ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS MEASUREMENT EE302

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 An Overview

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 Measurements For Nation’s Progress Is Imperative: Why?

The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon

a parallel progress in measurements techniques

techniques.. The reason is

that the progress in science and technology leads to discovering

new phenomena and relationships, which requires new types of

quantitative measurements.
measurements.

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 Field Of Engineering Applications Of Measurement Systems

1. Design of equipment and processes.

processes.

2. Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes.

processes.

3. Quality control assurance programs for industrial processes.

processes.

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 Methods of Measurements

1. Direct Methods
Methods:: The unknown quantity is directly compared against

a standard, which are common for the measurements of physical

quantities like length, mass and time.

time.

Disadvantages are:
are:

i. Limited accuracy due to human factors.

factors.

ii. Less sensitive

sensitive..

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 Methods of Measurements,
Measurements, cont

2. Indirect Methods:
Methods: The unknown quantity under measurement is
determined via the use of measurement systems as follows
follows::
Transducer Signal
Quantity Processing
For converting Measuring
physical quantity For noise Device
to be into electric reduction,
measured
signal amplification, etc

Advantages are:
are:

i. High accuracy and sensitivity can be obtained by using electronic

and digital type instruments
instruments..

ii. Availability to use commercial instrument

instrument--types at lower costs with
accepted accuracy and sensitivity.
sensitivity.

iii. Measurements of non

non--physical quantities.
quantities.

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 Classification of Instruments

Broadly, instruments are classified into two categories:

1. Absolute instruments:
instruments: These instruments give the magnitude of the
quantity to be measured in terms of physical constants of the
instruments.. For example, Tangent Galvanometer.
instruments Galvanometer. It is used only in
standard institutions for calibration
calibration..

2. Secondary instruments
instruments:: In these instruments the magnitude of the
quantity to be measured is indicated on graded scale (e.
(e.g. analog
instruments) or displayed numerically on screen (e.
(e.g. digital
instruments)..
instruments)

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Errors in Measurements

1. True Value:

i. It is not possible to determine the “true value” of a quantity by

experimental means
means.. The reason for this is that the positive
deviations from the true value do not equal the negative deviations
and hence do not cancel each other
other..

ii. In practice the “true value” is measured by a “standard unit

unit”
”.

2. Static (or Absolute) Error (δA )

It is defined as the deviation of the measured value (Am) from its true

one (At), or δA = A m − A t

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Errors in Measurements

3. Static Correction (δC)

i. It is defined as the correction to be added to the measured value so
as to obtain its true value, or δC = A t − A m

ii. The true value of an instrument A t = A m + δC

iii. Generally,
δC = −δA

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 Errors in Measurements

4. Relative Static Error (δA )

δA
i. The percentage static error (% εr) of an instrument = A ×100
t

ii. When At is unknown, the percentage static error (%εr) of an

instrument can be expressed as a fraction of the full scale deflection

δA
as: %ε r =
(f.s.d) as: ×100
f .s.d

Am
iii. The true value At =
1 + εr

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 Example 1:

A voltage has a true value of 1.5 V. An analog indicating instrument with

a scale range of 0-2.5 V shows a voltage of 1.46 V. What are the values
of absolute error and correction.
correction. Express the error as a fraction of the
true value and the f.s.d.

Solution 1:
Absolute error δA = A m − A t = 1.46 − 1.5 = −0.04 V
Absolute correction δC = − δA = +0.04 V
δA − 0.04
% Re lative error (%ε r ) = = × 100 = −2.66%
At 1.5
− 0.04
Re lative error (exp ressed as a percentage of f .s.d ) = × 100 = −1.6%
2.5

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 Errors in Measurements

5. Limiting Error

The manufacturers have to specify the deviation from the specified value

of a particular quantity in order to enable the purchaser to make proper

selection according to his requirements.

requirements. The limits of these deviations

from the specified value are defined as limiting errors.

errors.

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 Example 2:

The inductance of an inductor is specified by a manufacturer as 20 H ± 5%.

Determine the limits of inductance between which it is guaranteed.

guaranteed.

Solution 2:
5
Re lative error (ε r ) = = 0.05
100
Limiting value of induc tan ce ( A ) = A m ± δA
= A m ± ε r A m = A m (1 ± ε r )
= 20 (1 ± 0.05 ) = 20 ± 1 Henery

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 Example 3:

A 0-25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of full

scale reading
reading.. The current measured by this instrument is 10A
10A.
Determine the limiting error in percentage.
percentage.
Solution 3:
The magnitude of lim iting error of the instrument,
δA = ε r × f .s.d = 0.01× 25 = 0.25 amperes
δA 0.25
ε r (of measured value) = = = 0.025
Am 10

Therefore, the current being measured is between the limits of

A = A m (1 ± ε r ) = 10 (1 ± 0.025) = 10 ± 0.25 amperes
0.25
∴ %Limiting error = × 100 = 2.5%
10

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 Errors in Measurements: Random errors

i. These errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not obey any
rule..
rule

ii. The presence of random errors becomes evident when different results
are obtained on repeated measurements of one and the same quantity
quantity..

iii. The effect of random errors is minimized by measuring the given

quantity many times under the same conditions and calculating the
arithmetic mean of the values obtained
obtained..

iv. The problem of random errors is treated mathematically as one of the

probability and statistics.
statistics.

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 Errors in Measurements: Random errors

Let x1 , x 2 , L , xn be the number of n-

n-repeated measurements,

then the arithmetic mean equals

n
∑ xi
x = i =1
n
Standard deviation is

n
∑ x i2
i =1
σ=
n −1

Probable error = 0.6745 × σ

n

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 Static Characteristics of Instruments

1. Accuracy

It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the

true value of the quantity being measured.
measured.

Accuracy (in percent) = 100 − %ε r

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 Static Characteristics of Instruments

2. Sensitivity

i. The static sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the magnitude

of the output signal to the magnitude of the input signal or the

quantity to be measured.
measured.

ii. Its units are millimeter per micro

micro--ampere
ampere,, counts per volt
volt,, etc.
etc.

depending upon the type of input and output signals.

signals.

iii. Deflection factor (or Inverse sensitivity) of an instrument is the

reciprocal of the sensitivity of that instrument

instrument..

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 Example 4:

A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7 Ω in the unknown arm

of the bridge to produce a change in deflection of 3 mm of the
galvanometer.. Determine the sensitivity
galvanometer sensitivity.. Also determine the
deflection factor.
factor.

Solution 4:

3 mm
Sensitivity = = 0.429 mm / Ω
7Ω
1 1
Deflection factor = = = 2.33 Ω / mm
Sensitivity 0.429

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 Static Characteristics of Instruments

3. Resolution

It is the smallest increment in input (quantity being measured) which can be

detected with certainty by an instrument.
instrument.

Example 5:
A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full-
full-scale
reading is 200 V and 1/10 of a scale division can be estimated with a fair
degree of certainty.
certainty. Determine the resolution of the instrument in volts.
volts.

Solution 5:
200
1 scale division = =2V
100
1 1
Re solution = scale division = × 2 = 0.2 V
10 10

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 Example 6:
A digital voltmeter has a read
read--out range from 0 to 9999 counts
counts..
Determine the resolution of the instrument in volts when the full
scale reading is 9.999 V.

Solution 6:

The resolution of this instrument is 1 count in 9999

1 1
Re solution = count = × 9.999 volt = 10 −3 V = 1 mV
9999 9999

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 Accuracy versus Precision

i. The term “Precise” means clearly or sharply defined

defined..

ii. Precision is a measure of the reproducibility ( or consistency) of the

measurements, i.e. given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a
measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.
measurements.

iii. Consider the measurement of a known voltage of 100 V with a meter. meter.
Five readings are taken, and the indicated values are 104
104,, 103
103,, 105
105,, 103
and 105 V. From these values it is seen that
+5V
%Limiting error = × 100 = 5%
100 V
The instrument cannot be depended on for an accuracy better than 5%,

While a precision of ±1% is indicated since the maximum deviation

from the mean reading of 104 V is only 1 V.

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 Range of Possible Errors

When a number of independent measurements are taken in order to

obtain the best measured value

value,, the result is usually expressed as

arithmetic mean of all readings.

readings. The range of doubt or possible error is

the largest deviation from the mean .

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 Example 7:
A set of independent current measurements were recorded as 10. 10.03,
03,
10.
10.10,
10, 10.
10.11 and 10.
10.08 A. Calculate the range of possible errors.
errors.

Solution 7:
I +I +I +I 10.03 + 10.10 + 10.11 + 10.08
Average current I av = 1 2 3 4 = = 10.08 A
4 4
Maximum value of current I max = 10.11 A
Range = I max − I av = 0.03 A
Minimum value of current I min = 10.03 A
Range = I av − I min = 0.05 A
0.03 + 0.05
∴ Average range of errors = = ±0.04 A
2

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 Loading Effects

i. Under practical conditions the introduction of any measuring

instrument in a system results, invariably, in extraction of energy
from the system thereby distorting the original signal under
measurement..
measurement

ii. This distortion may take the form of attenuation (reduction in

magnitude), waveform distortion, phase shift and many a time all
these undesirable features put together.
together.

iii. The incapability of the system to faithfully measure, record, or

control the input signal (measurand)
measurand) in undistorted form is called
loading effect.
effect.

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 Loading Effects

1. Loading Effects due to Shunt Connected Instruments

On connecting shunt connected Zo

instrument, whose impedance is ZL ,
Output

(instrument)
the actual voltage Eo decreases to EL Thevinin impedance

Load
voltage ZL
Eo
source
as follows
follows::
Eo
IL =
Zo + Z L
E L = E o − Zo × I L
And the %loading error in measurement
of Eo equals
E L − Eo
%Loading error = ×100
Eo

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 Example 8:
An oscilloscope (CRO) having an output resistance of 1 MΩ shunted
by 50pF
50pF capacitance is connected across a circuit having an output
resistance of 10 k Ω. If the open circuit voltage has 1.0 V-peak for a
sinusoidal AC-
AC-source, calculate %loading effect error of the voltage
measured when frequency is is:: (i) 100
100kHz
kHz , (ii)
(ii)11MHz

Solution 8:
ZL = R // − jXc ≅ − j32 × 10 3 Ω
at 100 kHz

Eo 1.0∠0o
EL = = = 0.954∠ − 17.4o V − peak
3
1 + 10 × 10
Zo
1+
ZL − j32 × 10 3
0.954 − 1.0
%Loading error at 100 kHz = × 100 = −4.6%
1.0

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 Continue Solution 8:

ZL = R // − jXc ≅ − j3183 Ω
at 1MHz

Eo 1.0∠0o
EL = = = 0.303∠ − 72o V − peak
3
1+
Zo
1+ 10 × 10
ZL − j3183
0.303 − 1.0
%Loading error at 100 kHz = × 100 = −70%
1.0

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 Loading Effects

2. Loading Effects due to Series Connected Instruments

On connecting series connected Zo

instrument, whose impedance is ZL , Output

Thevinin impedance
the actual current Io changes to IL voltage Io
source

as follows
follows::
Eo Zo
IL = = × Io
Zo + Z L Zo + Z L Zo

And the %loading error in measurement Output IL

(instrument)
Thevinin impedance
of Io equals

Load
voltage ZL
I L − Io source
%Loading error = ×100
Io

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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

1. Errors vs. Uncertainty

i. Uncertainty is the range that is likely to contain the deviation of the

measured value from the true value based on random-
random-type errors
errors..
ii. Uncertainty can be expressed in absolute terms or relative terms, just
as error can
can..

For example, consider a meter stick that indicate centimeter and

millimeter divisions. Thus

1) The smallest value you can read on this meter stick is 1 mm.
mm.
2) Any measurement you make will be quoted to the nearest millimeter
millimeter..
3) So your answer will take the form 55 mm ± 1 mm (55 mm is the
measured value & 1 mm is the range of uncertainty).
uncertainty).

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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

2. Propagation of Uncertainties

i. Any calculations done using a measurement will have a degree of

uncertainty.. This uncertainty is a measure of how confident you are in
uncertainty
the result of your calculation.
calculation.

ii. The propagation of the uncertainties through various calculations has

to be carefully considered
considered..

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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

3. Propagation of Uncertainties:
Uncertainties: Sum of Two or More Quantities

Let the final result w be the sum of the measured quantities (x ± εx) & (y ± εy)

w = x+y
∴ ∆w = ∆x + ∆y
∆ w x ∆ x y ∆y
or = × + ×
w w x w y

Finally, the maximum calculation of w is

εw = ± (
x ×ε
w x
y
+ w × εy )
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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

4. Propagation of Uncertainties:
Uncertainties: Difference of Two Quantities

Let the final result w be the difference of the measured quantities

(x ± εx) & (y ± εy)

w = x−y
∴ ∆ w = ∆ x − ∆y
∆w x ∆x y ∆y
or = × − ×
w w x w y

Finally, the maximum calculation of w is

εw = ± (
x ×ε
w x
y
+ w × εy )
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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

5. Propagation of Uncertainties:
Uncertainties: Product of Two or More Quantities

Let the final result w be the product of the measured quantities

(x ± εx) & (y ± εy)
w = x× y
ln w = ln x + ln y
Differentiating w .r .t w yields
1 1 ∂x 1 ∂y
= × + ×
w x ∂w y ∂w
∂w ∂x ∂y
= +
w x y
Finally, the maximum calculation of w is

(
εw = ± εx + εy )
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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

6. Propagation of Uncertainties:
Uncertainties: Division of Two Quantities

Let the final result w be the division of the measured quantities

(x ± εx) & (y ± εy)
x
w=
y
ln w = ln x − ln y
Differentiating w .r .t w yields
1 1 ∂x 1 ∂y
= × − ×
w x ∂w y ∂w
∂w ∂x ∂y
= −
w x y
Finally, the maximum calculation of w is

(
εw = ± εx + εy )
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 Uncertainty Analysis and Propagation of Errors

7. Propagation of Uncertainties:
Uncertainties: w = f (x , y)

Using Root Sum Square (RSS) method, the error in w is defined by

2 2
 ∂w   ∂w 
(∆w )2 =  ∆x × +
  ∆ y × 
 ∂x   ∂y 

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 Example 9::

x
Let w =
y
∂w − 12 ∂w −32
=y & = − 2 xy
1
∂x ∂y
2 2
 − 12    −32 
(∆w )2
=  ∆x × y  +  ∆y ×  − 2 x y
1

    
dividing both sides by w 2 yields
2 2
2 − 12   − 2 xy
1 −32  2 2
 ∆w   ∆x × y     ∆ x   1 ∆y 
  =
 − 1 

+  ∆y ×
− 12  =  x  +  2 y 
 w       
 x× y x× y
2
  
∴ ε 2w = ε 2x + (12 × ε y )2

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