked from the USGS Spectral Library for minerals (Rajendran and
Nasir, 2015a).
images including images of the Landsat TM and ETM, ASTER and hy-
perspectral sensors (Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a, b, 2014a, c;
Rajendran et al., 2013a, b; Tangestani et al., 2011; Amer et al., 2010;
Clénet et al., 2010; Gabr et al., 2010; Tangestani et al., 2008; Khan and
Mahmood, 2008; Rown et al., 2006, 2005; Galvao et al., 2005; Ferrier
et al., 2002; Ninomiya, 2002; Abdelsalam and Stern, 2000; Crósta and
Moore, 1989). More details of these methods can be referred in relevant
scientific literatures published. Importantly, the methods used in dis-
crimination of the rock types and detecting the minerals of rocks in-
cludes 1) band ratios (Rajendran and Nasir, 2015b, 2014a; Rajendran
et al., 2012; Gad and Kusky, 2007; Ninomiya et al., 2005, Ninomiya,
2003a,b, 2002; Abdeen et al., 2002; Matthews and Jones, 1992; Sultan
et al., 1987), 2) decorrelation stretching (Rajendran, 2016; Rajendran
and Nasir, 2015a, 2014c, 2013b, Rajendran et al., 2012; Philip et al.,
2003; Matthews and Jones, 1992; Abrams et al., 1988; Rothery,
1987a,b,c; Gillespie et al., 1986), 3) false color composites (Rajendran
and Nasir, 2015a; Rajendran et al., 2014, 2013a; Harding et al., 1989),
4) IHS transformation (Philip et al., 2003) and 5) principal components
analysis (Rajendran, 2016; Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a; Rajendran
et al., 2014, Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2012, 2011; Amer et al., 2010;
Gabr et al., 2010; Azizi et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2007; Crósta and Filho,
2003; Rokos et al., 2000; Richards and Xiuping, 1998; Loughlin, 1991;
7
Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 7. ASTER principal components image (R:PC5, G:PC4 and B:PC2) shows
the rocks of ophiolite sequence and zone of chromite mineralization in and
around of Wadi Fizh of the Sultanate of Oman (E- Basic extrusives mostly spi-
lites with pillow lava or conglomerate; D- Diabase dyke swarms; G- Gabbro; HG-
Gabbroid hypabyssal rocks; PG- Cumulate layered gabbro; P and CD- Sheared
serpentinized harzburgite; Rajendran et al., 2012).
Crósta and Moore, 1989).
Also, the endmember based image processing methods like 1)
spectral angle mapper Rajendran, 2016; Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a, b;
Rajendran et al., 2014, 2013a; Gabr et al., 2010; Hecker et al., 2008;
Khan et al., 2007; Khan and Glenn, 2006; Rowan et al., 2005; Kruse
et al., 1993; Yuhas et al., 1992), 2) spectral information divergence (El
Janati et al., 2014; Xu and Zhao, 2008), 3) linear spectral unmixing
(Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Abuzied et al., 2016) and 4) mixture tuned
matched filtering (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Hosseinjani Zadeh et al.,
2013, 2014b; Hosseinjani and Tangestani, 2011) are used successfully
to detect minerals and discriminate rock types of the arid region. The
significance of such methods and algorithms are well described and
demonstrated by Farrand and Harsanyi (1994, 1997), Resmini et al.
(1997), Boardman (1998), Boardman et al. (1995), Ellis and Scott
(2004), Bishop et al. (2011) and Hosseinjani Zadeh (2008).
6. Absorption characters of ASTER spectral bands and mapping of
mineral resources of the Oman in the arid region
6.1. Minerals mapping
i. Spectral absorptions of minerals of the chromite mineralized rock and
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

associated ophiolite sequence: Economically viable chromite deposit oc-

Sea water
currences are widespread in the ultramafic rocks of Semail ophiolite EHT2 intrusions

massifs of the northern Oman Mountains, particularly in the basal du- EHT2 Qe
nite and harzburgite unit of the mantle section. In 1988, Abrams et al. PKHD
Qe
collected spectra over the samples of non-weathered ophiolite litholo-
gies and studied spectral absorption characters of the rocks (Ref. Qf Mn
EHT3
PKHD
Section 4). Cloutis et al. (2004) stated that the Cr content has depth of PKHD
absorption near 0.55 μm and the best correlations exist between Cr
content and wavelength positions at 0.49, 0.59, 2, 17.5, and 23 μm in
PKHD
the absorption bands. In 2012, Rajendran et al. mapped the chromite
EHT2 Qf
bearing mineralized zones in the Semail ophiolite massifs of the
TRKAR PKHD
northern Oman Mountains using ASTER data. They discussed the
TRKAR
spectral absorption characters and studied the published band ratios PKHD
(Abdeen et al., 2001; Bedell, 2001; Hewson et al., 2001; Rowan and
TRKAR Qe
Mars, 2003; Rowan et al., 2003; Volesky et al., 2003; Amer et al., 2010). PKHD PKHD
They used ASTER band ratios 1) the (4/7, 4/1, 2/3 * 4/3) and (4/7, 3/ PKHD
4, 2/1) (Abdeen et al., 2001), 2) the ((2 + 4)/3, (5 + 7)/6, (7 + 9)/8)
(Amer et al., 2010) and delineated the zone of chromite mineralization TRKAR
and associated rocks of ophiolite sequence of the study area. Further, TRKAR
they used the VNIR-SWIR spectral bands of ASTER, processed by the Qf
PCA methods, and discussed the zone of mineralization by producing Qf Qb
RGB image using principal components PC5, PC4 and PC2 (Fig. 8).ii.
TRKAR
Spectral absorptions of minerals of the alteration zones associated VMS TRKAR
deposits: VMS deposits are formed due to volcanism-related hydro-
thermal activities in submarine environments. These deposits are main
source for the Cu, Zn, Pb, Au and Ag ores occurred in hydrothermally
altered mineralized zones namely oxidized, propylitic, phyllic and ar- Fig. 9. ASTER principal components image (R:PC3, G:PC2 and B:PC1) shows
the occurrence of manganese deposits in Ras Al Hadd region, Oman (Qf –
gillic zones. Thus, mapping of such alteration to zones to explore such
Alluvial; Qb- Sabkhah; Qe-Aeolian; MF2 – Middle Fars Group; MF1 – Lower Fars
economic valuable ores using remotely sensed satellite data is more
Group; EMD – Dhofar Group; EHT3 – Upper Hadhramut Group; EHT2 – Middle
Hadhramut Group; TRKAR – Al Aridh Group; PKHD – Hamrat Duru Group;
Rajendran and Nasir, 2013a).
SE1
SE1 SE1
Cu significant and important. As discussed in the above Sections 2 and 4,
several research studies showed the spectral absorptions of minerals
SE1 Cu
Cu and demonstrated the spectral bands sensitivity of ASTER to map the
Cu minerals and alteration zones. To brief, 1) the hematite and goethite
SE1 Cu major minerals of oxidized zone have broad spectral absorptions be-
Cu
SE2 tween 9.9 and 1.1 μm due to ferrous oxide; 2) the epidote, chlorite, and
SE2
calcite of propylitic zone have absorption features near 2.35 μm due to
Cu Mg-OH and CO3; 3) the kaolin and alunite of argillic zone have nar-
SE1 SE1
Cu rower Al-OH absorptions at 2.17 μm and 4) the illite and sericite of
Cu
phyllic zone have intense Al-OH absorption at 2.20 μm (Fig. 2;
Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Alimohammadi et al., 2015; Pour and
SE2
Hasim, 2012, 2015; Bedini et al., 2009; Carranza and Hall, 2002; Di
Cu
SE1 Tommaso and Rubinstein, 2007; Gabr et al., 2010). The iron oxides of
SE2 oxidized zone have low reflectance in visible and higher reflectance in
Cu
near infrared wavelength region and the electronic processes produced
SE2
such absorptions due to transition of Fe+2 and Fe+3 (Hunt, 1977; Hunt
SE2 et al., 1974) and to map the zone the ASTER spectral band 3 can be used
SE1Cu
Cu to detect the oxidized minerals and to map the zone of oxidation.
Wadi Jizzi SE2
As well as, the hydroxyl-bearing minerals of propylitic, argillic and
SE2
phyllic zones exhibit diagnostic spectral absorption features due to vi-
SE1 SE2
SE1 brational processes of Mg–OH, Al–OH, Si–OH, and CO3 groups in the
SE1 Cu shortwave length infrared region (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Clark
SE2
Ag, Au Cu et al., 1990; Hunt, 1977; Hunt et al., 1974) and thus, the spectral bands
Cu
SE2
4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of ASTER fall in the specific shortwave length regions
Cu SE2 can be used for the identification of such minerals and zones related the
SE1 SE2
VMS deposit (Rajendran and Nasir, 2017; Kruse et al., 2003; Mars and
SE2
SE1
Rowan, 2006; Moore et al., 2008; Perry, 2004; Pour et al., 2011;
Cu SE1
Tangestani and Moore, 2002; Tangestani et al., 2008; Yujun et al.,
2007; Zhang et al., 2007; Azizi et al., 2007).
Fig. 8. ASTER band ratios image (R:(5/3 + 1/2), G:(4 + 6)/5, B:(5 + 7)/6)
Recently, Rajendran and Nasir (2017) used the nine VNIR-SWIR
shows the copper mineralized zones occurred in the Sohar-Shinas region of the spectral bands of ASTER and image processing methods namely dec-
Sultanate of Oman (SE1 and SE2 – extrusives; Cu – copper; Rajendran and orrelation stretching, band ratios, ASTER indices, linear spectral un-
Nasir, 2017). mixing (LSU) and mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF), and

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S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 10. a. ASTER RGB image (R:8, G:3, B:1) and b. the band ratios image (R:9/8, G:4/3, B:2/1), c. the principal components image (R:PC5, G:PC3, B:PC1) and d. the
SAM classified image show the occurrence of rock types, minerals and mineralized zone in part of the Fanjah Saddle of the Sultanate of Oman (Li-listwaenite; TH-
harzburgite; THS-serpentinized harzburgite; CP-cumulate peridotite; CIG-cumulate layered gabbro; RMS-metasediments; Mua-siltstone and silty carbonates; Kh2b-
massive limestone and conglomerate; Dashed Line – thrust fault zone; Rajendran et al., 2013b).

discriminated host rocks, delineated hydrothermal altered mineralized
zones and detected minerals of the different hydrothermal altered zones
namely the oxidized, propylitic, argillic and phyllic zones of the vol-
canogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits occurred between Sohar-
Shinas region of Al-Batina coast of the Sultanate of Oman. They used 1)
the ASTER spectral bands 3, 6, and 8 and decorrelation stretching
method and discriminated extrusive basalts, and the ASTER band ratios
the (5/3 + 1/2) used for iron oxidized zone, the (4 + 6)/5 for the ar-
gillic zone and the (5 + 7)/6 for the phyllic zone and delineated the
mineralized zone (Fig. 9). To confirm the presence of alterations in the
mineralized zone, they utilized ASTER indices viz. OH bearing altered
minerals, kaolin and alunite indices. Moreover, they used the end
members derived based on the spectral angle mapper (SAM) method in
the linear spectral unmixing (LSU) method to detect the different al-
teration zones and showed the occurrences of the oxidized, propylitic,
argillaceous and phyllic zones. They compared the LSU results with the
results of the mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF) method.iii.
Spectral absorptions of minerals of the manganese deposits: Manganese
deposits have favorable spectral absorptions characters for remote
identification. The spectra of minerals of manganese deposit namely
pyrolusite (MnO2), psilomelane (Mn5O10(Ba, H2O)2), manganite (MnO
(OH)) and rhodochrosite (MnCO3) minerals shows spectrally feature-
less, quite low reflectance, strong absorption throughout the entire
visible (0.3–0.7 µm) and reflective in the infrared (0.7–3 µm) spectral
regions (Fig. 3; Ibrahim et al., 2010; Clark et al., 2003; Hunt, 1977;
Hunt and Salisbury, 1971) due to the presence of predominant Mn-O
molecules in its contents. The diagnostic characteristics of manganese
carbonate, namely rhodochrosite (MnCO3) shows strong absorption
features in the visible regions (0.3–0.7 µm) due to the Mn-O bonds and
sharp absorption near 2.3 µm in the infrared region due to the C-O
bonds (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013b; Mars and Rowan, 2010; Abrams
et al., 1988) occurred in its contents. The ASTER spectral bands of VNIR
region can be considered to map the manganese ore deposits.
In 2013, Rajendran and Nasir studied the 14 spectral bands of
ASTER and collected the image spectra over the manganese occurrences
(rich in pyrolusite) of arid region in parts of the Sur region of the
Sultanate of Oman (Peters, 1988; Kickmaier and Peters, 1990;
Kickmaier, 1995). Their study discussed the diagnostic absorption
features of the manganese in the 1 to 9 ASTER spectral bands in VNIR-
SWIR regions which showed low reflectance value due to the absorp-
tion of Mn-O bonds in contrast to 10 to 14 ASTER spectral bands in the
TIR region which showed more reflective due to the emission of energy
from Mn-O bonds of the manganese occurrences. They found absorp-
tion in band 12 in the image due to the contents of silica present in
chert, which is associated with manganese (Ninomiya et al., 2005;
Ninomiya, 2004; Ninomiya, 2003a,b,c; Ninomiya and Fu, 2002). Based

9
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir
on the study of spectral absorptions characters of manganese minerals
and associated rocks, they processed the 9 VNIR-SWIR spectral bands
using the band ratio ((1 + 3)/2, (3 + 5)/4, (5 + 7)/6) and dis-
criminated the presences of manganese and associated lithological
formations. To confirm further such occurrences, they used VNIR-SWIR
spectral bands and analyzed by PCA and developed RGB image using
principal components, the first three high order principal components
(PC3, PC2, and PC1; Fig. 10), and showed the occurrence and dis-
tribution of manganese deposits of the region.iv. Spectral absorptions of
minerals of the base-metal rich listwaenites and associated rocks: Listwae-
nite is hydrothermal alteration products of the mafic and ultramafic
rocks (Kunov et al., 2007; Buisson and Leblanc, 1987; Leblanc, 1986;
Kuleshevich, 1984) composed of quartz, carbonate minerals (calcite,
10
Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Fig. 11. a. ASTER RGB image (R:8; G:4; B:1) shows
the area of serpentinization (light blue to light
brown; dashed line represents the upper boundary of
area of serpentinization), b. SAM classified image
shows the occurrence of hydrothermal altered ser-
pentine minerals (cyan in color) in the serpentinized
zone in part of the Wadi Hibi region, Oman (Gu –
Uralitic gabbro, diorite and quartz diorite; P –
Wehrlite, troctolite, plagioclase – bearing dunite and
olivine bearing pyroxenite; D – Dunite un-
differentiated; TDH – Harzburgite with dunite in
discordant dykes or lenses; TH – Harzburgite with
minor dunite and Ilherzolite; CPG – Cumulate planar
laminated gabbro; CIG – Cumulate layered gabbro;
SD – Sheeted dyke; HG – High – level gabbro; Qtgz –
Recent alluvial fans and wadi alluvium; Qgx –
Ancient alluvial fans, terraces; Rajendran and Nasir,
2014c). (For interpretation of the references to color
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
dolomite, magnesite and ankerite), and/or fuchsite (a Cr–mica) with
sulfides (pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite). The rock is ex-
tremely important worldwide, because it has economic mineralization
including gold, nickel, arsenic, cobalt, wolframite and mercury
(Borojević Šoštarić et al., 2011; Nasir et al., 2007; Tsikouras et al.,
2006; Uçurum and Larson, 1999; Uçurum, 1998; Sherlock and Logan,
1995; Leblanc and Fischer, 1990). Listwaenite can be mapped by un-
derstating the spectral absorptions character of the major carbonate
minerals of the rock namely dolomite (MgCaCO3), calcite (CaCO3) and
magnesite (CaMg(CO3)2) which have significant absorptions near
2.35 μm due to C-O bonds using the ASTER band 8 (Fig. 4; Mars and
Rowan, 2010; Abrams et al., 1988; Hunt, 1977).
Listwaenite occurrences and their spatial distributions in the Fanjah
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 12. Shows the occurrence of carbonatites near Sal, northeastern margin of the Oman. The images of the ASTER VNIR and SWIR spectral bands (RGB image of
bands 3, 2 and 1; band 1 to band 9) show carbonatites in dark and ASTER TIR bands (band 10 to band 14 and RGB image of bands 10, 11, and 12) show carbonatites
in white (Rajendran and Nasir, 2013b).

Saddle of part of the Oman are discriminated and mapped from the
associated rocks using ASTER spectral absorption bands 8
(2.295–2.365 μm), 3 (0.78–0.86 μm) and 1 (0.52–0.60 μm) by genera-
tion of the simple false color composite (FCC) image (Fig. 11a) by
Rajendran et al. (2013a). They studied the spectral absorptions of
carbonates and ferro-magnesian silicate minerals and analyzed ASTER
VNIR and SWIR spectral bands, using band ratios 9/8, 4/3, and 2/1 and
showed clearly the listwaenite occurrence in the region. They chose the
ratio 9/8 to increase the response of the carbonate mineral bearing
rocks, the 4/3 to separate weathered rocks from all the mineralized and

11
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 13. Decorrelated image of ASTER spectral bands

8, 3, 1 shows the occurrence of the Huqf Super Group
Qpy-z Qes
Khf formations (Masirah Bay – Mf; Khufai – Khf; Shuram
Th Shm Qes Qpy-z N
Mf – Shm; Buah – Bu; Silicified breccias – Sb), the Haima
Super Group formation (Thumaylah – Th) and the
Qpy-z
Qes Quaternary formations (Qes, Qcy-z, Qpy-z, Qtz) in
Khf Qcy-z and around of the Khufai Dome, Oman (Rajendran,
Qpy-z Sb Qcy-z 2016).
Qes Qpy-z

Sb
Qpy-z
Khf
Qtz

Mf
Qcy-z
Khf
Khf Bu
Khufai Dome Qtz

Sb Qtz
Qcy-z
Mf Mf

Qpy-z

Qtz
Khf Qtz Qpy-z
Qes
Bu Qpy-z

Shm Shm Qtz

Qpy-z
Bu
Bu
Qpy-z
Qes Shm

Fig. 14. ASTER TIR minerals indices image (R:QI,

Qes G:CI, B:MI) shows the quartz-rich silicate formations
Qpy-z Khf
Shm of Masirah Bay in red orange, the carbonate forma-
Th Qes Qpy-z
Mf tions of Khufai and Buah in the range of blue, the
Qpy-z N silty shale formations of Shuram in cyan and the
Qes Khf Quaternary deposits in mixed purple occurred in and
Qcy-z
around of the Khufai Dome, Oman (Masirah Bay –
Qpy-z Sb
Qes Qpy-z Qcy-z Mf; Khufai – Khf; Shuram – Shm; Buah – Bu; Silicified
breccias – Sb, Thumaylah – Th; Quaternary forma-
Sb tions – Qes, Qcy-z, Qpy-z, Qtz; Rajendran, 2016).
Qpy-z
Khf (For interpretation of the references to color in this
Qtz figure legend, the reader is referred to the web ver-
sion of this article.)
Mf
Qcy-z
Khf
Khf Bu
Khufai Dome Qtz

Sb Qtz
Qcy-z
Mf Mf

Qpy-z

Qtz
Khf Qtz Qpy-z
Qes
Bu Qpy-z

Shm Shm Qtz

Qpy-z
Bu
Bu
Qpy-z
Qes Shm

unaltered rocks and the 2/1 ratio to make an image for mineralized and
the unaltered rock units of the study region (Fig. 11b). In addition, they
used the six SWIR bands and PCA method and showed which principal
component (PC) contains the most information on the mineralized
zones. They studied RGB image of principal components PC5, PC3 and
PC1 (Fig. 11c) and showed the zones of major alterations and miner-
alization’s along the main thrust and fault zones of the Fanjah Saddle.
To confirm the mineralized zones, they used Spectral Angle Mapper
(SAM) and identified the minerals and mineralization in the zones
(Fig. 11d; Rajendran et al., 2013a).v. Spectral absorptions of minerals of
the REE rich carbonatite and aillikite rocks: Ultramafic lamprophyre are
an economic important rock consist high REE concentrates occurred as
small intrusive bodies (3–5 km in diameter) within larger alkaline
complexes characteristics of intraplate margins (Nasir et al., 2011,

12
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

a b
Qty
TRma Ese
Kshs Ers Eab
Jka b Ers
Knu Eab
JSA
Ers Ers Qty
Ers
Knt1
Knt2 Kshs Qtz
Kmucg Ese Ejf Eab
Knu
Oky z Eab
Ers
Emw
Knt1 Ese
Qtz
Qty
Kmucg Ers
Knt2
Jmb2
TRKaqb Oky z ???
TRKaqb TRKaqb
Eab
Oky z
Qty Emw
Eab Qtz
TRKaqb
Qty
TH ???
TH Qtx

Fig. 15. Decorrelated images of ASTER spectral bands 8, 3, 1 of a. the Tanuff Valley (Kmucg – Muti Formation: Carbonate Conglomerate, calcarenite, megabreccia,
silty limestone, sandstone radiolarian chert; Knt2 – Natih Formation: clayey and foetid limestone with planktonic foraminifera; Knt1 – Natih Formation: Thick bedded
shallow-marine limestone; Knu – Nahr Umar Formation: Limestone and clayey Orbitolina limestone; Kshs – Shams Formation: Oolitic limestone, bioclastic thick-
bedded limestone; Jka–b – Kahmah Group: Micritic limestone and beige clayey limestone; JSA – Sahtan Group: Russet quartz sandstone and blue-black limestone;
TRma – Mahil formation: Grey-white bedded dolomite; TRKaqb – Aqil formation: Megabreccia, calcirudite with blocks and boulders, Shallow-marine carbonate; Jmb2
– Matbat formation: Russet turbiditic quartz sandstone, shale; TH – Tectonized harzburgite; Qty – Sub-recent alluvial terraces) and b. near the Sur (Ese – Seeb
Formation: Bioclastic limestone, calcarenite, marl and sandstone; Ers – Rus Formation: Thin bedded dolomitic limestone with marl; Ejf – Jafnayn Formation: Massive
bioclastic limestone, conglomerate; Emw – Musawa formation: greenish bioclastic marl, marly limestone, coal bearing sandstone; Eab – Abat Formation: grey to white
marly or micritic limestone with chert nodules; Qtz – Recent wadi alluvium; Qty – Sub-recent alluvial fans; Qtx – Ancient alluvial terraces; Rajendran and Nasir,
2014b) of parts of the Sultanate of Oman show the limestone formations in pink. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

2009; Tappe et al., 2009; Ahijado et al., 2005; Mitchell, 2005;

Du TH Zurevinski and Mitchell, 2004; Zaitsev et al., 1998; Le Roex and
Lanyon, 1998). These are usually contains more than 50% of carbonates
as well as apatite, REE rich minerals, iron oxide, and phlogopite. These
minerals are rich in CO2 (carbonate), PO4 (apatite), OH (phlogopite),
apatite, as well as altered iron oxide. These anions are capable of strong
molecular absorption to incident energy features, which give a value of
Exotic ‘0 or closer to 0’ in digital counts (developed in the 0–255 greyscale, 0
Qfy as black for maximum absorption energy and 255 as maximum bright
TH
or white for reflected energy). They are recorded by the sensor and are
shown as dark in the greyscale single-band image display throughout
Exotic the entire range of wavelengths of visible (0.4–0.7 μm) and reflected
Jmb2
infrared (0.7–3 μm; including near-IR 0.7–1.3 μm and mid-IR or SWIR
1.3–3 μm) spectral wavelength regions due to strong molecular ab-
sorption. Thus, identification, interpretation, and mapping of carbo-
Qfy
natites, either greyscale image (single-band display) or color-scale
image (multiple band display), show carbonatite as dark in these wa-
velength regions. The carbonate contents of carbonatites are also
characteristics of the emission of thermal energy, which gives a value of
Fig. 16. Decorrelated image of ASTER spectral bands 8, 3, 1 shows the occur-
rence of marble (Exotic) in bright yellow near the Al Hamra region, Oman. (TH ‘255 or closer to 255’ in digital counts (where 255 is the end of max-
– Tectonized Harzburgite; D – Dunite; Jmb2 – Bioclastic limestone; Qfy – imum bright or white for absorption of emitted energy) recorded by the
Quaternary deposits). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure sensor and shown as bright or white in the greyscale single-band image
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) display throughout the 3–14 μm thermal infrared wavelength region.
Thus, both greyscale image (single-band display) and color-scale image
(multiple-band display) show carbonatite in the thermal infrared wa-
velength region as bright or white only for identification,

13
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

distributed in serpentinized ultramafics viz. in Quebec (Staples et al.,

2011), in British Columbia (Bradshaw, 2008) and in New Zealand
(Ulrich, 1980). Understanding the economic importance of such mi-
nerals of the hydrothermal altered serpentinized rocks, Rajendran and
Nasir (2014a) studied the spectral absorptions of OH and Mg–OH mo-
Muscat
lecules of serpentine minerals and developed color composite RGB
Mc image using ASTER spectral bands 8, 4 and 1 and showed well the
Mc occurrence of weathered peridotites and delineated the hydrothermally
Cs
Cs Mc altered serpentinized rocks of Wadi Hibi region of the Northern Oman
Ty Cs CsD (Fig. 14a). Also, they discriminated more clearly the hydrothermal
Sc
Cs Sc mineralized areas using band ratios 4/7, 4/1, and 2/3 × 4/3 RGB
Cs Mc Cs
Sc CsD image. In addition to that, they demonstrated the occurrence of ser-
Sd
Sc Cs pentine minerals namely, lizardite and antigorite in the hydrothermally
Gb Cs Saih Hatat Window Cs
Cs Sc altered serpentinized region qualitatively and quantitatively using
Mc Spectral Angle Mapper (SAM) image processing method (Fig. 14b).vii.
Cs CsD Sc Sc
Sc Spectral absorptions of minerals of the source rock (for oil occurrence): The
Sc CsD
Mc
Cs
CsD Sc arid Arabic region of the world has potential oil occurrences (main
Sc Sc economic resources) and the exploration and exploitation of oil in the
Sc Sultanate of Oman is governed mainly by the Petroleum Development
Mc Cs Sc CsD
of Oman. Study of source rocks, responsible for oil occurrences, exposed
Sc
CsD on the surface is an analogue to understand more about the characters
Gb Mc Cs Sc
Sc of subsurface source rocks and a key to target future oil exploration.
Mc Mapping of such formations by understanding the spectral absorption
Cs Cs
Cs characters of minerals of the formations using satellite data is sig-
nificant in scientific research and useful to oil exploration scientists and
companies. Source rocks, mainly carbonate rocks, are predominantly
Fig. 17. ASTER principal components image (R:PC5; G:PC3; B:PC2) shows the formed by calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and aragonite
quartz-rich silicates (as blue), carbonates (as purple) and mafic-rich ophiolite (CaCO3) minerals (compare to other type of carbonate minerals such as
(as light green) rock formations occurred in and around of the Saih Hatat siderite (FeCO3), and ankerite CaFe(CO3)2) in different proportions.
Window of the Sultanate of Oman (Quartz-rich silicates – Sc; carbonates – Cs These have diagnostic spectral absorptions near 2.31–2.33 μm in the
and CsD; mafic-rich ophiolite – Mc; Layered Gabbro (Gb); Sheeted dykes (SD); ASTER spectral band 8 and near 11.2 μm wavelengths in the band 14
Biocalst and limestone rich sands (Ty); Rajendran et al., 2011). (For inter- and these spectral bands can be used to map such minerals of the source
pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to rocks.
the web version of this article.) In 2016, Rajendran studied the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup
formations of the Oman Salt Basins, responsible for oil occurrences,
interpretation, and mapping. Rajendran and Nasir (2013b) used this exposed on the surface in and around Khufai Dome of the Huqf region
basic concept and showed the occurrence and distribution of carbona- in the Sultanate of Oman using ASTER satellite data and image pro-
tites of Sal area occurred within the Batain nappe of northeastern cessing methods such as decorrelation stretching, principal component
margin of the Oman in the grey and multicolor red–green–blue (RGB) analysis (PCA) and spectral angle mapper (SAM) to understand more
images (Fig. 12) clearly using the ASTER data that cover the spectral about the characters of the subsurface formations. In this research
wavelengths of visible, reflected infrared, and thermal infrared wave- study, he used the ASTER spectral bands 8, 3 and 1 and decorrelation
length regions. They studied the diagnostic CO3 absorptions of carbo- stretching method, and discriminated well the Masirah Bay, the Khufai,
nate minerals in the ASTER SWIR band 8 (2.295–2.365 μm) and de- the Shuram and the Buah Formations of the Nafun Group, the source
tected the carbonate minerals of aillikite occurred near Musawi area rocks of Huqf Supergroup with the Quaternary deposits (Fig. 15). Also,
(near to Sal) using SAM method and showed the minerals of the rock he applied the PCA method and clearly showed the occurrence and
(Fig. 13). Also, they collected laboratory spectra in SWIR region with spatial distribution of such formations in the RGB principal component
spectral resolution of 7 nm over carbonatites and showed narrow sharp image (R:PC1, G:PC2, B:PC3). The study used the SAM method and
absorption features near 1410 due to presence of the Sm and Nd ASTER indices (quartz, carbonate and mafic indices; Rajendran et al.,
bearing minerals confirmed by petrological study (the presence of ae- 2011) to confirm the minerals of the formations (Fig. 16).
schynite-group minerals) and geochemical analyses of the samples
which contains enrichment of Sm up to 80 ppm and Nd up to 416 ppm. 6.2. Mapping of industrial rocks
This study is supported by the study of Nasir et al. (2009).vi. Spectral
absorption of minerals of the Ni-magnesioferrite–magnetite–awaruite Occurrence of economically viable industrial rocks namely lime-
bearing hydrothermal altered serpentinized zone: Ultramafic rocks host stone, dolomite, marble, clay, gypsum and kaolinite are being mined in
significant metal ore deposits include Cr, Fe, Ni, Cu, Co and Au, Pla- parts of Oman and are well documented by the Government of Oman.
tinum Group Elements (PGE), and ore minerals namely magnesioferrite, These rocks are occurred mainly with minerals rich in CO3, Al-OH, Mg-
magnetite and awaruite which are potentially occur in the hydro- OH and H2O contents which have unique spectral absorptions char-
thermal altered serpentinized rocks (Ahmed and Hall, 1982; Bradshaw, acters discussed in the Section 4 (Figs. 2, 4 and 5; Rajendran, 2016;
2008; Gargiulo et al., 2013; Loferski and Lipin, 1983; Page et al., 1979; Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a, 2014b, c; Rajendran et al., 2014,
Rajabzadeh and Moosavinasab, 2013; Staples et al., 2011). The mag- Rajendran et al., 2013a) and can be used to map the rocks. In 2013b,
nesioferrite and awaruite are Ni3Fe alloy minerals (Krishna Rao, 1964) Rajendran and Nasir discussed well absorptions of the carbonate mi-
developed under reducing environment at an early stage of hydro- nerals bearing rocks namely the limestones, marls, listwaenites, and
thermal serpentinization and occur naturally in serpentinized harz- carbonatites (Fig. 5), and discriminated types of limestones occurred
burgites of ophiolite sequence (Gargiulo et al., 2013; Klein and Bach, near Tanuff Valley and near Sur region of parts of the Sultanate of
2009). Several studies described the economic occurrence of nick- Oman using the ASTR spectral bands 8, 3 and 1 (Rajendran and Nasir,
el–iron alloys and nickel sulfides, the co-product of serpentinization 2014c; Fig. 17). As well as, in 2017, Rajendran et al. studied in detail

14
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Sq2a Sq1L
Sq1L N
Sq1Cs
SqDI
Sq1L Sq2a??

Sq1Cs
Sq2a SqDI Ec
Qgy
Sq1Cs ??
Sq1Cs Qdz

Sq1L
Qmz

SqDI Qdz
Qgy
Sq1Cs ?? Sq1V
Qcy-z

Qgy • As Sifah
Sq1Cs
Sq1L
Sq1V Sq1Cs
Sq1V

Qcy-z
SqDI
Sq1V
Qcy-z Qgy
??
Qmz

LEGEND
Autochthonous Units Quaternary formations
Sq2a - Black, fusilinid –bearing limestone and dolomite Qdz/Qmz - Coastal dunes (green)/ Beach Sand (yellow)

- Nodular limestone, yellow dolomite, silicified

Sq1L limestone Qcy-z - Active or sub recent slope deposits,
Sq1C - Black, fusilinid –bearing limestone and dolomite Qgy - Sub-Recent alluvial fans; terraces
Sq1V - Schist and white tuff
SqDI - Dolerite sills and dykes
Fig. 18. ASTER principal components image (R:PC4; G:PC3; B:PC2) shows the occurrence and spatial distribution of metamorphic rocks and carbonates formations of
the As Sifah region, Oman (Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a).

the spectral absorptions of calcite minerals of the marble occurrences
and characterized their absorptions at 1.752, 1.875, 1.992, 2.154,
2.341 and 2.491 μm in the SWIR region by measuring spectra at 7 nm
spectral resolution and distinguished them from other carbonate mi-
nerals (e.g. dolomite). Based on they processed the ASTER spectral
bands by simple decorrelation image processing method and showed
that the band 8 is characteristic to calcite (carbonate) absorption. Their
results on mapping of marble showed the rock in distinctive tonal
variation on the image (e.g. Fig. 18) and the study is useful to the in-
dustrialists, potential investors, exploration and mining geologists to
explore such economic valuable resources. Also, they compared this
study with the spectral band 7 of the Landsat 7 (ETM+) and showed the
differences in energy absorption in the band which has wide width.
6.3. Mapping of rock types
Geologically, the Sultanate of Oman consist of a wide range of
lithologies. The major rock types are 1) the carbonate platform includes
mainly the limestones and dolomites, 2) the metamorphic sole rocks
includes granulites and different type of schists, 3) the ophiolite

15
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

UG a.
LG N
LG Qtz
LG

Hz
P

Hz

Hz Qtz
Hz

CT
CT b.
Hz N
Hz Hz
Hz
Hz MTZ Hz
MTZ

MTZ MTZ

Hz CT Hz

CT CT
CT
Hz
CT

CT CT

4 Km

Fig. 19. ASTER band ratios images (R:(1 + 3)/2, G:(4 + 6)/5, B:(7 + 9)/8) show the thin Moho (dashed line) in between the mantle (harzburgite) and crustal
(gabbro) rocks at a. the Wadi Al Abyad region of the Nakhl massif (Hz – Harzburgite; LG – Lower Gabbro; UG – Upper Gabbro; Qtz – Recent Wadi Alluvium) and the
occurrence of thick Moho Transition Zone at b. the Wadi Nidab and Wadi Abda of the Samail massif, Oman (Hz – harzburgite; MTZ – Moho Transition Zone; CT –
crust; US – Undifferentiated Sediments; Rajendran and Nasir, 2015b).

sequence includes types of the peridotites, gabbros and basalts 4) the
various formations of Tertiary and Quaternary ages. These rock types
are economically important and mapping is significant.i. Mapping of
carbonates and ophiolites lithology: In 2011, Rajendran et al. studied
ASTER spectral bands to discriminate the carbonate formations and
mafic ophiolites. They developed relative band-depth images under-
standing major absorption features of the minerals of the rocks (Figs. 6
and 7) and mapped the carbonate formations consist of limestones
using [(band 7 + band 9)/band 8] and dolomite using [(band 6 + band
8)/band 7] and the mafic ophiolites using (band 2/band 1). Also, they
developed RGB color composite image to discriminate the such rocks
using band ratios viz. 9/7 for the carbonates (limestone and dolomite),
6/8 for quartz-rich silicates (shale, schist, sandstone, graywackes) and
the band ratio 1/2 for mafic ophiolite rocks (harzburgite, harzburgite
with dunite). Their study to confirm such discrimination using ASTER
SWIR spectral bands and PCA method (Fig. 19) and TIR spectral bands
and ASTER spectral indices such as carbonates (carbonate index, CI),
silica rich (quartz index, QI) and mafic rich (mafic index, MI) are de-
lineated well their occurrences and distributions.ii. Spectral absorptions
of minerals of the metamorphic sole rocks: Metamorphic minerals have
unique spectral absorptions in the wavelength of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The laboratory spectra of minerals of the metamorphic rocks
including actionalite, Muscovite, pyrope, epidote, glaucophane,
chlorite, pyrophyllite, paragonite, illite, dolomite, pyrite, siderite, and
hematite stacked form USGS spectral Library for minerals (Fig. 7) show
significant useful narrow absorption features near 0.5 µm and in be-
tween 0.9 and 1.1 µm due to iron absorptions (the field dotted in
Fig. 7), near 1.4 µm due to OH and H2O absorptions (the vertical line in
Fig. 7), near 1.9 µm mainly due to H2O absorptions (the vertical dashed
line in Fig. 7), and around 2.2–2.3 µm due to OH and CO3 absorptions
(the field dark dotted in Fig. 7) which are closer to the ASTER sensor
spectral wavelengths 0.52–0.60 μm (likely to band 1), 0.76–0.86 μm
(likely to band 3), 1.6–1.7 μm (band 4), 2.145–2.185 μm (band 5),
2.185–2.225 μm (band 6), and 2.295–2.365 μm (band 8).
As discussed above, in the plot (Fig. 7), the spectra of hematite,
siderite, epidote, actinolite, hornblende, augite and diopside minerals
show absorptions around 0.5 and 1 μm due to the iron (Fe2+, Fe3+)
content present in their lattices (Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a; Rajendran
et al., 2014, Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2011; Abrams et al., 1988). The
spectra of the carbonate minerals namely dolomite, calcite and siderite
have significant absorptions near 2.3 μm due to CeO bonds in their
compositions (Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a, b; Rajendran et al., 2014,

16
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir
Sala Afan Graben Jabal Samhan
N Samail massif using VNIR and SWIR spectral bands of ASTER. They
Region of landslide: rock
falls and debris slides
Radhuma Escarpment
Zalawt plain
Fig. 20. ASTER principal components image (R: PC1; G: PC2; B: PC6) shows
presence of landslide areas in pink in the Jabal Samhan Mountain – Zalawt
plain region (Rajendran and Nasir, 2018). (For interpretation of the references
to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
Rajendran et al., 2013a, 2012; Mars and Rowan, 2010; Abrams et al.,
1988; Hunt, 1977). The significant spectral absorptions around 1.4, 1.9,
2.2 and 2.3 μm in clays, micas, and amphiboles minerals are due to
presence of hydroxyl molecules in their contents. The hydroxyl and
H2O-bearing minerals show absorptions at 1.4 and near 1.9 μm
(HeOeH bendings and OH stretches; Rajendran et al., 2014, 2012;
Abrams et al., 1988; Hunt et al., 1974). Al–OH produces absorption
centered at about 2.2 μm, whereas Fe-Mg–OH produces feature at about
2.3 μm spectral wavelengths (Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a; Rajendran
et al., 2014, 2012; Rajendran et al., 2014, 2012; Mars and Rowan,
2010; Abrams et al., 1988; Hunt, 1979, 1977). The light absorptions
stretched near 1.7 and 2.1 μm in the illite, paragonite, pyrophyllite,
glaucophane and chlorite may be due to the influence of Fe, Mg, Ca, Na
and Al contents in the minerals. So, based on the spectral absorption
characters of such minerals, the minerals bearing metamorphic rocks
can be discriminated using the ASTER spectral bands 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8
in the VNIR–SWIR regions (Rajendran and Nasir, 2015a).
In 2015, Rajendran and Nasir mapped the metamorphic zone of the
As Sifah region, NE of Oman. They used the VNIR–SWIR spectral bands
of the ASTER and well-known image processing methods such as image
decorrelation, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Spectral Angel
Mapper (SAM), delineated the region of metamorphic zone, and dis-
criminated the different metamorphic and carbonate rocks character-
ized by the hydroxyl (OH) and carbonate bearing minerals of the re-
gion. Also, they studied bright reflections and dark absorptions of
individual principal component of the PCA (Rajendran et al., 2012,
2011) and developed RGB using components of the PC4, PC3 and PC2
and discriminated the metamorphic rocks of the region (Fig. 20). Apart
to the delineation of metamorphic zone and the discrimination of me-
tamorphic rocks, the occurrences of metamorphic minerals of the rocks
of the region are studied by them using the spectral angle mapper
(SAM) method.iii. Spectral absorptions of minerals of the rocks of Moho
and Moho Transition Zone: Mapping of Moho and MTZ, and dis-
criminating them in between the mafic and ultramafic rocks in ophio-
lite sequence are significant to the scientific community to understand
more the global tectonism. The zone is important to study occurrences
of the chromite deposit, hydrothermal mineralization and serpentini-
zation. The spectral absorption characters of harzburgite and gabbro of
17
Ore Geology Reviews xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
the Moho and MTZ of Samail ophiolite are studied by Clénet et al.
(2010) and Combe et al. (2006). In 2015b, Rajendran and Nasir de-
scribed the remote sensing spectral characters of minerals and rocks of
the Moho and MTZ and discriminated the Moho of Wadi Al Abyad of
Nakhl massif, and MTZ of the Wadi Nidab and Wadi Abda regions of
studied the RGB color composite images of ASTER spectral bands 8, 3
and 1, and 8, 7 and 4, and delineated the Moho and MTZ of the regions.
Also, they developed RGB images using ASTER band ratios (4/8, 4/1,
3/2 * 4/3 and (1 + 3)/2, (4 + 6)/5, (7 + 9)/8) (Fig. 20) and dis-
criminated the mantle material (ultramafic harzburgites) and crustal
rocks (mafic gabbros). The occurrence of such rock types is demon-
strated by detection of their minerals using the SAM method.iv. Mapping
of Tertiary and Quaternary formations and Marine Terraces: The occur-
rence and distribution of different types of limestones, dolomites, marls
bearing limestones, sandstones, sand and recent wadi alluvial deposits
belong to Tertiary and Quaternary age of different parts of Oman are
studied and well discriminated by Rajendran et al., (2013a, 2011) and
Rajendran and Nasir (2015a, 2014a,b,c, 2013a,b) and Rajendran
(2016) during their work on the above mapping of minerals, ores and
rock types (Figs. 10, 13–20). In 2016, Yuan et al. studied the Tertiary
and Quaternary Marine Terraces and Planation Surfaces of Northern
Oman. In which, they used the ASTER data and PCA method and dis-
criminated the terraces and related sedimentary formations of the re-
gion.
7. Accuracy assessment and validation
Several authors used satellite data and suitable image processing
methods like spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral information di-
vergence (SID), linear spectral unmixing (LSU), linear square-fit (LSF),
matched filtering (MF), mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF),
spectral feature fitting (SFF), constrained energy minimization (CEM)
and continuum removal methods by collecting image end members or
using laboratory sample measured or field measured spectral end
members (Chen and Reed, 1987; Congalton, 1991; Sabol et al., 1992;
Jia and Richards, 1994; Van Der Meer, 1995; Zhang et al., 2007; Bedini,
2011; Hosseinjani and Tangestani, 2011; El Janati et al., 2014) to cal-
culate and show their occurrences and distributions of the minerals and
rock types. They are able to compare the results of different methods
and assessed the accuracy of the methods to use for mapping such re-
sources. These results are depends the spatial, radiometric and spectral
resolutions. Rajendran (2016), Rajendran and Nasir (2017, 2015a) used
the parallelepiped, spectral angle mapper (SAM), spectral information
divergence (SID), linear spectral unmixing (LSU), linear square-fit (LSF)
and mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF) methods to detect mi-
nerals and bearing rocks and showed their accuracy to use the method/
s for mapping of such resources distributed in different parts of the
Sultanate of Oman. Further, the results of image analyses, interpreta-
tions and discriminations of all studies carried out in the different scale
in the several parts of the Sultanate of Oman are verified, checked,
evaluated and confirmed in the field by collecting data and field sam-
ples using available geological maps, and in the laboratory by analyzing
field samples. On which, the capability of ASTER sensor and potential
of the image processing methods to map such minerals resources were
documented in the vision to use them by the exploration geologists,
industrialists and mine owners to explore more deposits in parts of the
Oman and recommend to similar deposits occurred in the arid region
(Rajendran, 2016; Rajendran and Nasir, 2014a,b,c, 2015a,b; Rajendran
et al., 2013a,b, 2014).
8. Conclusion
This study reviews the spectral absorption characters of minerals
and ores, discusses the suitable ASTER spectral bands and the simple
image processing methods to map economically important minerals and
S. Rajendran, S. Nasir
ore deposits and industrial rocks occurred in parts of the Sultanate of
Oman. The remotely sensed ASTER spectral bands are useful to show
the occurrence and spatial distribution of such economic resources. The
simple image processing methods have potential to detect and dis-
criminate the resources. Therefore, it is recommended to use the data
and methods to explore more minerals and ore deposits in the Sultanate
of Oman and similar deposits occurred in other arid region of the world.
Acknowledgements
The research studies carried out and discussed in this paper are
supported mainly by the Sultan Qaboos University HM grant no 1) SR/
DVC/ESRC/15/01 and internal grants nos. 2) IG/SCI/ETHS/12/02 and
3) IG/SCI/ETHS/14/02.
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