1
WSR-88D (NEXRAD) System
Jackson Schultz, and Choukri Nyon
Abstract—The WSR-88D or NEXRAD system is a Doppler
weather surveillance radar. The NEXRAD systems are employed
across the continental United States as well as in U.S. territories.
The purpose of this document is to provide an introduction and
overview of the WSR-88D’s functionalities as well as an in-depth
review of its most important data products and detection schemes.
I. INTRODUCTION
T he WSR-88D (NEXRAD) is one of the most important
radar systems in the United States, and it affects nearly
everyone on a daily basis. WSR-88D is an abbreviation of
weather surveillance radar 88’ Doppler because it uses the
Doppler effect to detect weather events and was commissioned
in 1988. NEXRAD is an abbreviation for NEXt generation
weather RADar. These terms can be used interchangeably to
describe this system.
The commissioning of these systems across the United
States was an important step forward to having the ability to
detect different weather across the country and alert citizens of
severe weather. To create a comprehensive coverage of the
United States, approximately 159 NEXRAD systems have
been employed [1]. This blanket of systems creates a constant
stream of data that the National Weather Service (NWS) uses
to interpret all types of weather and create alerts for potentially
harmful weather. Before these systems were deployed, there
was little to no warning for hurricanes and tornadoes. The
NEXRAD systems have played an integral role in helping
minimize damage and loss of life as it relates to severe weather.
As the systems have matured, new components have been
added to supplement the already rich collection of data. These
components will be discussed in later sections. Also, the
processing of the data has evolved to give new insight into the
meaning of all the data that is constantly being collected across
the United States. The processing techniques are numerous, so
this document only explores some of the more relevant
techniques. Figure 1 shows the flow of data through the
NEXRAD systems.
II. RDA OVERVIEW
These are the components that comprise the radar data
acquisition (RDA) section of the radar. The data that is
produced in this section is also detailed.
A. Antenna
The antenna of the WSR-88D is a center-fed, parabolic dish
that is typically enclosed by a radome to protect the antenna
from weather and ensure nothing is struck by its rotation. The
antenna operates in the S-band (2.8-3 GHz) which coincides
with wavelengths about 10cm long. With the parabolic dish
being approximately 28 feet in diameter, the 0.95º beamwidth
is the limit when it comes to the WSR-88D’s angular
resolution [3]. After losses of the radome are taken into effect,
the gain of the antenna is about 45 dB with the first sidelobe is
around -29 dB. The antenna is capable of azimuthal scanning
and it can rotate at rates up to 36º per second. The pattern of
scanning can be changed and a variety of volumetric coverage
patterns (VCPs) are available. Originally, the antenna was only
capable of transmitting and receiving waves that were
horizontally polarized, but by 2013, all of the systems had been
upgraded to feature dual polarization [4]. The modifications
will be expounded upon later in this section.
B. Transmitter
The transmitter can be characterized by its utilization of
coherent chain (STALO/COHO), a line modulator and klystron
amplifier tube. The transmitter transmits signals in the S-band
and reaches a peak power of 750kW. The transmitter can
operate with a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) between 320-
1300 Hz which corresponds to a maximum unambiguous range
of 460 km. To meet the range resolution requirements of 0.25-1
km, two different pulse widths can be used, 1.57 and 4.7 µs.
The duty cycle is 0.2% which means that in an hour time
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period, the transmitter will only operate for about 7 seconds.

The radar spends a majority of its time listening for return
signals [3]. The significance of the PRF and pulse width will
be detailed later in this section.

C. Receiver
The receiver is equally important to the transmitter in
guaranteeing the collection of usable data. Due to the
transmitter’s high operating frequency, the receiver
downconverts the received signal to an intermediate frequency
of 100 MHz. The reasoning behind this downconversion is the
odd behavior of circuitry components at GHz frequencies.
Mixing the carrier signal with the local oscillators signal
allows for more convenient processing of the data carried by
the signal. The signal undergoes an analog to digital
conversion at the IF where a digital matching filter is used
(625kHz BW→short pulse; 204kHz BW→long pulse) to
maximize the signal to noise ratio (SNR) [3]. In order to E. Volumetric Coverage Patterns (VCP)
process return signals over the specified range, a dynamic The NEXRAD systems have multiple VCPs for various
range of 90 dB is required. The dynamic range is the ratio of weather situations that help with the collection of relevant data.
the maximum to minimum power returned. Large dynamic As you can see in figure 3, the radar switches between modes
ranges put significant stress on the ADCs, but a 90 dB throughout different elevation scans. The Contiguous
dynamic range must be accommodated in NEXRAD systems Surveillance (CS) mode is typical around low elevations and
to deliver the required data [3]. utilizes a low PRF to mitigate multiple trip echoes, but it also
combined Contiguous Doppler (CD) which uses high PRFs.
This sampling is called split-cut because at each radial a low
D. Signal Processing and high PRF are used which gives the best velocity values and
The signal processing is PC based and uses linux as its allows for the best clutter suppression. Around the middle
primary operating system. Multiple filters are employed during elevations, batch mode is utilized which is similar to split cut
the processing of a signal to remove clutter and restore but alternates between low and high PRFs at radials [5]. E.g.
important weather components. Typically, the DC components One radial’s data is from a low PRF and the next radial is from
of signals are completely filtered out, but this can be adjusted if a high PRF. This method is good for resolving range
a particular target of interest is determined to have a speed ambiguities. At high elevations where range folding is a not an
close to 0. In the RDA section, two common techniques are issue, CD is combined with fast rotation rates to be able to
used to identify normal clutter and anomalous propagation obtain all the base data at higher elevations. NEXRAD
(AP) clutter [5]. The first is the Clutter Mitigation and Decision systems are also able to slow rotation around specific areas
(CMD) algorithm that takes in base moments and variables where large storms have been identified. These can be
generalized into clear air mode and precipitation mode, but
(more on these later in the section) and decides which range
understanding the parameter adjustments to obtain the data
bins are contaminated with clutter. After specific range bins
from each mode is important.
have been identified to contain clutter, a Gaussian Model
Adaptive Processing (GMAP) filter is applied that removes a
specific width near zero velocity. The clutter removed is used
to create Bypass Maps that essentially map out a specific
region where the radar is located. These maps are updated
frequently, but they only consider normal clutter where velocity
is near zero [5]. Other maps are created specifically for AP
clutter since it is much more likely over valleys and bodies of
water. The models generated of the AP clutter and normal
clutter are typically shared among radar operators and help
determine the most likely areas for corrupted data.
Troposphere and Tropopause models are also created and
shared to decide where the most likely areas for tropospheric
ducting are. Although these maps are less reliable and need
constant updating because the conditions of the atmosphere
change from day to day.
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F. Reflectivity Data methods used to obtain the best data by finding the optimal
Reflectivity data is a measure of the average power returned trade-off. More on these methods will come in the RPG section
from all the objects in a singular resolution’s volume by the of this document.
horizontally polarized signal. Reflectivity is ‘Z’ and its units
are dBz. Z depends on the number of drops and size of the H. Spectrum Width Data
drops in a specific area, so a lot of drops with large diameters
Spectrum Width base data (SW) is the velocity dispersion in
will return high dBz values [6]. Non-meteorological objects
resolution’s volume; In other words, SW is a measure of the
such as bats/birds, smoke, ground clutter, smoke, and wind
chaos in a specific volume [6]. High SW is indicative of lots of
farms can all contribute to varying reflectivity values that are of
turbulence, high wind shear, and less accurate velocity base
no benefit to meteorologists. With the upgrade to dual
data. Low SW is mostly used to confirm the accuracy of V
polarization, identifying non-meteorological objects has
measurements. Some affects that may contaminate the SW
become much more consistent. One important point to note is
data are range folding similar to V and also low power return
the calibration of Z and how it affects dBz values. Typically,
signals that are mostly dominated by system noise; these
the NEXRAD systems are calibrated for objects that fit
signals will return high SW values. It is important apply the
Swerling Case 1 objects like raindrops, snow and hail, but
current weather situations to the SW values to understand why
large differences in dBz values can be observed due to non-
it is returning certain values. Some of the important storm
Rayleigh scattering. In other words, a dBz value is simply an
characteristics that it is helpful in identifying are storm
approximation that relies on accurate calibration of the system
boundaries such as gust fronts and outflows; It is also useful
[6]. Reflectivity data is especially important in quickly
for finding melting layers that typically result in high SW
identifying areas of interest around the radar. Figure 4 shows
values [6].
the base products along with reflectivity on a graph of returned
power vs. Doppler velocity.

I. Dual Polarization Upgrade & Added Products

By 2013, every NEXRAD system had been upgraded to
operate in dual polarization. The simplest explanation is that
now the radars transmit vertically and horizontally polarized
signals simultaneously. Without changing the system too
radically, an orthomode transducer and feed replaced the
G. Velocity Data original assembly. The power division occurs via a variable
Velocity base data (V) is the power weighted mean radial phase power divider that can transmit 100% H or V polarized
velocity of all the targets in a specific resolutions volume. waves; Though it is typically set at 50-50 [7].
Another base product produced from the Doppler velocity is the
Storm-Relative Mean Radial Map (SRM) which is basically
the velocity of the internal components of a storm as opposed to
V which is ground relative [6]. There is also estimation that
occurs in the RDA section called an EAV tool which converts
the radial velocity into an absolute velocity, but it’s only an
estimation and isn’t used to draw any conclusions about a
storm; it serves the purpose of pointing operators to locations in
a storm that may need further observation in regard to the true
base data products. Particular problems that can contaminate
the velocity products are range folding that obscures where the
targets actually are and improper dealiasing that results in
inaccurate velocity values. Range folding and velocity aliasing The dual polarization upgrade has many benefits that will be
are inversely correlated so mitigating one can increase the expounded upon later but there are also some drawbacks,
effects of the other. Staggered PRFs and phase coding are although the benefits have been practically shown to outweigh
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the drawbacks. One of the most significant drawbacks is the

loss of sensitivity; Sensitivity is defined as the minimum signal
that is detectable by a radar at a given range [5]. The
sensitivity loss of the dual polarization upgrade is around 3.5-4
dB. This loss does not mean all values will decrease by 3.5-4
dB; The significance of this loss is that weaker signals near the
threshold will no longer register with the NEXRAD system [5].
Another issue is the increase in calibration needed to satisfy
accuracy estimates of the WSR-88D. These extra calibrations
The last important variable that dual polarization provides is
largely affect the new data products that dual polarization adds.
called differential phase ( ). It is the angle measurement of
Lastly, a phenomenon called depolarization can occur when
observing electrified thunderstorms which causes data artifacts the vector created by multiplying HV* and adding the smaller
in some of the new data products that are undesirable. vectors. can be interpreted as the horizontal and vertical
Earlier in this section the base data was referred to as two-way propagation phase shifts [6]. The differential phase is
moments of the Doppler spectrum, but the base data products not useful as base data by its itself, but in the RPG section of
that dual polarization adds are referred to as dual-pol variables. the radar it is used derive specific differential phase (KDP)
The first of these variables is called differential reflectivity which will be discussed later.
(ZDR). ZDR is defined as the difference between the J. Improvement Factors
horizontal reflectivity value and the vertical reflectivity value The Improvement Factor ( ) is defined as the signal to
for a specific volume. The calibration of both channels is
clutter ratio at the output of the clutter filter divided by the
supremely important to get accurate and useful values for ZDR. same ratio at the input of the clutter filter. There are several
factors that contribute to the overall improvement factor of a
(1) system. The components that combine to form the final
improvement factor are the improvement factors for the Stalo,
Using the Probert-Jones radar for equation (1), it is easy to see clutter, antenna and the A/D converter. Some important values
how much ZDR relies on accurate calibration [5]. ZDR is not mentioned previously that go into these calculations are
extremely useful in differentiating different hydrometeors as stalo phase stability of 0.114º, clutter standard deviation of
well as the shape. For horizontal objects, the ZDR will be 0.28 m/s and a 16 bit A/D converter. Figure 8 shows the
positive and for vertical objects the ZDR will be negative. One calculations and what values were used to obtain each
particular issue that affects ZDR is Mie Scattering where an improvement factor as well as using the different PRFs that the
object greater than 2 inches in diameter will cause the ZDR NEXRAD is capable of producing.
values to switch signs. Although combining this phenomenon
with other base data can actually be useful, it can be indicative
of large hail or non-meteorological objects.
Another dual polarization variable is known as the
correlation coefficient (CC). The correlation coefficient is
defined as how similar vertically and horizontally polarized
pulses behave from pulse to pulse in a specific volume [6]. CC
is useful in supplementing ZDR in identifying meteorological
vs. non-meteorological objects. High (>0.97) CC usually
indicates uniform scattering and points to a singular
hydrometer. Moderate (0.8 < CC < 0.97) CC is a characteristic
of multiple hydrometers that are usually present in non-uniform
scattering events such as the melting layer. Low (< 0.8) CC is
almost always indicative of non-meteorological objects like
birds, buildings, etc. Values over 1 usually point to regions of
low SNR in which CC becomes unreliable base data. CC is
calculated by dividing the length of the added vectors by the
averaged H and V powers.
These calculations display a few things. The first is that the
antenna scanning is the limiting factor of the different
components that go into the full calculation. Another
conclusion is the effect of the PRF on the system’s ability to
handle clutter. A high PRF allows for better resolution, and
clutter can be more easily mitigated as opposed to a low PRF.
Lastly, delay line cancellers (DLCs) deserve mention. The
calculations above were carried out with only 1 DLC in the
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system if there was 2 DLCs then the PRF would be raised to

the 4th power and so forth. Adding more DLCs leads to better
improvement factors. Although adding more DLCs seems
beneficial, it has its drawbacks. Adding more DLCs will
reduce the passband around a specific velocity and other
velocities might be cancelled out of the response. This effect
is not ideal for NEXRAD systems because it needs to have
the ability to track targets with a large variation in velocity.
In systems where the velocity of a target is known, it would
be beneficial to add more DLCs, but in the case of the
NEXRAD system, it is not.

III. RPG & PUP OVERVIEW B. SCIT Algorithm

This section gives an overview of the radar product generator
(RPG) as it pertains to its algorithms and data products, and
shows some of the PUP products that are output to the radar
operator. Figure 9 shows the derivations from each base
product.
The Storm Cell Identification and Tracking (SCIT) algorithm
is one of the most fundamental algorithms; It creates data
products that are included in almost every operation that takes
place in the RPG. The algorithm has four main components:
storm cell segments, storm cell centroids, storm cell tracking
and storm cell forecast [8]. The first operation identifies the
radial sequences of reflectivity which are called the storm cell
segments. The storm cell segments are then fed into the next
operation where the segments are grouped to form a 2D model
of the storm, and this information is vertically correlated from
different elevation scans to create a 3D model. This 3D model
of the storm cell is used to calculate the storm cell centroid. The
movement of the storm is tracked by comparing previous
volume scans to the current scan. Lastly, the storm cell forecast
is an extrapolation of the previous tracking data in an attempt
to predict its future path. An important point to note is that no
velocity data is used to track the storm cell’s movement, and
therefore, high speed storms are not at risk of being obscured at
blind speeds. After the reflectivity data has run its course
through the algorithm, a data product called Storm Tracking
Information (STI) is produced. Figure 11 shows the STI
product that can be overlaid over other data products to get a
sense of where all the active storm cells are located. Issues
tracking storm cells can arise when a storm cell splits or two
storm cells merge; Typically, the algorithm does not recalculate
the centroid of newly formed storm cell(s), and the STI product
is inaccurate.

A. Specific Differential Phase (KDP)

Specific differential phase is directly derived from the
differential phase, and KDP is calculated by taking the range
derivative of . The phase differential is not particularly
helpful because it is cumulative and difficult to understand in
regard to identifying meteorological events. KDP shows where
the differential phase is changing as opposed to the cumulative
phase shift that occurs along the entire radial. KDP is useful as
a means to identify heavy rainfall when other data products fail
to provide conclusive data [6]. Figure 10 shows the output at
the PUP workstation.

C. Hail Index (HI)

The Hail Detection Algorithm takes in 2 inputs from the
Storm Cell Identification and Track algorithm (SCIT): The

component and Cell attributes and the 0 to -20 degree
Celsius heights (altitudes where temperatures are 0 to -20
degrees Celsius) given to the radar product generator (RPG).
The outputs are: Probability of Hail, Probability of Severe
Hail (Hail greater than .75 inches, both these probabilities
are in 10% increments), and Maximum expected size of hail
(in .25’’ increments). This algorithm allows for detection of
hail at any size [9].
The Probability of Hail (POH) Algorithm finds the highest
altitude component whose reflectivity is greater than 45 dBz
and whose temperature is above 0 degrees Celsius. The POH
varies directly with this given height [9].
The Probability of Severe Hail (POSH) checks for any
components whose reflectivity values are greater than 40 dBz
that are above 0 degrees Celsius [9].
Figure 12. Equations for weight of reflectivity, where Zu is 50 dBz
and ZL is 40 dBz [9]
The function in Figure 9 is placed into the following
Energy Flux Equation [9]:
E = 5 × 10−6 × 100.084ZW(Z)
Where E is the Hail Kinetic Energy per meter squared
second. W(Z) thus only takes into account the higher
reflectivity of hail, filtering out the lower values of liquid water
[9]. Additionally, by measuring Kinetic Energy, one can have a
stronger measurement of the possible damage the hail can do
on the ground [9].
Additionally, since hail only grows below freezing, and
severe hail only grows below -20 degrees Celsius, one can
further weight the E function as such:
Figure 13. Equations for weight of height, where H0 is the height of
the environmental melting level and Hm20 is the height of the -20
degrees C environmental temperature. These heights are Above
Radar Level (ARL). [9]
These Parameters are used to calculate the Severe Hail
Index (SHI):
Figure 14. Equations for SHI. E is calculated using the max
reflectivity value per storm component [9]
6
Note that POSH, POH, and MESH (Maximum Expected Size
of Hail) will fluctuate at ranges further from the radar, due to
only a select few elevations actually sampling the storm as the
beam moves higher and higher through the atmosphere [9].
Additionally, HI cannot be computed at ranges exceeding 124
nmi. POSH and MESH may also be overestimated in weak
wind environments [9].
D. Composite Reflectivity (CZ)
Composite Reflectivity (CZ) is the maximum echo intensity
of from any elevation angle at every range (below the
maximum Long Range CZ range of 286 miles). That is, the
strongest reflectivity returns are combined into a single image.
This is useful for understanding the weather patterns at all
scanning elevations and angles [10]. Base Reflectivity, on the
other hand, is only useful for measuring returns from one
particular beam, typically the lowest (0.5 degree above horizon)
[10]. CZ measurements are useful in measuring storm
structures and phenomena such as updraft, where convection
forces warm air upwards, pushing moisture to higher elevation
(this is common in thunderstorms) [11].
The two CZ modes: Long Range and Short Range, have a
trade-off between grid resolution and maximum range. Long
Range has a max range of 248 nmi (nautical miles) and a grid
resolution of 2.2 x 2.2 nmi, giving off a blocky appearance
[11]. Short Range has 1.1 x 1.1 nmi grid resolution and a max
range of 124 nmi, making it less blocky but less effective for
longer range phenomena [11].
E. Enhanced Echo Tops (EET)
The Echo Top is the estimate of the highest height of the
18dBZ echo received (for each unit of scanning (range bin))
[12]. If the upper elevation bins are below 18 dBz and the
lower elevation bins exceed it, then linear interpolation is used,
via the values measured in the bins, to find the 18 dBz point.
A bin is “topped” if the highest elevation angle has a value
greater than or equal to 18dBZ [12]. In these situations, height
cannot be extrapolated using the above methods, so a basic
estimate is returned. Thus, tops can also be underestimated at
close ranges, as the reflectivity would be greater at any given
angles, due to reduced range for echo energy dissipation [12].
However, since reflectivity data cuts off at 70 thousand feet, it
is possible for a radar to top at farther ranges, due to data
cutoffs at greater angles. Thus, the data for a particularly
intense storm could top with a 1.5 degrees elevation scan, as
the 2.5 degrees scan returns no data (scanning ranges become
smaller and smaller as they approach this cutoff) [12].
F. VAD Wind Profile
The VWP is the result of the VAD, or Velocity Azimuth
Display algorithm. Here, the VAD finds the elevation angle
with the closest intersection to a given slant range. The wind
speed is calculated by assuming a linearly varying flow field,
then scanning around an entire cone of elevation angle a: [6]

Figure 15. Diagram of VAD Cone. Data is then fitted to a sine
wave.
Because of this method, VAD calculates more than one wind
per given height. Validity weights are assigned to these
measurements, taking into account error, wind speed, and
points used for the estimate. The VWP is then constructed,
with time on the x-axis and heights on the y axis [13]:
Figure 16. Diagram of VWP. Data is then fitted to a sine wave. The
color represents RMS error, green being the most reliable, red being
the least. [6]
Note that the VAD needs at least 25 points to create the
VWP, as that is number needed to fit data to a sine wave.
Additionally, the VWP only measures speed up to 120km from
the radar [6].
G. Mesocyclone Detection Algorithm (MDA)
The Mesocyclone Detection Algorithm is similar to the SCIT
algorithm, but its input is the base velocity data. The algorithm
first groups all the 1D shear segments along the radials to
create a 2D model. Then, it vertically correlates those models
from each elevation scan to create a 3D model of the circulation
that is occurring. If the circulation exceeds a mesocyclone
strength index (MSI) of 5 and is located over a 1 km above the
ground then a mesocyclone alert is issued [6]. The relevance of
mesocyclones is how frequently they precede severe weather
events like hail, thunderstorms and tornadoes. The MDA
serves as a sort of early detection warning system to identify
potentially dangerous storm cells. Since velocity is being used
as the main input, aliasing and blind speeds are significant
challenges to the algorithm functioning properly. In the case of
a false alarm, velocity aliasing is almost always the culprit.
7
Figure 16 displays the MD data product as an operator would
see it.
H. Tornado Detection Algorithm (TDA)
The tornado detection algorithm is one of the more
noteworthy algorithms because it needs to be able to produce a
data product that is accurate and reliable, given the damage
tornadoes can inflict. The TDA’s flagship data product is the
Tornadic Vortex Signature (TVS) which is displayed as a red
inverted isosceles triangle to an operator as shown in Figure
17.
The TDA first identifies patterns of increasing velocities with
increasing azimuth values. Since the radar is searching in the
clockwise direction for increasing velocities, it is only able to
identify clockwise rotation, luckily most tornadoes rotate
counterclockwise. The identified velocity patterns are known
as gate-to-gate shears, and the algorithm only accepts values
greater than 11 m/s [6]. All the gate-to-gate shears at a
particular elevation are grouped to determine a 2D circulation
model. Once the 2D models have been created, the algorithm
tries to vertically correlate 3 or more of these 2D circulations. If
3 of these 2D circulations are vertically correlated and aren’t
separated by more than one elevation, then the TVS product is
created for every instance in the range of the radar. Figure 18
shows this process.

I. Hydrometer Classification Algorithm (HCA)
The HCA is used to classify the range bins the radar detects
at all elevation angles.
Figure 20. HCA Classifications
The HCA uses six variables for classification: Differential
Reflectivity, Reflectivity factor at horizontal polarization, Cross
correlation between horizontally and vertically polarized radar
returns, specific differential phase, texture parameter of the
Reflectivity Factor field, and texture parameter of the
differential phase field [14].
However, since the output of the HCA is a probability value
for each bin, it is possible to have significant overlap between
classification chances in a single bin [6]. For example, one
could have a 74% chance of large hail and a 79% chance of
heavy rain in the same bin [6]. Thus, the result could be Heavy
rain mixed with hail, hail, or simply heavy rain. The HCA also
has no categories for ash, sleet, or debris [6].
J. Melting Layer Detection Algorithm (MLDA)
The MLDA works by inspecting all radials between 4 and 10
degrees. It checks for Reflectivity (Z), Differential
Reflectivity(ZDR), and Dual Polarization Correlation
Coefficient (CC). Bins are checked for “wet snow.” That is,
they are checked for high Z (between 30 and 47 dBz), ZDR
(between .8 and 2.2 dB), and CC between .9 and .97 [6]. A
height versus azimuth array is constructed, containing the
heights from all wet snow bins from the current and two
8
previous volume scans [6]. The top and bottom of the melting
layer are then calculated form the percent of wet snow bins at
each given azimuth (20th percentile gives the lower bound
height, 80th percentile gives the upper bound height for the
melting layer) [6].
If the MLDA does not have enough wet snow bins to
identify a Melting Layer, then one of two methods are used:
The Melting Layer is interpolated from the radials where valid
scans were found in the current volume scan [6]. Alternatively,
if the gaps between these radials is too large, then the 0 degrees
Celsius height is used as the top of the melting layer, and the
bottom is 500 meters below that [6].
Thus, the MLDA cannot create accurate outputs if there are
not enough wet snow detections within the period of 3 to 6
volume scans. Additionally, if multiple 0 degrees C spots are
present, only one will be used; thus, the height of the melting
layer could fluctuate wildly based on the number of such spots
(this situation is common with sleet presence). [6].
K. Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE) Algorithm
The QPE algorithm is one of the most complex algorithms
employed at the RPG, and it uses data from all the base
moments and variables as well as the data from the HCA and
MLDA. Figure 21 shows the flow of the data to create these
estimates. Also, worth mentioning is the dual polarization
preprocessor which corrects any inaccuracies in dual
polarization data by cross-examining it with the legacy Z data.
The exact mechanisms responsible for creating the precipitation
estimates are out of the scope of this document. Since this
algorithm incorporates nearly every base data product, all the
limitations of the previous algorithms are essentially combined
for this algorithm. The QPE algorithm is still under
development as large amounts of empirical data are needed to
verify its accuracy and ultimate potential.
L. Multiple PRF Dealiasing Algorithm (MPDA)
The MPD algorithm is one of particular importance when it
comes to mitigating the most common limitations of the
NEXRAD system: range folding and velocity aliasing. It
mitigates range folding by using the Doppler data from 3
different scans at the same elevation but all with different PRFs
which will cause the range folding to occur at different
distances. Beyond 175 km, mitigating the range folding
 9

becomes inconsistent. The MPD algorithm mitigates velocity https://www.ofcm.gov/publications/fmh/FMH11/fmh11partC.pdf.

[Accessed: 01-May-2019].
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measurements (3 different PRFs) at the same range [8]. The Enhanced Hail Detection Algorithm for the WSR-88D: Weather and
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0434(1998)013<0286:AEHDAF>2.0.CO;2.
measurements and subsequently dealias the velocity at that [10] “What's The Difference Between Composite And Base Radar, And Which
location. If no solution is found then it will try to find a solution One Should You Use For Flying?” Online Flight Training Courses and
for a velocity pair and so forth. The biggest issue concerning CFI Tools, www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/weather/difference-
between-composite-and-base-radar-reflectivity/.
the use of this algorithm is an area where there are extensive [11] US Department of Commerce, and Noaa. “About Our WSR 88-D
echoes and subsequent range folding. In this case, all three Radar.” National Weather Service, NOAA's National Weather Service,
velocity values may also be subject to the range folding and 23 Mar. 2015, www.weather.gov/iwx/wsr_88d.
[12] Enhanced Echo Tops,
thus any solution provided to dealias the velocity will be wildly training.weather.gov/wdtd/courses/rac/products/eet/presentation_html5.ht
inaccurate. ml.
[13] VADs (Velocity Azimuth Display),
IV. CONCLUSION apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/remote/lecture_notes/radar/doppler/vads2.html
[14] “The Hydrometeor Classification Algorithm for the Polarimetric WSR-
This document summarizes the components of the 88D: Description and Application to an MCS.” The Hydrometeor
NEXRAD system as well as the base data, detection
algorithms and derived data products. Some of the main issues
encountered throughout the NEXRAD system’s operational
existence have stemmed from clutter, range folding, and
velocity aliasing. These issues have been significantly
mitigated since 1988. The solutions have come from far and
wide and have been implemented on the system level as well as
the DSP level. The methods formed to provide solutions to
these issues are well documented and whenever the next
generation of weather radars is ready for commissioning, there
will be significant support to easily go above and beyond the
United States’ current forecasting capabilities. The amount of
ingenuity and patience for this coordinated effort to supply the
U.S. with accurate weather forecasts is immense to say the
least. Not to forget, countless lives have been saved by alerts
from these very radars and appreciating the men and women
who have dedicated their lives to creating these solutions is of
the utmost importance.

REFERENCES
[1] “NEXRAD System/Segment Specification,” 01-Sep-1996. [Online].
Available: https://www.roc.noaa.gov/wsr88d/PublicDocs/NTR96.pdf.
[Accessed: 01-May-2019].
[2] “Components of the WSR 88D.” [Online]. Available:
http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/remote/lecture_notes/radar/88d/88d_com
ponents.html. [Accessed: 01-May-2019].
[3] R. J. Doviak, “System Requirements for Phased Array Weather Radar.”
[Online]. Available:
https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/publications/mpar_reports/LMCO_Consult2.p
df. [Accessed: 01-May-2019].
[4] E. A. Brandes, “A Review of WSR-88D Algorithms,” 12-Mar-1999.
[Online]. Available:
https://roc.noaa.gov/WSR88D/PublicDocs/AppsDocs/algorithm99.pdf.
[Accessed: 01-May-2019].
[5] “Dual Polarization Radar Principles,” weather.gov. [Online]. Available:
https://training.weather.gov/wdtd/courses/dualpol/documents/DualPolRad
arPrinciples.pdf. [Accessed: 02-May-2019].
[6] “Base and Derived Products.” [Online]. Available:
https://training.weather.gov/wdtd/courses/rac/documentation/rac19-
products.pdf. [Accessed: 03-May-2019].
[7] “Development of Polarization Technology,” Dec-2011. [Online].
Available: https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/OSY/Meetings/ET-
SBRSO_ET-RSO-
2011/DocPlan/3.3.1_Development_of_Polarization_Technology.pdf.
[Accessed: 03-May-2019].
[8] “WSR-88D Meteorological Observations,” Oct-2017. [Online].
Available: