Solar Water Heater PDF

Design of solar water heater for DDU students’ cafeteria 2005
DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
STREAM OF DESIGN
SOLAR WATER HEATER FOR DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY STUDENT

CAFTERIA
A Research Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of BSc in Mechanical Engineering
By:-
Kidane Hailu …R/563/01
Semhal Gebrehiwot ...R/816/01
Woldemeskel Amare ...R/932/01
Yared Negash ...R/943/01
Advisors: - Tesfaye M.
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DECLARATION
This thesis entitled” THE SOLAR WATER HEATER FOR DDU STUDENT’S CAFTERIA” is
the original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other, and that all sources of
material used for the thesis have been properly acknowledged.
…………………… ……………………………….
Mr. Date
This is to certify that the above declaration made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge
Approved by:
Tesfaye M. __________________ _____________
Advisor Signature Date
____________________ _____________________ _____________
Examiner Signature Date
_____________________ ___________________ _____________
Examiner Signature Date
____________________ __________________ _____________
Chairman Signature Date
……………………………… ………………………………
Mr. TESFAYE M. Date
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, thanks to God because giving us blessing, health and ideas to finish our project
successfully. We are grateful and would like to express our sincere appreciation to our kind
supervisor, Mr. TESEFAYE M. and Mr. BINYAM D. for their germinal ideas, valuable
guidance, advice and continuous encouragement, suggestion throughout this project.
III
Contents
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………I
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………..II
LIST OF SYMBOLS…………………………………………………………..III
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………….V
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….1
1.1. BACKGROUND………………………………………………………...1
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM……………………………………………...1
1.3. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT……………………………………………......2
1.4.SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH………………………………………………………..…3
1.5.SIGNIFICANT THE PROJECT………………...……………………………….3
1.6.METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………..3
1.7.ORGANIZATION OF THE PROJECT……………………………………………3
2.LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………...5
2.2.TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATERS……..……..………..……………..5

2.2.1. TYPES OF COLLECTORS……………………..…………………...5
A) ICS OR BATCH COLLECTORS………………………………………………….…5
B) FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS………………………………………………….……6
C) EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTORS (ETC)………………………………….……...7
2.2.2.TYPES OF CIRCULATION SYSTEM…………………………..…….8
A)CIRCULATION SYSTEM (THERMO-SYPHON SOLAR SYSTEM)……..….8
B)FORCED CIRCULATION (OR ACTIVE) SYSTEMS………………………………..9
3. DATA ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………..12
3.1.SOLAR WATER HEATING PRINCIPLE……………………………………12

3.2.ESTIMATION OF SOLAR RADIATION DATA…………………………...…12
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3.2.1 PREDICTION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY GLOBAL RADIATION ……….…15

3.2.2. PREDICTION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY DIFFUSE RADIATION……….…16
3.2.3 PREDICTION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE HOURLY GLOBAL RADIATION…....…...17
3.2.4 PREDICTION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE HOURLY DIFFUSE RADIATION…….…..18
3.3.SOLAR RADIATION ON AN INCLINED SURFACE………………...…...18
3.4.MATERIAL SELECTION…………………………...……….……......19
3.5.POTENTIAL ENERGY OF SWH……………………………………..20
3.6.ENERGY BALANCE FOR FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR...22
3.6.1 OVERALL LOSS COEFFICIENT AND HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS……..…22
3.6.2 TOP LOSS COEFFICIENT………………..………………………………...….22
3.6.3 BOTTOM LOSS COEFFICIENT…………………………………………….…..29
3.6.4 SIDE LOSS COEFFICIENT…………………………………………………..….30
3.7.MECHANICAL DESIG………………………..……………………..…...34
4.COMPUTER MODELING………………………………………………....40
4.1.OVERVIEW……………………………………………………………....40
5.RESULT AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………..…..48
6.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………………..…….63
REFERENCE………………………………………………………….……....64
APPENDIX 1………………………………………………………………….65
APPENDIX 2…………………………………………………………………77
APPENDIX 3………………………………………………………………….78
APPENDIX 4 PART DRAWINING AND ASSEMBLY……………………..79
II
LIST OF TABLES
Table [3.1]:- Recommended average days for months and values of n by months … (p14)
Table [3.2]:-material property … (p20)
Table [3.3]:- property of air at one atmosphere … (p25)
Table [3.4]:- Range of variable [10] … (p27)
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure [2.1]:- Integrated Collector storage and its component parts . (p6)
Figure [2.2]:- Flat Plate collector and its component parts . (p7)
Figure [2.3]:- Evacuated tube and its component parts . (p7)
Figure [2.4]:- basic principle of thermo siphon system (A natural circulation systems) . (p9)
Figure [2.5]:- Forced-circulation system . (p10)
Figure [3.1]:-Thermal network for the single cover collector in terms of (a) conductive,
convection and radiation; (b) resistance between plates; (c) a simple collector network .(p23)
Figure [3.2]:- heat transfer of air gap between cover and absorber . (p26)
Figure [3.3]:-heat transfer in the absorber . (p26)
Figure [3.4]:-heat transfer in the insulation . (p27)
Figure [3.5]: spacing between pipes . (p32)
Figure [3.6] Wood outer cabinet . (p34)
Figure [3.7]:-the piping network and spacing . (p35)
Figure [3.8]:- Plumbing and piping . (p37)
Figure [3.9]:- Pipe branch . (p38)
Figure [4.1]:- Customize . (p41)
Figure [4.2]:- Coating box . (p42)
Figure [4.3]:- insulation . (p42)
Figure [4.4]:- Absorber plate . (p43)
Figure [4.5]:- Riser tube . (p44)
Figure [4.6]:- Header pipe . (p44)
Figure [4.7]:- Glazing . (p45)
Figure [4.8]:- Storage tank . (p45)
Figure [4.9]:- Block . (46)
Figure [4.10]:- Assembled product . (p47)
Figure [5.1]: Daily Extraterrestrial radiation in a year . (p49)
Figure [5.2]:-Monthly average daily horizontal Global Radiation in a year . (p51)
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
A= Area of solar incidence
C=specific heat of water
G= is the global incident solar radiation on the collector
g=the gravitational constant [9.8m/s2]
k =is thermal conductivity [1]
L= is the plate spacing
m=mass of water
n= is number of days in a year
V = is the wind speed in[ 3m/s].
υ=is kinematics viscosity of air water [1]
= the short wave absorptivity of the absorber
= the transmittance of the cover Beam radiation
Average temperature produced by the collector
̅ = Average clear sky daily radiation for the location and month in question
̇ = the energy collected per unit collector area per unit time
=Area of the collector
( ⁄ )
The collector’s heat removal factor
= solar constant []
̅ = monthly average daily radiation on a horizontal surface
Extraterrestrial radiation
Thermal conductivity of the insulation
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̅=The monthly average of the maximum possible daily hours of bright sunshine (i.e. the length
of the average day of the month)
Ambiant temperature
=Temperature of surrounding air (assumed to be the same on all sides of the collector).
= Average temperature of the absorber plate
Overall heat loss coefficient of the collector
Empirical constants
̅= monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine
Back insulation thickness
= edge insulation thickness
= is the volumetric coefficient of expansion of air.
=Temperature difference between the plate and the glass
IV
ABSTRACT
Solar power has become a source of renewable energy and solar energy applications
should be enhanced. One of the simplest and most direct applications of solar energy is
conversion of solar radiation into heat, which can be used in water heating systems. Solar water
heating system was a practical application to replace the using of fire wood water heater. The
objective this project is to design cost effective solar water heater which deliver hot water to Dire
Dawa University student’s cafeteria and develop prototype to demonstrate the operating
principle of solar water heater. This analysis done by using a mathematical model developed to
obtain data on temperature in the changes of flat plate collector area, piping size and mass flow
rate of water. Efficiency of flat plate collector is calculated. The prototype considers heat transfer
coefficient for the glass cover, air gap between cover and absorber, absorber plat, working fluid,
insulation, and the storage tank.
The objectives of the project is to design cost effective solar water heater which deliver hot water
to DDU student cafeteria and develop prototype to demonstrate the operating principle of solar
water heater
The methodology system is input data that are crucial for the design of solar water heater are
solar radiation, environmental temperature and total hot water demand per day. The solar
radiation and environmental temperature are collected from the NMA for Dire Dawa site. The
total Hot Water demand is known from the user. Those data’s are manipulated and adjusted as an
input for the design purpose.
The result of using solar water heater is minimized cost, prevent environment from pollution and
also prevent deforestation.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Due to environmental issues and limited fossil fuel resources, more and more attention is
being given to renewable energy sources. Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural
resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which is renewable (naturally
replenished). The radiated energy from the sun is the largest source of renewable energy
available from earth. In the recent years solar energy has been strongly promoted as a viable
energy source. One of the simplest and most direct applications of this energy is the convergence
of solar radiation into heat.
1.1. BACKGROUND
The solar energy is the most capable of the alternative energy sources. Thermal conversion is a
technological scheme that utilizes a solar radiation. When dark surface is placed in sunshine, it
absorbs solar energy and heats up. Solar energy collector working with sun facing surfaces will
transfer energy to the water that flow through it. To reduce heat loses to atmosphere and to
improve it efficiency, on or two sheet of glass are usually placed over the absorbed surface. This
type of thermal collector suffers from heat losses due to radiation and convection. Such losses
increase rapidly as the temperature of the working fluid increases.
Solar water heating systems comprise several innovations and many mature renewable energy
technologies that have been well established for many years. Solar water heating is a proven and
famous renewable energy technology and has been used in many countries of the world. The
solar water heating system have been the famous application that using solar radiation as an
energy sources that using thermal conversions.
1.2 Statement of the Problem

For Ethiopia as a whole, the yearly average daily radiation is 5.26kWh/m2. This varies
significantly during the year, ranging from a minimum of 4.55kWh/m2 in July to a maximum of
5.55kWh/m² in February and March. On a regional basis, the yearly average radiation ranges
from values as low as 4.25 kWh/m2 in the areas of Itang in the Gambella regional state (western
Ethiopia), to as high as 6.25 kWh/m2 around Adigrat in the Tigray regional state (northern
Ethiopia).
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Current uses of solar energy are for off-grid rural applications in homes, rural telecoms and in
the social sectors (water pumping, health services, schools). Solar energy is also becoming an
important alternative to water heating in the major cities. Solar water-heating installations are in
a thousand or so units in Addis Ababa and the major cities.
Low energy consumption and the use of renewable energy are important indicators for an
environment-friendly and sustainable energy supply. A major problem is that biomass, which
covers the majority of Ethiopia’s primary energy demand, is used in a very inefficient way,
leading to deforestation and further environmental problems like soil erosion. Hence, the lack of
access to modern energy services leads to traditional biomass use, and biomass use in turn leads
to unsustainable environmental harm.
Dire Dawa university student’s cafeteria use huge amount of hot water. Based on recent
information cafeteria needs 3750 litter hot water per a day. To heat this amount of water requires
5220kg of wood per a daye.1kg wood is3.154 birr, which means 5220kg/day wood requires
16,464 birr/day. In Engineering approach we loss 1214.22kJ of heat energy per a day. [1]
Solar can be use as a clean alternative energy to reduce wood cost and is promising in the
effect to establish environmentally friendly for global warming protection system. So far, many
extensive studies investigated solar water heating system and become the famous application for
home and building. It’s important to study about the power produce to heat the water using solar
water heating system and proving about energy saving of solar water heating system.
1.3 Objective of the Project

General objectives:
To design cost effective solar water heater which deliver hot water to DDU student cafeteria and
develop prototype to demonstrate the operating principle of solar water heater.
Specific objectives:
 To calculate energy harnessed by flat plate solar water heater
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From DDU CAFTERIA OFFICE
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 Mathematical modeling of outlet water temperature

 Computer modeling of operating principle
 To calculate the efficiency of solar collector
 To demonstrate the operating principle by developing a prototype
1.4 Scope of the Research

The research is limited on its scope from design and developing a prototype to
demonstrate the operating principles of solar water heater.
1.5 Significant the Project

Heating water with solar energy can be a cost effective and environmentally responsible
way to generate hot water, minimizing the expense of electricity or fossil fuels to heat water and
reducing the associated environmental impacts.
1.6 Methodology
The input data that are crucial for the design of solar water heater are solar radiation,
environmental temperature and total Hot water demand per day. The solar radiation and
environmental temperature are collected from the NMA for Dire Dawa site. The total Hot Water
demand is known from the user. Those data’s are manipulated and adjusted as an input for the
design purpose.
The processing of data will follow after all necessary data are collected. The data collected
will be edited to make it suitable for processing. After data collection conceptual design and
mathematical modeling of out let water temperature will be developed and then computer
modeling of operating principle. Then efficiency of selected solar collector will be calculated
then prototype developed to demonstrate the operating principle. The all processed data will be
analyzed by using proper numerical calculation that is used to design effective, efficient and safe
solar water heater that can resist all factors that may cause fail.
1.7 Organization of the Project

The first part of the research is about introduction which includes background, statement of
the problem which Dire Dawa university losses huge amount of money to heat huge amount of
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water, objective of the project (general and specific objective), scope of the project, significant of
the project of methodology.
And the second part of the project take about literature review which consider about the
principle of the solar water heating system ,type of solar water heater which include type of
collector and type of circulation system ,and the type of circulation system expressed about the
two part of circulation which is forced and natural circulation system.
The third part is data analysis including estimation solar radiation data (solar radiation and
thermal radiation ,necessary calculation of different type of radiation about horizontal radiation ,
beam radiation ,Diffuse radiation ,Extraterrestrial radiation ), solar radiation inclined surface,
material selection which used to prepared the project ,the energy balance for flat plate collector
(including overall loss coefficient ,and heat transfer co-relation , top loss coefficient ,bottom and
side loss coefficient ), also take about convective heat transfer coefficient(from the plate to the
cover ,from glazing cover to the ambient temperature) ,radiation heat transfer coefficient (from
the plate to the cover ,from the sky to the glazing cover ),and finally it expressed about how can
find the useful energy ,mechanical design (about area of the collector, number of the pipe
,dimension of all necessary parts ,and the pressure loss of the collector ) .
The next part is about computer modeling, detail expression about CATIA software which used
to draw 3D assembly of the system and part drawing of the component. And finally the
conclusion, recommendation, results and discussion of the project is placed.
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2 Literature Review
2.2 Types of Solar Water Heaters

A solar water heating system is the device that uses solar energy for hot water production. It is
renewable energy technology and has been used in many countries of the world. This natural
energy is absolutely free and supply is unlimited in the day whenever there is sunlight. The usage
of energy does not produce any pollutant and therefore is most Environment Friendly. Heating
water is usually burning by firewood in the country areas and by fossil fuel energy such kerosene
oil, petroleum, coal and electricity. In this consider, consumption of solar energy through solar
water heating systems can be replaced to reducing energy amount required. [2]
Solar water heaters are typically described according to the type of collector and the circulation
system. As key components in building solar water heaters, solar collectors accept solar
radiation, convert it to thermal energy and deliver it to water in the solar water heating system.
2.2.1 Types of Collectors
a) ICS or batch collectors
These reduce heat losses by placing the water tank in a thermally insulated box.
This is achieved by enclosing the water tank in a box with glass top that allows heat from the
sun to reach the water tank; however the other walls of the box are thermally insulated,
thus reducing convection as well as radiation to the environment. In addition to it, the box can
also have a reflective surface on the inside. This reflects the heat lost from the tank back towards
the tank. In a simple way one could consider an ICS solar water heater as a water tank that
has been enclosed in a type of 'oven' that retains heat from the sun as well as heat of the water
inside the tank. Using a box does not eliminate heat losses from the tank to the environment, but
it largely reduces these losses. This is because; ICS collectors have a characteristic that strongly
limits the efficiency of the collector: a very small surface-to-volume ratio. Since the amount of
heat that a tank can absorb from the sun is largely dependent on the surface area of the tank
directly exposed to the sun, it follows that a small surface area would limit the degree to
which the water can be heated by the sun. Cylindrical objects such as the tank in an ICS collector
inherently have a small surface-to-volume ratio and the most modern collectors attempt to
increase this ratio for efficient warming of the water in the tank. [4]
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Figure [2.1]:-Integrated Collector storage and its component parts [6]
b) Flat plate collectors

These are an extension of the basic idea i.e.; to place a collector in an 'oven'-like
box with glass in the direction of the Sun. Most flat plate collectors have two horizontal
pipes at the top and bottom, called headers, and many smaller vertical pipes connecting
them, called risers. The risers are welded (or similarly connected) to thin absorber fins.
Heat-transfer fluids (water or water/antifreeze mix) is pumped from the hot water storage
tank (direct system) or heat exchanger (indirect system) into the collectors' bottom header, and it
travels upward in the risers, collecting the heat from the absorber fins, and then exits the
collector out of the top header. Serpentine flat plate collectors differ slightly from this "harp"
design, and instead use a single pipe that travels up and down the collector. However,
since they cannot be properly drained out of water, serpentine flat plate collectors cannot
be used in drain back systems.[4]
The type of glass used in flat plate collectors are almost always low-iron, tempered
glass. Being tempered, the glass can withstand significant hail without breaking, which is one of
the reasons that flat-plate collectors are considered to be the most durable collector type.
Unglazed or formed collectors these are similar to flat-plate collectors, except that they are not
thermally insulated nor are they physically protected by a glass panel. Consequently these types
of collectors are much less efficient for domestic water heating.[4]
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Figure [2.2]:- Flat Plate collector and its component parts
c) Evacuated tube collectors (ETC)

These are a way in which heat loss to the environment, inherent in flat plates, has
been reduced. Since heat loss due to convection cannot cross a vacuum, it forms an
efficient isolation mechanism to keep heat inside the collector pipes. As two flat sheets of
glass are normally not strong enough to withstand a vacuum, the vacuum is rather created
between the two concentric tubes. Typically, the water piping in an ETC is therefore
surrounded by two concentric tubes of glass with a vacuum in between that admits heat from the
sun (to heat the pipe) but which limits heat loss back to the environment. The inner tube is
coated with a thermal absorbent material. Life of the vacuum varies from one collector to the
collector, anywhere from 5 years to 15 years. [4]
Although the heat gain associated with evacuated tubes is less than the heat gain of flat-plate
collectors the heat loss is minimized by the vacuum.
Figure [2.3]:- Evacuated tube and its component parts [6]

Solar collectors are described by their efficiency equations.
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• Glazed collectors
• Evacuated collectors
• Unglazed collectors
Glazed and evacuated collectors share the same basic, wind-independent efficiency equation.
Unglazed collectors use a wind-dependent efficiency equation. Effects of angle of incidence,
losses due to snow and dirt, and loss of heat through the piping and the solar tank are accounted
for through separate factors.
2.2.2 Types of Circulation System

There are basically two types of solar water heating system.
a) Circulation System (thermo-syphon solar system)

The Thermo-syphon principle the tank filled with water, is connected to the collector. The
collector is positioned hallow the bottom of the tank. “Water runs through a hose at the bottom
of the tank to the collector. The water is heated in the collector. Hot water flows toward the top
of the collector and it is forced out of the hose at the top of the collector into the tank by the
pressure of the cooler (heavier) water coming in from the tank. The hot water stays at the top of
the tank and cool water flows to the collector. The flow established continues until the water is
no longer being heated by the sun. For example, at night the flow becomes stable and the hot
water remains until it is used or it cools.
Thermo syphon principle
It is important to remember that the storage tank must be located higher above the collector
to enable the thermo syphon principle to work figure [2.4]
Density different created by temperature gradient causes the fluid being heated to flow
without pump, This effect of natural flow due to density gradient is usually termed as thermo
siphon effect .Thermo siphon consists of collector, storage tank and connect tube .when the sun
radiation fall on the collector it brings at the temperature difference between the lower and upper
ends of the collector temperature different of a density variation giving rise to buoyancy force.
8
The solar water heater rises by thermo siphon action to the storage tank, cold water from
storage flow down to the inlet of the collator, the cycle will continue during the sun radiation is
incident on the collector.
During the night thermo-siphon may occur in the opposite direction especially if the storage
tank is below the collector, this prevent for checking the undesirable heat losses. The tube of tilt
angle for the transfer of heat from absorber plate to circulating fluid
NOTE:-water entire the collector at the temperature ( ) and leaves, it at temperature ( ) then
the storage tank receives heat from the collector.
Figure [2.4]:- basic principle of thermo-siphon (natural circulation system)
b) Forced Circulation (or active) Systems

A pump is required; it is usually controlled by a differential thermostat turning on the pump
when the temperature at the top header is higher than the temperature of the water in the bottom
of the tank by a sufficient margin to assure control stability. A check valve is needed to prevent
reverse circulation and resultant nighttime thermal losses from the collector. [1]
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Figure [2.5]:- Forced-circulation system
The advantage of flat-plate collectors are that they are inexpensive to manufacture, they collect
both beam and diffuse radiation, and they are permanently fixed in position, so no tracking of the
sun is required. [3] Because of the advantages the research is focused on the flat plate collector.
Advantages to using a thermo-siphon solar water heater simple, efficient, doesn’t require
electricity , natural way to move heat from a collector to storage or use, less energy used, pumps
water and heat through pipe without external power.[4]
The project is mainly concerned with flat plate solar water heating system so the main
components are illustrated below: [4]
 Cover. One or more sheets of glass or other radiation transmitting material

 Heat removal fluid passage ways. Tubes, fins, or passages that conduct or direct the
heat transfer fluid from the inlet to the outlet.
 Absorber plate. Flat, corrugated, or grooved plates, to which the tubes, fins, or passages
are attached. The plate is usually coated with a high-absorptance, low-emittance layer.
 Headers or manifolds. Pipes and ducts to admit and discharge the fluid.
 Insulation. Used to minimize the heat loss from the back and sides of the collector.
 Container. The casing surrounds the aforementioned components and protects them
from dust, moisture, and any other material.
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Selection of materials for flat-plate collectors
To design and construct solar collectors for water heating, detailed knowledge of the properties
of the materials and the characteristics of the various components is necessary to predict the
performance and durability of the collector.
Needed property data can generally be classified into three categories:
 Thermo physical
 Physical, and
 Environmental properties.
Thermo physical properties: - include thermal conductivity, heat capacity and radiant heat
transfer characteristics.
Physical properties: - include density, tensile strength, melting point, and modulus of elasticity.
Environmental properties: - include resistance to ultraviolet degradation, moisture penetration

and degradability due to pollutants in the atmosphere.
Absorber plate: - the collector absorber plate should have high thermal conductivity, adequate
tensile and comprehensive strength, and good corrosion resistance. The current liquid flat-plate
solar collectors manufactured in Ethiopia are made from steel absorber plate and copper tubes.
Cover plate: - the most critical factors for the cover plate-materials are strength, durability, non-
degradability and solar energy transmission. Therefore, tempered glass of thickness 3.2mm is
used as a covering material because of its proven durability and because it is not affected by
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Casing: - the choice of the material for casing is largely one of cost and mild steel is used for
casing material.
Seal: - sealing materials are applied to ensure the solar collector is not affected from weather
conditions. The most common material used is EPDM. This sealing material is applied in solid
form.
Absorber Insulation: - a layer of insulating material can reduce heat losses from the back and
edge of an absorber plate and should be able to withstand the collector stagnation temperatures.
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Mineral fiber is selected for the back and edge of absorber plate insulation because it presents no
fire hazards compared to other polymeric foams and can resist the high collector stagnation
temperature.
Pipes and connection: - The pipe work in a solar system must be able to withstand circulating
fluid at high temperatures without corroding.
Storage tank: - the primary task of the storage tank is to store the hot water without corroding,
and must withstand the pressures involved.
3. Data Analysis
3.1 Solar water heating principle

Sun radiates energy in the form of heat and light. A dark colored surface of an object, when
exposed to sun, absorbs most of the heat and the object gets heated up. As a result there is rise in
temperature of the associated material by way of conduction. Since the dark colored object has
attained higher temperature than the surrounding air, it exchanges heat with the air by way of
convection. Again, as the dark object is exposed to the atmosphere, it exchanges heat with the
atmosphere by way of radiation.
If we control the exchange of heat between the dark colored object (absorber surface in the
collector) and the material that is required to be heated up (water in the collector) by way of
convection or conduction, it would be considered as a desirable heat exchange. The devices, used
for solar heating, try to increase this desirable heat exchange and reduce the undesirable heat loss
to air, atmosphere or other materials in contact. The device that is used for this controlled heat
exchange and for converting the solar energy into useful heat is called ‘solar collector’.
3.2 Estimation of solar radiation data

The design of a solar water heating system requires precise knowledge regarding the availability
of global solar radiation and its components at the location of interest. Since the solar radiation
reaching the earth’s surface depends upon climatic conditions of the place, a study of solar
radiation under local climatic conditions is essential.
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In developing countries such as Ethiopia, due to absence or malfunction of measuring

instruments, reliable solar radiation data is not available. In the absence and scarcity of
trustworthy solar radiation data, the use of an empirical model to predict and estimate solar
radiation seems inevitable. These models use climatological parameters of the location under
study. Among all such parameters, sunshine hours are the most widely and commonly used.
Solar radiation
All substances, solid bodies as well as liquids and gases above the absolute zero temperature,
emit energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
The radiation that is important to solar energy applications is that emitted by the sun within the
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared regions. Therefore, the radiation wavelength that is important to
solar energy applications is between 0.15 and 3.0m. The wavelengths in the visible region lie
between 0.38 and 0.72m.
Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is a form of energy emission and transmission that depends entirely on the
temperature characteristics of the emissive surface. There is no intervening carrier, as in the other
modes of heat transmission, i.e., conduction and convection. Thermal radiation is in fact an
electromagnetic wave that travels at the speed of light (C=300,000km/s in a vacuum).
The latitude of Dire Dawa is .
Solar radiation for the critical day (n) value in January is 17 at latitude 9.6
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Table [3.1]:- Recommended average days for months and values of n by months
Month Day number Average day of the month

Date N
January I 17 17 -20.92
February 31+i 16 47 -12.95
March 59+i 16 75 -2.42
April 90+i 15 105 9.41
May 120+i 15 135 18.79
June 151+i 11 162 23.09
July 181+i 17 198 21.18
August 212+i 16 228 13.45
September 243+i 15 258 2.22
October 273+i 15 288 -9.60
November 304+i 14 318 -18.91
December 334+i 10 344 -23.05
The day of the year n can be conveniently obtained with the help of table [1] .Note that
declination function of time, when it is about 0.50/day. For most engineering calculations, the
assumption of an integer n to represent a day results in a satisfactory calculation of declination .
[1]
Declination ( )
The angular position of the sun at solar noon (i.e., when the sun is on the local meridian) with
respect to the plane of the equator, north positive:- .
̅
( ) … (3.1)
Solar hour angle and sunset hour angle
The solar hour angles( ), the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian
due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 150 per hour, morning negative, afternoon positive. The
14
solar hour angle is equal to zero at solar noon and varies by 15dour angle degrees per hour from
solar noon.
The sunset hour angle ( ) is the angle solar hour angle corresponding to the time when the
sun sets and it is given by:-
… (3.2)
Average day length (n)
… (3.3)
( ( ))
Solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere is called extraterrestrial radiation .daily
extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface is given by:-
̅
̅ * +* +* + … (3.4)
3.2.1 Prediction of Monthly Average Daily Global Radiation on a Horizontal

surface
Several empirical models have been developed to calculate global solar radiation using various
parameters. Angstrom (1924) developed the earliest model used for estimating global radiation,
in which the sunshine duration data and clear sky radiation to clear day radiation at the location
in question and average fraction of possible sunshine hour:
̅ ̅
̅ ̅̅̅̅
… (3.6)
15
̅
A basic difficulty with Equation (3.6) lies in the ambiguity of the terms ̅
and ̅ . The former is
an instrument problem (sunshine records are open to interpretation).The latter stems from
uncertainty in the definition of a clear day. Page (1994) and other have modified the method to
base it on extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface rather than on clear day radiation. The
̅
ratio ̅
is termed the monthly average clearness index.
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
... (3.7)
The coefficient a and b can be determined from
̅
( ̅) … (3.8a)
… (3.8b)
3.2.2 Prediction of Monthly Average Daily Diffuse Radiation on a Horizontal

Surface
Diffuse Radiation: - The solar radiation received from the sun after its directions were
changed by scattering by the atmosphere. (Diffuse radiation is referred to in some meteorological
literature as sky radiation or solar sky radiation: the definition used here will distinguish the
diffuse solar radiation from infrared radiation emitted by the atmosphere.)
The daily diffuse radiation, ( ⁄ ) depends on the hour angle, and the cloudiness ratio
given by Equation. The daily diffuse radiation is evaluated from the expressions (3.9a)-(3.9b),
given by (Garg and Prakash) as follows:
For >81.4⁰ and 0.3≤ ≤0.8
̅ ̅ ̅ … (3.9a)
For ≤81.4o and 0.3≤ ≤0.8
̅ ̅ ̅ … (3.9b)
16
The minimum value of sunset hour angle for Dire Dawa is estimated to 860 which is greater than
81.40 and which is less than 0.8, thus meet the conditional value of equation (3.7a).
̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅
Beam Radiation: The solar radiation received from the sun without having been scattered by
the atmosphere. It is often referred to as direct solar radiation, to avoid confusion between
subscripts for direct and diffuse, we use the term radiation.
̅ … (3.10)
3.2.3 Prediction of Monthly Average Hourly Global Radiation on a Horizontal

Surface
The monthly average hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface can be calculated from the
knowledge of the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal.
̅
̅
̅ … (3.11)
The coefficient a and b is given by:-
… (3.12a)
… (3.12b)
In these equations ̅ is the hour angle in degrees for the time in a day. ̅ is given as
̅ Where: - ST is standard time from 1to 24 hour
17
3.2.4 Prediction of Monthly Average Hourly Diffuse Radiation on a Horizontal

Surface
The ratio of monthly average hourly diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface to monthly average
daily diffuse is as a function of time of the day and the day length. It can be used to estimate
hourly average of diffuse radiation if the average daily total radiation is known:
̅
… (3.12)
̅
After estimating the hourly values of global and diffuse radiation using (3.11) and (3.12),
monthly average hourly beam radiation is calculated by the following relation
… (3.13)
3.3 Solar radiation on an inclined surface

The most favorable orientation of a collector, for heating only, is facing due south at an
inclination angle to the horizontal equal to the latitude plus 150(β=φ+150).Hence, the inclination
angle (or tilt angel) of the water should be 24.60. The general form of total hourly solar radiation
energy incident on inclined surface it is given by Liu and Jordan formula,
… (3.14)
Where are known as conversion factor for beam, diffuse and reflective components, respectively
is the reflection coefficient of the ground 0.2 and 0.6 for non-snow-covered and snow-covered
ground respectively for this site selected expressions for these conversion factors is 0.6. can
be defined as the ratio of flux of beam radiation incident on an inclined surface to horizontal
surface.
18
… (3.14a)
Angle of incident:- means the angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the normal to
that Surface.
… (3.14b)
Zenith angle:-means the angle between vertical and the line to the sun
… (3.14c)
defined as the ratio of the flux of diffuse radiation falling on the tilted surface to the
horizontal surface. This conversion factor depends on the distribution of diffuse radiation over
the sky and on the portion of sky seen by the surface. But a satisfactory method of estimating the
distribution of diffuse radiation over the sky is yet to be found. \it is however, widely accepted
that the sky is an isotropic source of diffuse radiation.
… (3.14d)
The reflected component, which comes mainly from the ground and other surfaces, and is
given by
… (3.14e)
For the collector modeling, the flux collected per unit time is given by
3.4 Material selection

A solar water heater collector is constructed from a variety of materials depending on the
industry or the product in which they are being used for. Finest quality materials are used to
manufacture of the collector for ensuring reliability, ease of maintenance and long life. The
specialty the collector selection of materials undergo to consider of the material property
19
Table [3.2]:- Material property
No. Material Density Thickness Specific Diameter(mm) Heat Length(mm)

type (kg/m³) (mm) heat( )KJ/Kg O.D. storage
.k capacity
(KJ/m²K)
1 Temper 0.4-1.o 6 0.23 --------------
glass
2 Copper 80.9 0.5-50 0.383 2-400 1000-6000
(C11000)
3 Copper 80.9 0.5-50 0.383 2-400 1000-6000
(C1200)
4 Wood chip 309-681 17 1.4 --------------- 30.24
board
5 Wood wool 260-719 22 1.4 ------------- 33.2
board
6 Ash 2380 -------------- 0.72 -------------
(insulation)
………..
7 Aluminium 2710 6 0.896
3.5 Potential Energy of SWH

The potential energy savings that could be achieved by using the SWH is determined using:-
… (3.15)
The amount of heat extracted from burning wood is calculated as
… (3.16)
Where:- m=mass of wood
The latent heat of wood is estimated to be 232.6 J/K source2
The student cafeteria consumed 1214.22 KJ amount of heat energy per day. Hence the solar
collector is expected to replace this energy demand and the temperature rise ( ) in water using
solar water heater is
Where:- m= mass of water
2
From [U.S. Department of Agriculture:Wood Handbook.]
20
=heat energy gained by the wood
The specific heat capacitor of water for the range of temperature is assumed to be constant. That
is
Therefore; from this relation to find temperature collector
… (3.17)
From this we can gate the expected energy from solar collector to fully replace the energy from
wood
Where:-
Solare energy absorbed by the collector
1. Calculate the heat energy from your solar collector per unit area
2. Equate the energy that replaces the wood with the collector area times the amount of heat
at no 1.
Glazed collector
Glazed collector is described by the following equation: [1]
̇ … (3.18)
=is the temperature differential between the working fluid entering the collectors and outside
Area of the collector
Efficiency= [5] … (3.19)
21
A=
⁄
A=
⁄
A=1.388
Say A=1.5
3.6 ENERGY BALANCE FOR FLAT-PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR
3.6.1 Overall Loss Coefficient and Heat Transfer Correlations

It is convenient from the point of view of analysis to express the heat lost from the collector in
terms of overall loss coefficient defied by the equation.
̇ … (3.20)
The heat lost from the collector is the sum of the heat lost from the top, the bottom and the sides.
Thus,
… (3.21)
Where: Rate at which heat is lost from the top

Rate at which heat is lost from the bottom
Rate at which heat is lost form the sides
Each of these losses is also expressed in terms of coefficients called the top loss coefficient, the
bottom loss coefficient and the side loss coefficient and defined by the equations:
3.6.2 Top Loss Coefficient

The top loss coefficient is evaluated by considering convection and re-radiation losses from
the absorber plate in the upward direction.
For the purpose of calculation, it is assumed that the transparent cover and the absorber plate
constitute a system of infinite parallel surfaces and that the flow of heat is one dimensional and
steady.
It is further assumed that the temperature drop across the thickness of the cover is negligible and
that the interaction between the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the cover and the outgoing
22
lose may be neglected. The outgoing re-radiation is of long wavelengths, the transparent cover
will be assumed to be almost opaque.
Figure [3.1]:-Thermal network for the single cover collector in terms of (a) conductive,
convection and radiation; (b) resistance between plates; (c) a simple collector network
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
From the plate to the cover
For the prediction of the top loss coefficient, the evaluation of natural convection heat transfer
between two parallel plates tilted at some angle to the horizontal is of obvious importance. The
natural convection heat transfer coefficient is related to three dimensionless parameters, the Nuss
elt number, the Rayleigh number, and the prandial number, that are given by:
To calculate of is the volumetric coefficient of expansion of air.
… (3.22)
23
Then the Prandial number ( ) is to select on the table [3.3] as consider of temperature =0.7]
Table [3.3]:- property of air at one atmosphere [1]
T, kg/m³ ,W/mK K,w/mK μ,Pas ,m2/s

0 1.292 1006 0.0242 1.72×10-5 1.86×10-5 0.72
20 1.204 1006 0.0257 1.81×10-5 2.12×10-5 0.71
40 1.127 1007 0.0272 1.90×10-5 2.40×10-5 0.70
60 1.059 1008 0.0287 1.99×10-5 2.69×10-5 0.70
80 0.999 1010 0.0302 2.09×10-5 3.00×10-5 0.70
100 0.946 1012 0.0318 2.18×10-5 3.32×10-5 0.69
120 0.898 1014 0.0333 2.27×10-5 3.66×10-5 0.69
140 0.854 1016 0.0345 2.34×10-5 3.98×10-5 0.69
160 0.815 1019 0.0359 2.42×10-5 4.32×10-5 0.69
180 0.779 1022 0.0372 2.50×10-5 4.67×10-5 0.69
200 0.746 1025 0.0386 2.57×10-5 5.05×10-5 0.68
220 0.715 1028 0.0399 2.64×10-5 5.43×10-5 0.68
240 0.688 1032 0.0412 2.72×10-5 5.80×10-5 0.68
260 o.662 1036 0.0425 2.79×10-5 6.20×10-5 0.68
280 0.638 1040 0.0437 2.86×10-5 6.59×10-5 0.68
300 0.616 1045 0.0450 2.93×10-5 6.99×10-5 0.68
The table [3.3] used as the standard value of wind speed and its related constant number prandial
number at specified temperature range.
To calculate the Rayleigh number:-[3]

… (3.23)
Holland’s et al. suggested the relationship between the Nusselt number and Rayleigh number for
tilt angle from 0 to 750, [3]
For tilt angle ( ) = 9.6 =24.6 , the convective heat transfer coefficient
24
* +* + *( ) + … (3.24)
The purpose of this equation is to calculate the convection heat transfer coefficient
* +[ ]
[( ) ]
The convection heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate and glass cover is expressed as
… (3.25a)
From the glazing cover to the ambient
The convective heat transfer coefficient at the glass cover is calculated from the following
empirical correlation.
… (3.25b)
Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient

The air gap zone in the control volume of the solar collector, considering transient thermo-
physical properties of the air, the heat transfers into the air gap by convection between it and the
25
glass in upper side and the absorber in the other side .From the standard table to select [50mm]
gap between the cover and absorber
Figure [3.2]:- Heat transfer of air gap between cover and absorber [12]
The absorber
The heat energy balance for the absorber zone, fig [3.5] taking the transient thermo-physical
properties of the absorber material and considering the solar irradiance on the absorber zone in
the solar collector control volume, the radiation between the absorber and the glass cover, the
conduction between the absorber and the insulation zone and the heat transfers by convection
with the fluid flow. From standard dimension of sheet metal select 1.5mm of thickness.
Figure [3.3]:-Heat transfer in the absorber [12]

The insulation
The insulation zone in the solar collector control volume at constant properties for the
insulation material and considering the conduction heat transfer between the insulation and the
26
absorber with the radiation between the insulation and the surrounding ambient. From standard
material handling handbook to select [50mm]
Figure [3.4]:-Heat transfer in the insulation [12]
Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient

From the plate to the cover the Radiative heat transfer coefficient from the plate to the glass
cover is expressed as:
[ ]… (3.25c)
Assuming one-dimensional heat flow considering thermal capacity and temperature drop
across the glass cover, iterative procedure is performed to estimate the top loss coefficient with
the range of variables as shown in below the table:-
Table [3.4]:- Range of variable [10]
Variables Range
Ambient temperature, 273-318K
Air gap spacing ,L 8-9mm
Absorber plate temperature , 323-383K
Absorber plate emittance, 0.1-0.95
Wind heat transfer coefficient ,h 10-30WmK-1
Collector tilt angle, 20-600
27
The above table is used calculate glass temperature because it some suitable range of plate
temperature of the collector by using equation (3.23)
330
* +
The effective emissive of plate-glazing system is given by:
[ ] … (3.25d)
[ ]
From the sky to the glazing cover
Sky temperature
The effective temperature of the sky is usually calculated from the following simple empirical
relation in whom temperatures are expressed in Kelvin
… (3.25d)
28
The redaction heat transfer coefficient from the sky to the glass cover is expressed as:
[ ] … (3.25e)
* +
The total heat transfer coefficient from collector plate to cover h1 expressed as:
… (3.25f)
The total heat transfer coefficient from the cover to ambient is expressed as:
… (3.25g)
The effective heat transfer coefficient from plate to ambient (i.e. the top loss coefficient) is given
by:
* + … (3.26)
3.6.3 Bottom Loss Coefficient

The bottom loss coefficient is evaluated by considering conduction and convection losses from
the absorber plate in the down ward direction through the bottom of the collector.
It will be assumed that the flow of heat is one dimensional and steady. In most cases, the
thickness of insulation provided is such that the thermal resistance associated with conduction
dominates. Thus, neglecting the convective resistance at the bottom surface of the collector
casing, the coefficient be:
29
… (3.27)
3.6.4 Side loss coefficient

As in the case of the bottom loss coefficient, it will be assumed that the conduction resistance
dominates and that the flow of heat is one dimensional and steady. The one-dimensional
approximation can be justified on the grounds that the side loss coefficient is always much
smaller than the top loss coefficient.
… (3.28)
Where:
= perimeter of the absorber plate
= height of the edge
NOTE: for most collectors the edge losses is complicated .However ,in a well-designed system
,the edge loss should be small so that it is not necessary to predict it with great accuracy.
The overall heat loss coefficient is the sum of top, bottom and edge loss coefficient. That is:
… (3.29)
Collectors and its value
Values of and are specified by the user or chosen by selecting a solar collector
from the online product database. For both glazed and evacuated collectors, and
are independent of wind.
Generic values are also provided for glazed and evacuated collectors. Generic glazed collectors
are provided with =0.68. These values correspond to test results for Thermodynamics
collectors (Chandrashekar and Thevenard, 1995).
For consider this constant value to find and is to read from Handbook [5] so value is 0.7
=0.68
30
̇ … (3.30)
Area of the collector can be calculated from energy balance between total heat energy of the
wood ( ), that is used to heat the water used in students cafeteria and theoretical calculated
value of collector absorbed heat energy per unit area ( ) x collector area ( )
Collector absorbed energy per unit area can be calculated form the following equation
[ ] ̇ … (3.31)
Calculation of solar irradiance ( )
… (3.32)
The above area of the collector is used to heat the all consumption of water in the students
cafeteria but it is not necessary to heat at ones, because the student cafeteria needs water for three
times, for morning, after noon, and evening time. Therefore it is not necessary that much hot
water heat one times, so we can reduce the collector area for full fill one times of process in the
students’ cafeteria. From this the area of the collector must be divided into three which is 41.8m2.
The collector temperature is calculated form the formula
Using two same size collectors can increase the temperature to 63.20c which is enough to satisfy
the student’s cafeteria hot water consumption.
The above reduction of collector area from 41.8m2 to 3m2 is by decreasing the flow rate of water
in the circulation system and pipe diameter. Also increasing number of pipes in the collector
using proper standard pitch distance referring and comparing form other project work.[15]
Mass flow rate of the collector is:-
̇ … (3.33)
31
Piping Network & Plumbing
Area of the collector ( ) = Length (L) * width (W)

=1.5m*1m
=1.5m²
Pipe spacing ( ) = 8R then R is the radius of tube [R=11mm]
Figure [3.5]:- spacing between pipes
The number of pipe [ ] to calculate is:-
= = =12.5
Say = 12
The total width [W] of pipe is:-
W= *
W = 11 * 88mm
W = 968mm
The Total length of the pipe = + (L * )
= 8.8cm + 132cm* 12
32
= 1592.8cm
= 15.93m
Mass flow rate depend on time from 1:00am to 4:00am (i.e. period of time is 3 hour)
̇ = … (3.33a)
Velocity of the flowing water in the headers of copper pipe ( ) is
Velocity … (3.34a)
Area of the pipe is
̇ =
̇ = 10-3 kg/
̇ =
Mass flow rate depend on time from 7:00am to 11:00am (i.e. period of time is 5 hour)
̇ = … (3.33b)
Velocity of the flowing water in the risers copper pipe

… (3.34b)
Area of the pipe is:-
33
Substituting the values in to equation 3.33b
̇ = kg/
̇ =
3.7 Mechanical design

Over all dimension of outer coating box or the cabinet is shown below.
Figure [3.6]:- Wood outer cabinet
Piping Network
Copper pipes were used for the purpose of Heating. Dimension of the Pipes used (As per
market availability),the outer diameter of the pipe is 2.2 cm , the Inner diameter is 2 cm,
thickness 0.1cm, number of Pipes used in the system is 12 and length of the pipes is 132 cm
(Keeping 3 cm clearance along the length from the outer Box on both sides)
Spacing between Adjacent Pipes
34
The minimum space between adjacent pipes should be kept 6R, where R–Radius of the Pipe.
The basic laws of light and shadowing support the fact.
If pipes are spaced at 6R distance from each other, the possibility of one pipe
overshadowing another pipe during any time of the day is eliminated. So the active distance
between to adjacent pipes becomes 8R.
8R distance is equivalent to = 8 X 1 = 8 cm (Minimum Spacing).
Now total number of pipes that can be spread out over the breadth of the Box = (Box breadth/
Pipe spacing)
i.e.100cm/8cm = 12.5 Pipes
But for uniformity and Keeping additional Safety clearances in mind, we take 12 pipes for Fluid
Flow. Then we have 11 inter pipe spacing of 8cm each making the length up to 88cm & so we
divide the rest area into 2. i.e.: of 6cm for each side of the collector.
35
Figure [3.7]:-the piping network and spacing
Plumbing
 Header
 Follower
 Distributors
The model has a network of 12 pipes (distributors) all connected to a header & then with a
Follower (Collector) at the bottom. The header is fabricated out of a series of PVC Tees, each
connected to each other with the help of Copper Pipes.
Dimension of the header pipe

Internal diameter (I.D) = 33 mm
Outer diameter (O.D) = 35 mm
The pipes in between the Tees are wrapped with Teflon tapes for better fitting and inserted
into the Tees. The Gaps in between is sealed properly with Glue & Waterproof Adhesives.
The 12 pipes (Distributors) are then inserted into the opening of the Tee with proper
Sealing. The follower is made out of Heat resistant PVC Pipe. The PVC pipe has I.D = 6 cm.
12 with bore diameter of 2.2cm and are drilled along the length of the Pipe, at proper spacing, so
as to accommodate all the 12 pipes, without any deformity/twisting. Then the 12 distributor pipes
are inserted into it, & the gaps are properly sealed to avoid leakages.
36
Figure [3.8]: Plumbing and piping
Pressure loss
The effective pressure difference due to buoyancy force responsive for the total closed loop
cycle in thermo siphon system can be assumed
… [3.34]
When the pressure different due to the buoyancy force in the collector ( )and the pressure
different due to density variation in the connecting tube ( ). The buoyancy pressure in the
collector is calculates through integration over the length of the collector
37
∫ … [3.35]
Considering the density variation over the height H to be constant the buoyancy force pressure:-
… [3.36]
Therefore the total pressure loss is:-
Figure [3.9] pipe branch
Head lose by pipe friction
Darcy-Weisbach Equation: - It states that pressure drop is proportional to the square of the
velocity and the length of the pipe. This equation is valid for all fluids in both laminar and
turbulent flow. The disadvantage is that the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor is a variable
[15]
= (f.L.v²)/2.g.D … (3.37)
Where,
=friction Head loss, m
g = Gravity constant, 9.81 m/s²
v = Velocity, m/s
D = Inside diameter, m
f = Friction factor
L = Length of the pipe, m
38
The Reynoldsˈ numbers [Re]
= … (3.38)
Where:-
( )
=internal diameter of the pipe

=
=2621.5
NOTE:-The flow is transition flow because it is between 2000 and 4000. And from Roughness of
commercial pipe chart ( ) and from Moody diagram f=0.01 [9]
= (0.01*0.088*(1.48* ²)/2*9.81*.033
=2.97 m
Total head lose

Total head losse is the sume of head losse by pipe fictione and head losse by pipe branch
(3.39)
2.97 m)
Finally the collector efficiency can be obtained [3]:-

( )
The efficiency of the collector is approximately near to the standard constant of efficiency, based
on this the efficiency of the collector is suitable to heat desired water. Therefore the efficiency
of the collector is 65 .
39
4 Computer Modeling
4.1 Overview
CATIA is a 3D mechanical CAD (computer-aided design) program. The CATIA software is
a mechanical design automation application that takes advantage of the Microsoft Windows
graphical user interface. This software makes possible for designer to quickly sketch out ideas,
experiment with features and dimensions and produce models and details drawings. Introducing
CATIA discusses some basic concepts and terminology used throughout the CATIA application.
It familiarizes you with the commonly used function of CATIA.
Reasons for using CATIA VS R19
 It can make faster product designs.

 Visualize more ‘what-if’ the actual scenarios during the design process.
 More effective and detail internal design reviews.
 Generation of virtual prototypes allows non-CAD people to participate in the process of
design.
 Easily incorporate late design changes or late design complete.
 It helps to standardize on detailing and drafting practices.
Designing Process of Solar Water Heater using CATIA
CATIA is a high detail and high resolution designing software. That’s why design each and
every single parts of the flat plate solar water heater. And then combine all together. So, at first
we design the solar water heater part.
Getting started
To start of click option then select parameters and measurement then select units in this project
all of the measurement is in millimeter so make sure that unit of the length is in mm. Then click
general then adjust the data save. What the data save does is it automatically make the back up of
everything we have been doing on the CATIA. Then set the time to 10 minutes press enter click
ok. This means every 10 minutes CATIA will automatically save everything which running in
the sketch. This is very important if CATIA ever crash then go to open the backup everything
will gone be displayed that previously worked on.
40
Within CATIA V5 there are multiple different workbenches that we are using them at one time.
To view them what we are going to do is click start then select one of the workbenches from the
list. Inside of those workbenches there are workbench products.
For this case select mechanical design workbench then click the part design work bench, make a
new part. Before starting sketch click customize then select toolbar click restore all contents, this
will allow restoring a toolbar back to its default if it had previously had an icon added to it or
deleted from it, then click ok. Similarly select restore position, turns all of the default toolbars
back on for the workbench which is selected and restores the default position of those toolbars as
well, then click ok. This is a quick way to restore all the tools get back.
Figure 4.1 Customize
Start with doing the cabinet box first step is to start a sketch and click on a work plane. Sketch
on the side plane (zx plane), so sketch the rectangle at an angle of 24.6 with dimension 1540mm
x200mm then exit the sketcher tool bar and select the pad icon the pad definition dialog box will
appear inter length in the first limit part then click ok. Select the yz plane & sketch rectangle
with dimension 1500mm x 1000mm then exit the sketcher tool bar and select the pocket icon, the
pocket definition dialog box will appear then inter 180mm in the length box then click ok. The
required cabinet box will be formed. After this change its material in to wood material.
41
Figure 4.2 Coating Box
Insulation:- part is sketched with the dimension 1500mm x 50mm then exit the sketcher tool bar
and select the pad icon; the pad definition dialog box will appear then inter 1000mm in the
length box.
Figure 4.3 Insulation
Absorber plate: - select file – new – part. Select the sketcher toolbar then click on xz working
plane. Make a rectangle with a dimension 1500mm x 1.5mm then exit the sketcher toolbar select
the pad icon- the pad definition dialog box will appear then set the width of the glass which is
1000mm click ok. Apply material aluminum.
42
Figure 4.4 Absorber plate
Riser pipe: - first select a new part profile then select yx plane click the sketcher tool bar select
the circle icon then create two circles with a diameter of 22mm and 20mm. click the extrude tool
bar then select the pad icon then the pad definition dialog box will appear enter the length mm. to
find the rectangular pattern feature go to insert – transformation features – click rectangular
pattern. In order to use rectangular pattern the parameters are a feature to be pattern and a line or
edge to pattern along. After clicking the rectangular pattern there will be the rectangular pattern
definition box. In the object to pattern box select the sketch of the circle and the for the reference
element select yz plane. In the parameters field select spacing and length and enter 80mm and
880mm respectively. Apply material copper.
43
Figure 4.5 Riser tube
Header tube:- first select a new part profile then select yx plane click the sketcher tool bar select
the circle icon then create two circles with a diameter of 35mm and 33mm. click the extrude tool
bar then select the pad icon then the pad definition dialog box will appear enter the length mm.
then select the hole icon the hole definition box will appear then select simple in type zone and
under the extension select up to next, enter the 22mm diameter select the positioning sketch then
set a distance of 60mm from the end of the pipe length, this will be the center line for the hole
exit workbench, click ok. Click the rectangular pattern icon select parameters instances and
spacing enters the values 12mm and 80mm respectively. Select the reference element
pad.1\Axis.1 and object to pattern select the hole then click ok. Apply material copper.
Figure 4.6 Header Pipe
44
Glazing: - select file – new – part. Select the sketcher toolbar then click on xz working plane.
Make a rectangle with a dimension 1010mm x 6mm then exit the sketcher toolbar select the pad
icon- the pad definition dialog box will appear then set the width of the glass which is 1510mm
click ok.
Figure 4.7 Glazing
Storage tank: - select file – new – part. Select the sketcher toolbar then click on xz working
plane. Select circle icon make a circle with a dimension 800mm then exit the sketcher toolbar
select the pad icon – the pad definition dialog box will appear then set in the length box
1000mm. select the side plane sketch two circles with dimension 780mm and 35mm. exit the
sketcher toolbar click on the multi pocket icon then select the two sketched circles set length
980mm and 10mm respectively click ok.
Figure 4.8 Storage tank
Note: - This storage tank is only for the computer modeling purpose it is assumption.
45
Block: - Select file – new – part. Select the sketcher toolbar then click on xz working plane.
Make a rectangle with a dimension 1200mmx1200mm then exit the sketcher toolbar select the
pad icon- the pad definition dialog box will appear then set the width of the block which is
1200mm click ok.
Figure 4.9 Block
Note: - the block is only for the computer modeling purpose.
Assembly Design
Assembly design allows parts and small assemblies of parts to be inserted to make larger, more
complete products.
First click file select new and select product click ok. There are two options in order to insert
parts to make assembly either click insert then select exiting component icon or there is in the
tool bar. Click product then click the existing component icon then file selection will appear
from the folder named computer modeling select the parts that will be assembled.
To assemble the parts there are three modes for creating constraints. Those are the default mode,
chain mode and stack mode. The chain mode is useful when constraining multiple objects to
each other. This allows creating a constraint form the first object to the second object and
46
creating one from the second object to the third object without having to select the second object
again. The stack node is useful when constraining multiple objects all to the same item.
Using coincident, contact, offset, angle and fix component constraints the assembled product will
be like the figure shown below.
Figure 4.10 Assembled product
47
5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

As mentioned before solar energy is a vital used natural energy, there is no wastage other of
resource, money; lobar cost and other connect output to consume from solar energy source. In
the other hand DDU use a large of heat energy to fulfill, its daily Hot water consumption, to get
this hot water DDU cafeteria budget more than 16,464birr/day amount of money, for wood and
also pay for labor, use huge kitchen for heat the water, so on. More than those mentioned above
this type of consumption of resource can initiate deforestation, increase the global warming, and
affect to thronging air condition.
From the project seen that the result can face that problem by using solar energy system
collector system, this collector system may need more than 16,464birr/day birr for control
unnecessary use of the above mentioned human resource and money for more than 3 year
without any addition of output .If the damage part of the collector system.
Declination ( )
The angular position of the sun at solar noon (i.e., when the sun is on the local meridian) with
respect to the plane of the equator, north positive:- .
̅
( )
( )
And this declination is used to calculate sunset hour angle by using the following formula
This sunset hour angle used to determine extraterrestrial radiation.
48
̅
̅ [ ][ ]* +
̅ [ ][
( )] *
̅ ⁄
Ho
45
Extrateristerial radiation in MJ/m²
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Number of days in a year
Figure 5.1
The above graph is shown 365 days extraterrestrial radiation. And this extraterrestrial radiation
and other parameter (a and b) used to calculate average monthly horizontal radiation.
̅
. The ratio ̅
is termed the monthly average clearness index.
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
49
The coefficient a and b can be determined from
̅
( )
̅
̅
( )
̅
( )
( )
̅
̅
̅
̅
̅ ⁄
̅ ⁄
50
Monthly Average Radiation on horizontal in 30
25
20
MJ/m²
15
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month,s of the year
Figure [5.2]:-Monthly average daily horizontal Global Radiation in a year
By using horizontal radiation and sunset hour angle, diffusion radiation is
For >81.4⁰ and 0.3≤ ≤0.8
̅ ̅ ̅
The minimum value of sunset hour angle for Dire Dawa is estimated to 860 which is greater than
81.40 and which is less than 0.8, thus meet the conditional value of equation (3.7a).
̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅
51
By subtraction the diffusion radiation from the horizontal radiation to get beam radiation,
⁄ ⁄
The monthly average hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface can be calculated from the
knowledge of the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal.
̅
̅
̅ … (3.11)
The coefficient a and b is given by:-
… (3.12a)
… (3.12b)
In these equations ̅ is the hour angle in degrees for the time in a day. ̅ is given as
̅ Where: - ST is standard time from 1to 24 hour
52
The ratio of monthly average hourly diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface to monthly average
daily diffuse is as a function of time of the day and the day length. It can be used to estimate
hourly average of diffuse radiation if the average daily total radiation is known
̅
̅
53
After estimating the hourly values of global and diffuse radiation using () and (), monthly
average hourly beam radiation is calculated by the following relation
⁄ ⁄
The most favorable orientation of a collector, for heating only, is facing due south at an
inclination angle to the horizontal equal to the latitude plus 150(β=φ+150).Hence, the inclination
angle (or tilt angel) of the water should be 24.60. The general form of total hourly solar radiation
energy incident on inclined surface it is given by Liu and Jordan formula,
Where are known as conversion factor for beam, diffuse and reflective components, respectively
is the reflection coefficient of the ground 0.2 and 0.6 for non-snow-covered and snow-covered
ground respectively for this site selected expressions for these conversion factors is 0.6. can
be defined as the ratio of flux of beam radiation incident on an inclined surface to horizontal
surface.
54
Angle of incident: - means the angle between the beam radiation on a surface and the normal to
that Surface.
Zenith angle:-means the angle between vertical and the line to the sun
… (3.14c)
defined as the ratio of the flux of diffuse radiation falling on the tilted surface to the
horizontal surface. This conversion factor depends on the distribution of diffuse radiation over
the sky and on the portion of sky seen by the surface. But a satisfactory method of estimating the
distribution of diffuse radiation over the sky is yet to be found. \it is however, widely accepted
that the sky is an isotropic source of diffuse radiation.
The reflected component, which comes mainly from the ground and other surfaces, and is
given by
55
For the collector modeling, the flux collected per unit time is given by
⁄ ⁄ ( ⁄ ⁄ )
Potential Energy of SWH
The potential energy savings that could be achieved by using the SWH is determined using:-
The amount of heat extracted from burning wood is calculated as
The latent heat of wood is estimated to be 232.6 J/Kg [source]

5220Kg*232.6 J/Kg
1214.22 KJ
The student cafeteria consumed 1214.22 KJ amount of heat energy per day. Hence the solar
collector is expected to replace this energy demand and the temperature rise ( ) in water using
solar water heater is
56
Therefore; from this relation to find temperature collector
… (3.17)
=31.4+0.15
=31.6
And also we can gate the expected energy from solar collector to fully replace the energy from
wood.
Overall Loss Coefficient ( ̇ ): this loss is the loss of energy on the collector surface, bottom
loss( ), side loss( ), and top loss( ) energy from the collector. This is expressed as
is the total loss of the collector, which is express as :
Top Loss Coefficient
The top loss coefficient is evaluated by considering convection and re-radiation losses from the
absorber plate in the upward direction.
For the purpose of calculation, it is assumed that the transparent cover and the absorber plate
constitute a system of infinite parallel surfaces and that the flow of heat is one dimensional and
steady.
It is further assumed that the temperature drop across the thickness of the cover is negligible and
that the interaction between the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the cover and the outgoing
57
lose may be neglected. The outgoing re-radiation is of long wavelengths, the transparent cover
will be assumed to be almost opaque.
The effective heat transfer coefficient from plate to ambient temperature (i.e. the top loss
coefficient) is given by:
[ ]
[ ]
Bottom Loss Coefficients
The bottom loss coefficient is evaluated by considering conduction and convection losses from
the absorber plate in the down ward direction through the bottom of the collector.
It will be assumed that the flow of heat is one dimensional and steady. In most cases, the
thickness of insulation provided is such that the thermal resistance associated with conduction
dominates. Thus, neglecting the convective resistance at the bottom surface of the collector
casing, the coefficient be:
Side loss coefficient
As in the case of the bottom loss coefficient, it will be assumed that the conduction resistance
dominates and that the flow of heat is one dimensional and steady. The one-dimensional
approximation can be justified on the grounds that the side loss coefficient is always much
smaller than the top loss coefficient.
58
Where: =2(1.5+1)*0.2=1.4m2
= perimeter of the absorber plate
= height of the edge
NOTE: for most collectors the edge losses is complicated .However, in a well-designed system
shown above, the edge loss is very small so that it is not necessary to predict it with great
accuracy.
The overall heat loss coefficient is the sum of top, bottom and edge loss coefficient. That is:
Collectors and its value
Values of and are specified by the user or chosen by selecting a solar collector
from the online product database. For both glazed and evacuated collectors, and
are independent of wind.
Generic values are also provided for glazed and evacuated collectors. Generic glazed collectors
are provided with =0.68. These values correspond to test results for Thermodynamics
collectors (Chandrashekar and Thevenard, 1995).
For consider this constant value to find and is to read from Handbook [5] so value is 0.7
=0.68
59
̇
̇ = (0.68*41.7 (353 K )
̇ =28.36MJ
̇ =28.36MJ
Useful energy
The collector performance test is performed under steady state condition with steady radiant
energy falling on the collector surface, steady fluid flow rate and constant wind speed and
ambient temperature. When a constant inlet fluid temperature is supplied to the collector, it is
possible to maintain a constant outlet fluid from the collector .In this case, the useful energy gain
from the collector is calculated.
[ ] ̇
Calculation of solar irradiance ( )
[ ( )]
From the useful energy result can analysis the Mass flow rate of solar water heater of the
collector:-
60
Therefore the mass flow rate of the expected collector is 0.071
Pressure loss
The effective pressure difference due to buoyancy force responsive for the total closed loop
cycle in thermo siphon system can be assumed
When the pressure different due to the buoyancy force in the collector ( ) and the pressure
different due to density variation in the connecting tube ( ). The buoyancy pressure in the
collector is calculates through integration over the length of the collector
∫ ….
Considering the density variation over the height H to be constant the buoyancy force pressure:-
61
Therefore the total pressure loss is:-
Finally the collector efficiency can be obtained: can be calculated from the equation gained
from the reference source [3] is given by:
( )
( )
The efficiency of the collector is approximately near to the standard constant of efficiency, based
on this the efficiency of the collector is suitable to heat desired water. Therefore the efficiency
of the collector is 65 .
62
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusion
The option of adopting solar water heaters to meet the hot water needs of Dire Dawa university
student cafeteria at large is viable. It is more cost-effective, environmentally friendly and
sustainable in comparison with the option of using wood or fuel consumption. The choice of the
optimum collector area is one of the principal factors considered in the design of solar water
heaters. This optimum value is obtained theoretically as a function of the volume of hot water
needed, the input and output water temperature and the ambient parameters.
Theoretical results obtained show that with a thermo syphon solar water heater of collector area
1.5 m², water temperature up to 60°C can be obtained to service the hot water needs of an
average in Dire Dawa university student cafeteria with the efficiency of the collector 65 .
Recommendation
We would like to recommend the following points

 In our country the technology of solar water heater is not well introduced. So we
recommend that, this technology to be distributed throughout the country.
Because our country has got sufficient sunshine specially Dire Dawa to power the
heater and most of our house hold energy consumption for domestic purposes is
based on wood and its products. Application of this technology will help in
protecting the environment and our forest resource from being used as fuel for
cooking.
 Efforts must be made to construct and install this solar water heater in different
areas of our country in order to encourage the people for using the technology.
 The engineering of solar water heater is not well supported by literature; rather
attention is given only for method of design. So it will be good if further studies
are made in order to optimize the performance characteristics of the heater.
63
Reference
1. .John A. Duffie and William A. Beckman. Solar engineering of thermal processes. Wiley,
second edition, 1980.
2. http://umpir.ump.edu.my/1752/1/Ahmad_Asyraf_Ramli_(_CD_5005_).pdf accessed day
Dec 11,2006
3. Solar Energy Engineering- Processes and Systems 2009 (Malestrom)
4. Voices.yahoo.com/thermo-siphon-solar-water-heater-advantage accessed day Jan
11,2011
5. www.indiawaterportal. User’s handbook on solar water heaters
6. www.builditsolar.com/Projects/WaterHeating/water heating. htm
7. Engineering-material-Vol02-michil-Asby
8. Fluid mechanics and machinery by C.P.KOTHANDARAMAN and
R.RUDRAMOORTHY
9. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Nakayama, Y.; Boucher, R.F. Jan 11, 2002
10. www.arpnjournals.com/EVALUATION OF HEAT LOSS COEFFICIENTS IN SOLAR
FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_hot_water
12. Modeling of flat plate solar collector operation in transient states by AHMED SALEH
13. CATIA assembly design pdf and CATIA video tutorial
14. Pressure drop in pipes (unknown)
15. Fabrication and Experimental Studies of a Hybrid Flat Plate Solar Collector for Heating
Pool Water by ANSHUMAN PARIDA.
64
Appendix 1
Solar radiation for the year
JANUARY
No.
Of
day
1 -23.02 85.93 11.46 29.4 0.44 0.23 19.8 0.67 5.41 14.4
2 -22.94 85.94 11.46 29.9 0.44 0.23 20.2 0.67 5.51 14.7
3 -22.86 85.96 11.46 31.1 0.44 0.23 21.0 0.67 5.73 15.3
4 -22.76 85.98 11.46 31.3 0.44 0.23 21.1 0.67 5.77 15.4
5 -22.66 86.00 11.47 30.0 0.44 0.23 20.3 0.67 5.53 14.7
6 -22.55 86.02 11.47 29.7 0.44 0.23 20.0 0.67 5.47 14.5
7 -22.44 86.04 11.47 31.2 0.44 0.23 21.0 0.67 5.74 15.3
8 -22.32 86.07 11.48 31.4 0.44 0.23 21.1 0.67 5.78 15.4
9 -22.19 86.09 11.48 29.8 0.44 0.23 20.1 0.67 5.49 14.6
10 -22.06 86.12 11.48 30.7 0.44 0.23 20.7 0.67 5.65 15.0
11 -21.92 86.15 11.49 31.7 0.44 0.23 21.4 0.67 5.85 15.6
12 -21.77 86.17 11.49 30.0 0.44 0.23 20.2 0.67 5.53 14.7
13 -21.62 86.20 11.49 31.0 0.45 0.23 20.9 0.67 5.71 15.2
14 -21.46 86.24 11.50 31.7 0.45 0.23 21.4 0.67 5.84 15.5
15 -21.30 86.27 11.50 30.0 0.45 0.23 20.2 0.67 5.54 14.7
16 -21.12 86.30 11.51 32.0 0.45 0.23 21.6 0.67 5.90 15.7
17 -20.9 86.34 11.51 30.8 0.45 0.23 20.7 0.67 5.67 15.1
18 -20.76 86.37 11.52 31.2 0.45 0.23 21.0 0.67 5.76 15.3
19 -20.57 86.41 11.52 31.8 0.45 0.23 21.4 0.67 5.86 15.5
20 -20.37 86.45 11.53 30.7 0.45 0.23 20.7 0.67 5.66 15.0
21 -20.17 86.49 11.53 32.4 0.45 0.23 21.8 0.67 5.97 15.8
22 -19.96 86.49 11.54 30.6 0.45 0.23 20.6 0.67 5.65 15.0
23 -19.75 86.53 11.54 32.6 0.45 0.23 22.0 0.67 6.02 16.0
24 -19.53 86.57 11.55 30.7 0.45 0.23 20.7 0.67 5.67 15.0
25 -19.30 86.61 11.55 32.8 0.45 0.23 22.1 0.67 6.05 16.0
26 -19.07 86.65 11.56 31.0 0.45 0.22 20.9 0.67 5.72 15.1
27 -18.83 86.70 11.57 32.8 0.45 0.22 22.1 0.67 6.05 16.0
28 -18.59 86.74 11.57 31.5 0.45 0.22 21.2 0.67 5.81 15.4
29 -18.34 86.79 11.58 32.4 0.45 0.22 21.8 0.67 5.99 15.8
30 -18.08 86.83 11.58 32.4 0.45 0.22 21.8 0.67 5.99 15.8
31 -17.82 86.88 11.39 31.7 0.45 0.22 21.3 0.67 5.86 15.5
65
FEBRARY
No.
Of
day
1 -17.29 87.03 11.60 31.5 0.44 0.24 21.3 0.68 5.79 155
2 -17.01 87.08 11.61 33.4 0.44 0.24 22.5 0.68 6.14 16.4
3 -16.73 87.13 11.62 32.7 0.44 0.23 22.1 0.68 6.01 16.1
4 -16.45 87.18 11.62 32.1 0.44 0.23 21.7 0.68 5.91 15.8
5 -16.16 87.24 11.63 34.0 0.44 0.23 23.0 0.68 6.26 16.7
6 -15.86 87.29 11.64 32.3 0.44 0.23 21.8 0.68 5.94 15.9
7 -15.56 87.35 11.65 32.9 0.44 0.23 22.2 0.67 6.06 16.2
8 -15.26 87.40 11.65 34.2 0.44 0.23 23.1 0.67 6.30 16.8
9 -14.95 87.46 11.66 32.4 0.44 0.23 21.9 0.67 5.97 15.9
10 -14.64 87.51 11.67 33.3 0.44 0.23 22.5 0.67 6.13 16.3
11 -14.32 87.57 11.68 34.6 0.44 0.23 23.3 0.67 6.37 17.0
12 -14.00 87.63 11.68 32.9 0.44 0.23 22.2 0.67 6.05 16.1
13 -13.67 87.69 11.69 33.3 0.44 0.23 22.4 0.67 6.13 16.3
14 -13.34 87.75 11.70 35.0 0.44 0.23 23.6 0.67 6.44 17.1
15 -13.01 87.81 11.71 33.8 0.44 0.23 22.8 0.67 6.22 16.5
16 -12.67 87.87 11.72 33.0 0.44 0.23 22.3 0.67 6.08 16.2
17 -12.33 87.93 11.72 34.8 0.45 0.23 23.5 0.67 6.42 17.0
18 -11.99 87.99 11.73 35.0 0.45 0.23 23.6 0.67 6.46 17.2
19 -11.64 88.05 11.74 33.4 0.45 0.23 22.5 0.67 6.17 16.4
20 -11.29 88.11 11.75 33.9 0.45 0.23 22.8 0.67 6.25 16.6
21 -10.93 88.17 11.76 35.6 0.45 0.23 24.0 0.67 6.56 17.4
22 -10.57 88.24 11.76 35.1 0.45 0.23 23.7 0.67 6.48 17.2
23 -10.21 88.30 11.77 33.7 0.45 0.23 22.7 0.67 6.22 16.5
24 -9.85 88.36 11.78 34.4 0.45 0.23 23.2 0.67 6.35 16.8
25 -9.48 88.43 11.79 36.0 0.45 0.22 24.2 0.67 6.65 17.6
26 -9.11 88.49 11.80 35.7 0.45 0.22 24.0 0.67 6.58 17.4
27 -8.74 88.56 11.81 34.2 0.45 0.22 23.0 0.67 6.32 16.7
28 -8.36 88.62 11.82 34.5 0.45 0.22 23.2 0.67 6.37 16.8
29 -17.29 87.03 11.60 31.5 0.44 0.24 21.3 0.68 5.79 15.5
30 -17.01 87.08 11.61 33.4 0.44 0.24 22.5 0.68 6.14 16.4
66
MARCH
No.
Of
day
1 -8.36 88.62 11.82 34.5 0.44 0.24 23.3 0.68 6.34 17.0
2 -7.98 88.69 11.82 36.1 0.44 0.24 24.4 0.68 6.64 17.8
3 -7.22 88.82 11.84 35.2 0.44 0.24 23.7 0.68 6.46 17.3
4 -6.83 88.88 11.85 34.5 0.44 0.24 23.3 0.68 6.34 17.0
5 -6.45 88.95 11.86 35.7 0.44 0.23 24.1 0.68 6.56 17.5
6 -6.06 89.02 11.87 37.0 0.44 0.23 25.0 0.68 6.80 18.2
7 -5.67 89.08 11.88 36.5 0.44 0.23 24.7 0.67 6.72 17.9
8 -5.27 89.15 11.89 35.2 0.44 0.23 23.8 0.67 6.48 17.3
9 -4.88 89.22 11.90 35.1 0.44 0.23 23.7 0.67 6.45 17.2
10 -4.49 89.29 11.90 36.4 0.44 0.23 24.6 0.67 6.71 17.9
11 -4.09 89.35 11.91 37.5 0.44 0.23 25.3 0.67 6.90 18.4
12 -3.69 89.42 11.92 36.9 0.44 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.79 18.1
13 -3.29 89.49 11.93 35.6 0.44 0.23 24.0 0.67 6.55 17.4
14 -2.89 89.56 11.94 35.5 0.44 0.23 23.9 0.67 6.54 17.4
15 -2.49 89.62 11.95 36.8 0.44 0.23 24.8 0.67 6.79 18.1
16 -2.09 89.69 11.96 37.9 0.44 0.23 25.5 0.67 6.98 18.6
17 -1.69 89.76 11.97 37.4 0.45 0.23 25.2 0.67 6.89 18.3
18 -1.28 89.83 11.98 36.1 0.45 0.23 24.3 0.67 6.65 17.7
19 -0.88 89.90 11.99 35.8 0.45 0.23 24.1 0.67 6.60 17.5
20 -0.48 89.96 12.00 37.0 0.45 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.82 18.1
21 -0.07 90.03 12.00 38.2 0.45 0.23 25.7 0.67 7.05 18.7
22 0.33 90.10 12.01 37.9 0.45 0.23 25.6 0.67 7.00 18.6
23 0.73 90.17 12.02 36.6 0.45 0.23 24.7 0.67 6.76 17.9
24 1.14 90.24 12.03 36.1 0.45 0.22 24.3 0.67 6.65 17.6
25 1.54 90.31 12.04 37.1 0.45 0.22 25.0 0.67 6.85 18.1
26 1.94 90.37 12.05 38.5 0.45 0.22 25.9 0.67 7.10 18.8
27 2.34 90.44 12.06 38.4 0.45 0.22 25.9 0.67 7.10 18.8
28 2.74 90.51 12.07 37.1 0.45 0.22 25.0 0.67 6.85 18.1
29 3.14 90.58 12.08 36.3 0.45 0.22 24.4 0.67 6.71 17.7
30 3.54 90.65 12.09 37.2 0.45 0.22 25.0 0.67 6.88 18.2
67
APRIL
No.
Of
day
1 3.94 90.71 12.10 38.7 0.44 0.24 26.1 0.68 7.11 19.0
2 4.34 90.78 12.10 38.7 0.44 0.24 26.2 0.68 7.12 19.0
3 4.73 90.85 12.11 37.4 0.44 0.24 25.2 0.68 6.87 18.4
4 5.13 90.91 12.12 36.6 0.44 0.24 24.7 0.68 6.72 18.0
5 5.52 90.98 12.13 37.6 0.44 0.24 25.4 0.68 6.92 18.5
6 5.91 91.05 12.14 39.0 0.44 0.23 26.4 0.68 7.18 19.2
7 6.30 91.12 12.15 38.8 0.44 0.23 26.2 0.68 7.13 19.0
8 6.69 91.18 12.16 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.85 18.3
9 7.08 91.25 12.17 36.9 0.44 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.79 18.1
10 7.46 91.31 12.18 38.4 0.44 0.23 25.9 0.67 7.06 18.8
11 7.84 91.38 12.18 39.3 0.44 0.23 26.5 0.67 7.24 19.3
12 8.22 91.44 12.19 38.2 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.03 18.7
13 8.60 91.51 12.20 36.9 0.44 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.80 18.1
14 8.97 91.57 12.21 37.8 0.44 0.23 25.5 0.67 6.97 18.5
15 9.34 91.64 12.22 39.4 0.44 0.23 26.6 0.67 7.26 19.3
16 9.71 91.70 12.23 38.7 0.44 0.23 26.1 0.67 7.14 19.0
17 10.44 91.83 12.24 37.7 0.45 0.23 25.4 0.67 6.96 18.5
18 10.80 91.89 12.25 39.5 0.45 0.23 26.6 0.67 7.27 19.3
19 11.16 91.96 12.26 38.7 0.45 0.23 26.1 0.67 7.14 19.0
20 11.51 92.02 12.27 37.1 0.45 0.23 25.0 0.67 6.84 18.2
21 11.86 92.08 12.28 38.2 0.45 0.23 25.7 0.67 7.04 18.7
22 12.20 92.14 12.29 39.6 0.45 0.23 26.7 0.67 7.31 19.4
23 12.55 92.20 12.29 38.1 0.45 0.23 25.6 0.67 7.02 18.6
24 12.89 92.26 12.30 37.2 0.45 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.87 18.2
25 13.22 92.32 12.31 39.2 0.45 0.22 26.4 0.67 7.24 19.2
26 13.55 92.38 12.32 39.0 0.45 0.22 26.3 0.67 7.20 19.1
27 13.88 92.44 12.33 37.1 0.45 0.22 25.0 0.67 6.86 18.1
28 14.20 92.50 12.33 38.7 0.45 0.22 26.0 0.67 7.14 18.9
29 14.52 92.56 12.34 39.4 0.45 0.22 26.5 0.67 7.28 19.2
30 14.84 92.61 12.35 37.3 0.45 0.22 25.1 0.67 6.88 18.2
68
MAY
No.
Of
day
1 14.84 92.61 12.35 37.3 0.44 0.24 25.2 0.68 6.85 18.3
2 15.15 92.67 12.36 38.5 0.44 0.23 26.0 0.68 7.09 18.9
3 15.45 92.72 12.36 39.4 0.44 0.23 26.6 0.68 7.24 19.3
4 15.75 92.78 12.37 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.68 6.84 18.3
5 16.05 92.83 12.38 38.9 0.44 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.16 19.1
6 16.34 92.89 12.38 38.9 0.44 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.16 19.1
7 16.63 92.94 12.39 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.85 18.3
8 16.91 92.99 12.40 39.6 0.44 0.23 26.7 0.67 7.29 194
9 17.19 93.04 12.41 37.7 0.44 0.23 25.5 0.67 6.95 18.5
10 17.46 93.09 12.41 38.3 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.05 18.8
11 17.73 93.14 12.42 39.1 0.44 0.23 26.4 0.67 7.20 19.2
12 17.99 93.19 12.43 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.86 18.3
13 18.24 93.24 12.43 39.6 0.44 0.23 26.7 0.67 7.30 19.4
14 18.50 93.29 12.44 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.84 18.2
15 18.74 93.33 12.44 39.4 0.44 0.23 26.5 0.67 7.25 19.3
16 18.98 93.38 12.45 37.5 0.44 0.23 25.3 0.67 6.91 18.4
17 19.21 93.42 12.46 39.0 0.44 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.19 19.1
18 19.44 93.47 12.46 37.7 0.45 0.23 25.4 0.67 6.95 18.5
19 19.67 93.51 12.47 38.9 0.45 0.23 26.2 0.67 7.16 19.0
20 19.88 93.55 12.47 37.7 0.45 0.23 25.4 0.67 6.94 18.4
21 20.09 93.59 12.48 39.1 0.45 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.20 19.1
22 20.30 93.63 12.48 37.3 0.45 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.88 18.3
23 20.50 93.67 12.49 39.4 0.45 0.23 26.6 0.67 7.27 19.3
24 20.69 93.71 12.49 37.0 0.45 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.82 18.1
25 20.88 93.74 12.50 39..4 0.45 0.23 26.5 0.67 7.26 19.3
26 21.06 93.78 12.50 37.5 0.45 0.23 25.2 0.67 6.91 18.3
27 21.23 93.81 12.51 38.2 0.45 0.23 25.7 0.67 7.05 18.7
28 21.40 93.84 12.51 39.0 0.45 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.19 19.1
29 21.56 93.88 12.52 36.9 0.45 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.81 18.1
30 21.72 93.91 12.52 39.1 0.45 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.21 19.1
31 21.87 93.94 12.52 38.4 0.45 0.23 25.9 0.67 7.08 18.8
69
JUNE
No.
Of
day
1 22.01 93.96 12.53 37.0 0.44 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.81 18.1
2 22.14 93.99 12.53 39.0 0.44 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.18 19.1
3 22.27 94.02 12.54 38.7 0.44 0.23 26.1 0.67 7.13 19.0
4 22.40 94.04 12.54 36.9 0.44 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.80 18.1
5 22.51 94.06 12.54 38.0 0.44 0.23 25.6 0.67 7.00 18.6
6 22.62 94.09 12.54 39.4 0.44 0.23 26.5 0.67 7.25 19.3
7 22.73 94.11 12.55 38.2 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.04 18.7
8 22.82 94.12 12.55 36.9 0.44 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.79 18.1
9 22.91 94.14 12.55 37.5 0.44 0.23 25.3 0.67 6.91 18.4
10 22.99 94.16 12.55 38.9 0.44 0.23 26.2 0.67 7.17 19.1
11 23.07 94.17 12.56 39.3 0.44 0.23 26.5 0.67 7.24 19.2
12 23.14 94.19 12.56 38.4 0.44 0.23 25.9 0.67 7.07 18.8
13 23.20 94.20 12.56 37.3 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.87 18.3
14 23.26 94.21 12.56 36.8 0.44 0.23 24.8 0.67 6.78 18.0
15 23.30 94.22 12.56 37.0 0.44 0.23 25.0 0.67 6.83 18.1
16 23.35 94.23 12.56 37.7 0.44 0.23 25.4 0.67 6.94 18.5
17 23.38 94.24 12.56 38.3 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.06 18.8
18 23.41 94.24 12.57 38.8 0.44 0.23 26.1 0.67 7.14 19.0
19 23.43 94.25 12.57 39.0 0.44 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.19 19.1
20 23.44 94.25 12.57 39.2 0.44 0.23 26.4 0.67 7.22 19.2
21 23.45 94.25 12.57 39.2 0.44 0.23 26.4 0.67 7.23 19.2
22 23.45 94.25 12.57 39.2 0.44 0.23 26.4 0.67 7.23 19.2
23 23.44 94.25 12.57 39.2 0.44 0.23 26.4 0.67 7.22 19.2
24 23.43 94.25 12.57 39.0 0.44 0.23 26.3 0.67 7.19 19.1
25 23.41 94.24 12.57 38.8 0.44 0.23 26.1 0.67 7.14 19.0
26 23.38 94.24 12.56 38.3 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.05 18.8
27 23.34 94.23 12.56 37.6 0.44 0.23 25.4 0.67 6.93 18.4
28 23.30 94.22 12.56 37.0 0.44 0.23 25.0 0.67 6.82 18.1
29 23.25 94.21 12.56 36.8 0.44 0.23 24.8 0.67 6.78 18.0
30 23.20 94.20 12.56 37.3 0.44 0.23 25.2 0.67 6.87 18.3
70
JULY
No.
Of
day
1 23.14 94.19 12.56 38.4 0.46 0.20 25.7 0.67 7.15 18.5
2 23.07 94.17 12.56 39.3 0.46 0.20 26.2 0.67 7.31 18.9
3 22.99 94.16 12.55 38.9 0.46 0.20 26.0 0.67 7.24 18.7
4 22.91 94.14 12.55 37.4 0.46 0.20 25.0 0.67 6.97 18.0
5 22.82 94.12 12.55 36.9 0.46 0.20 24.6 0.67 6.87 17.8
6 22.72 94.10 12.55 38.3 0.46 0.20 25.6 0.67 7.13 18.5
7 22.62 94.08 12.54 39.4 0.46 0.20 26.3 0.67 7.33 19.0
8 22.51 94.06 12.54 37.9 0.46 0.20 25.3 0.67 7.06 18.3
9 22.39 94.04 12.54 36.9 0.46 0.20 24.7 0.67 6.87 17.8
10 22.27 94.02 12.54 38.8 0.46 0.21 25.9 0.67 7.22 18.7
11 22.14 93.99 12.53 38.9 0.46 0.21 26.0 0.67 7.25 18.8
12 22.00 93.96 12.53 36.9 0.46 0.21 24.7 0.67 6.87 17.8
13 21.86 93.93 12.52 38.5 0.46 0.21 25.7 0.67 7.16 18.6
14 21.71 93.91 12.52 39.0 0.46 0.21 26.1 0.67 7.25 18.8
15 21.56 93.87 12.52 36.9 0.46 0.21 24.7 0.67 6.87 17.8
16 21.39 93.84 12.51 39.1 0.46 0.21 26.1 0.67 7.27 18.9
17 21.23 93.81 12.51 38.1 0.46 0.21 25.5 0.67 7.09 18.4
18 21.05 93.78 12.50 37.6 0.46 0.21 25.1 0.67 6.99 18.1
19 20.87 93.74 12.50 39.3 0.46 0.21 26.3 0.67 7.31 19.0
20 20.68 93.70 12.49 37.0 0.45 0.21 24.7 0.67 6.88 17.9
21 20.49 93.67 12.49 39.5 0.45 0.21 26.4 0.67 7.33 19.1
22 20.29 93.63 12.48 37.2 0.45 0.21 24.9 0.67 6.92 18.0
23 20.09 93.59 12.48 39.2 0.45 0.21 26.2 0.67 7.28 18.9
24 19.87 93.55 12.47 37.5 0.45 0.21 25.1 0.67 6.97 18.2
25 19.66 93.51 12.47 39.0 0.45 0.21 26.1 0.67 7.24 18.9
26 19.43 93.47 12.46 37.6 0.45 0.21 25.2 0.67 6.98 18.2
27 19.21 93.42 12.46 39.1 0.45 0.21 26.2 0.67 7.27 189
28 18.97 93.38 12.45 37.4 0.45 0.21 25.0 0.67 6.94 18.1
29 18.73 93.33 12.44 39.5 0.45 0.21 26.4 0.67 7.33 19.1
30 18.49 93.29 12.44 37.1 0.45 0.21 24.9 0.67 6.89 18.0
31 18.24 93.24 12.43 39.6 0.45 0.21 26.5 0.67 7.35 19.2
71
AUGEST
No.
Of
day
1 17.98 93.19 12.43 37.3 0.46 0.20 24.9 0.67 6.97 17.9
2 17.72 93.14 12.42 39.0 0.46 0.20 26.0 0.67 7.27 18.7
3 17.45 93.09 12.41 38.5 0.46 0.20 25.7 0.67 7.18 18.5
4 17.18 93.04 12.41 37.6 0.46 0.20 25.1 0.67 7.01 18.1
5 16.90 92.99 12.40 39.6 0.46 0.20 26.4 0.67 7.39 19.0
6 16.62 92.94 12.39 37.3 0.46 0.20 24.9 0.67 6.95 17.9
7 16.33 92.88 12.38 38.7 0.46 0.20 25.8 0.67 7.22 18.6
8 16.04 92.83 12.38 39.1 0.46 0.20 26.1 0.67 7.29 18.8
9 15.74 92.78 12.37 37.1 0.46 0.20 24.8 0.67 6.92 17.9
10 15.44 92.72 12.36 39.3 0.46 0.20 26.2 0.67 7.31 18.9
11 15.14 92.67 12.36 38.7 0.46 0.20 25.9 0.67 7.22 18.7
12 14.83 92.61 12.35 37.2 0.46 0.20 24.8 0.67 6.92 17.9
13 14.51 92.55 12.34 39.3 0.46 0.20 26.2 0.67 7.31 18.9
14 14.19 92.50 12.33 38.9 0.46 0.20 26.0 0.67 7.24 18.7
15 13.87 92.44 12.33 37.1 0.46 0.20 24.8 0.67 6.91 17.9
16 13.54 92.38 12.32 38.8 0.46 0.21 26.0 0.67 7.23 18.7
17 13.21 92.32 12.31 39.4 0.46 0.21 26.3 0.67 7.33 19.0
18 12.87 92.26 12.30 37.4 0.46 0.21 25.0 0.67 6.95 18.0
19 12.53 92.20 12.29 37.9 0.46 0.21 25.3 0.67 7.04 18.3
20 12.19 92.14 12.29 39.6 0.46 0.21 26.5 0.67 7.36 19.1
21 11.85 92.08 12.28 38.4 0.45 0.21 25.7 0.67 7.14 18.6
22 11.50 92.02 12.27 37.1 0.45 0.21 24.8 0.67 6.89 17.9
23 11.14 91.95 12.26 38.5 0.45 0.21 25.8 0.67 7.16 18.6
24 10.79 91.89 12.25 39.5 0.45 0.21 26.5 0.67 7.34 19.1
25 10.43 91.83 12.24 38.0 0.45 0.21 25.4 0.67 7.05 18.4
26 10.06 91.76 12.24 37.0 0.45 0.21 24.8 0.67 6.88 17.9
27 9.70 91.70 12.23 38.5 0.45 0.21 25.8 0.67 7.15 18.7
28 9.33 91.64 12.22 39.4 0.45 0.21 26.4 0.67 7.32 19.1
29 8.96 91.57 12.21 38.1 0.45 0.21 25.5 0.67 7.06 18.4
30 8.58 91.51 12.20 36.9 0.45 0.21 24.7 0.67 6.84 17.9
31 8.21 91.44 12.19 38.0 0.45 0.21 25.4 0.67 7.04 18.4
72
SEPTEMBER
No.
Of
day
1 7.83 91.38 12.18 39.3 0.45 0.22 26.4 0.67 7.2 19.2
2 7.45 91.31 12.17 38.6 0.45 0.22 26.0 0.67 7.13 18.8
3 7.06 91.25 12.17 37.0 0.45 0.22 24.9 0.67 6.84 18.1
4 6.68 91.18 12.16 37.1 0.45 0.22 24.9 0.67 6.84 18.1
5 6.29 91.11 12.15 38.6 0.45 0.22 26.0 0.67 7.12 18.8
6 5.90 91.05 12.14 39.1 0.45 0.22 26.3 0.67 7.22 19.1
7 5.51 90.98 12.13 37.8 0.45 0.22 25.5 0.67 6.98 18.5
8 5.11 90.91 12.12 36.6 0.45 0.23 24.7 0.67 6.76 17.9
9 4.72 90.85 12.11 37.1 0.45 0.23 250 0.67 6.85 18.2
10 4.32 90.78 12.10 38.6 0.45 0.23 26.0 0.67 7.11 18.9
11 3.93 90.71 12.09 38.8 0.45 0.23 26.1 0.67 7.16 19.0
12 3.53 90.64 12.09 37.5 0.45 0.23 25.2 0.67 6.91 18.3
13 3.13 90.58 12.08 36.4 0.45 0.23 24.5 0.67 6.70 17.8
14 2.73 90.51 12.07 36.9 0.45 0.23 24.9 0.67 6.80 18.1
15 2.33 90.44 12.06 38.3 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.05 18.7
16 1.93 90.37 12.05 38.6 0.44 0.23 26.0 0.67 7.10 18.9
17 1.52 90.30 12.04 37.3 0.44 0.23 25.2 0.67 6.87 18.3
18 1.12 90.24 12.03 36.1 0.44 0.23 24.4 0.67 6.65 17.7
19 0.72 90.17 12.02 36.4 0.44 0.23 24.6 0.67 6.71 17.9
20 0.31 90.10 12.01 37.8 0.44 0.23 25.5 0.67 6.95 18.5
21 -0.09 90.03 12.00 38.3 0.44 0.23 25.8 0.67 7.05 18.8
22 -0.49 89.96 11.99 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.67 6.85 18.3
23 -0.90 89.89 11.99 35.9 0.44 0.23 24.2 0.67 6.60 17.6
24 -1.30 89.83 11.98 35.9 0.44 0.23 24.2 0.68 6.60 17.6
25 -1.70 89.76 11.97 37.2 0.44 0.23 25.1 0.68 6.83 18.3
26 -2.10 89.69 11.96 37.9 0.44 0.23 25.6 0.68 6.97 18.6
27 -2.51 89.62 11.95 37.1 0.44 0.24 25.0 0.68 6.81 18.2
28 -2.91 89.55 11.94 35.6 0.44 0.24 24.1 0.68 6.55 17.5
29 -3.31 89.49 11.93 35.4 0.44 0.24 23.9 0.68 6.51 17.4
30 -3.71 89.42 11.92 36.6 0.44 0.24 24.8 0.68 6.73 18.0
73
OCTOBER
No.
Of
day
1 -4.10 89.35 11.91 37.5 0.46 0.20 25.0 0.67 7.00 18.0
2 -4.50 89.28 11.90 36.7 0.46 0.20 24.4 0.67 6.84 17.6
3 -4.90 89.22 11.90 35.2 0.46 0.20 23.5 0.67 6.56 16.9
4 -5.29 89.15 11.89 35.1 0.46 0.20 23.4 0.67 6.54 16.8
5 -5.68 89.08 11.88 36.3 0.46 0.20 24.3 0.67 6.78 17.5
6 -6.07 89.02 11.87 37.0 0.46 0.20 24.7 0.67 6.90 17.8
7 -6.46 88.95 11.86 35.9 0.46 0.20 24.0 0.67 6.69 17.3
8 -6.85 88.88 11.85 34.5 0.46 0.20 23.1 0.67 6.44 16.6
9 -7.23 88.82 11.84 35.0 0.46 0.20 23.3 0.67 6.51 16.8
10 -7.61 88.75 11.83 36.3 0.46 0.20 24.3 0.67 6.77 17.5
11 -8.00 88.69 11.82 36.3 0.46 0.20 24.2 0.67 6.75 17.5
12 -8.37 88.62 11.82 34.7 0.46 0.20 23.2 0.67 6.45 16.7
13 -8.75 88.55 11.81 34.1 0.46 0.21 22.8 0.67 6.35 16.5
14 -9.12 88.49 11.80 35.5 0.46 0.21 23.7 0.67 6.60 17.1
15 -9.49 88.43 11.79 36.1 0.46 0.21 24.1 0.67 6.71 17.4
16 -9.86 88.36 11.78 34.6 0.46 0.21 23.1 0.67 6.43 16.7
17 -10.22 88.30 11.77 33.7 0.45 0.21 22.5 0.67 6.26 16.3
18 -10.59 88.24 11.76 34.9 0.45 0.21 23.4 0.67 6.49 16.9
19 -10.94 88.17 11.76 35.7 0.45 0.21 23.9 0.67 6.63 17.2
20 -11.30 88.11 11.75 34.1 0.45 0.21 22.8 0.67 6.33 16.5
21 -11.65 88.05 11.74 33.3 0.45 0.21 22.3 0.67 6.19 16.1
22 -12.00 87.99 11.73 34.9 0.45 0.21 23.4 0.67 6.48 16.9
23 -12.34 87.93 11.72 35.0 0.45 0.21 23.4 0.67 6.49 16.9
24 -12.69 87.86 11.72 33.1 0.45 0.21 22.2 0.67 6.14 16.0
25 -13.02 87.80 11.71 33.6 0.45 0.21 22.5 0.67 6.23 16.3
26 -13.36 87.75 11.70 35.0 0.45 0.21 23.4 0.67 6.48 16.9
27 -13.69 87.69 11.69 33.4 0.45 0.21 22.4 0.67 6.20 16.2
28 -14.01 87.63 11.68 32.8 0.45 0.21 22.0 0.67 6.07 15.9
29 -14.33 87.57 11.68 34.5 0.45 0.21 23.1 0.67 6.40 16.7
30 -14.65 87.51 11.67 33.5 0.45 0.21 22.5 0.67 6.21 16.2
31 -14.96 87.46 11.66 32.3 0.45 0.21 21.7 0.67 5.99 15.7
74
NOVEMBER
No.
Of
day
1 -15.27 87.40 11.65 34.1 0.45 0.22 23.0 0.67 6.30 16.7
2 -15.58 87.34 11.65 33.1 0.45 0.22 22.3 0.67 6.11 16.2
3 -15.88 87.29 11.64 32.2 0.45 0.22 21.7 0.67 5.94 15.7
4 -16.17 87.24 11.63 34.0 0.45 0.23 22.9 0.67 6.27 16.6
5 -16.46 87.18 11.62 32.2 0.45 0.23 21.7 0.67 5.95 15.8
6 -16.74 87.13 11.62 32.5 0.45 0.23 21.9 0.67 6.00 15.9
7 -17.02 87.08 11.61 33.5 0.45 0.23 22.5 0.67 6.17 16.4
8 -17.30 87.03 11.60 31.5 0.45 0.23 21.2 0.67 5.80 15.4
9 -17.57 86.98 11.60 33.3 0.45 0.23 22.5 0.67 6.15 16.3
10 -17.83 86.93 11.59 31.9 0.45 0.23 21.5 0.67 5.87 15.6
11 -18.09 86.88 11.58 32.3 0.45 0.23 21.7 0.67 5.95 15.8
12 -18.35 86.83 11.58 32.6 0.45 0.23 21.9 0.67 6.00 15.9
13 -18.60 86.79 11.57 31.4 0.45 0.23 21.1 0.67 5.78 15.4
14 -18.84 86.74 11.57 32.9 0.44 0.23 22.2 0.67 6.06 16.1
15 -19.08 86.69 11.56 30.9 0.44 0.23 20.8 0.67 5.70 15.1
16 -19.31 86.65 11.55 32.8 0.44 0.23 22.1 0.67 6.05 16.1
17 -19.53 86.61 11.55 30.7 0.44 0.23 20.7 0.67 5.65 15.0
18 -19.75 86.57 11.54 32.7 0.44 0.23 22.0 0.67 6.02 16.0
19 -19.97 86.52 11.54 30.6 0.44 0.23 20.6 0.67 5.63 15.0
20 -20.18 86.48 11.53 32.4 0.44 0.23 21.9 0.67 5.97 15.9
21 -20.38 86.45 11.53 30.6 0.44 0.23 20.7 0.67 5.64 15.0
22 -20.58 86.41 11.52 31.9 0.44 0.23 21.5 0.67 5.87 15.6
23 -20.77 86.37 11.52 31.1 0.44 0.23 21.0 0.67 5.73 15.3
24 -20.95 86.33 11.51 30.8 0.44 0.23 20.8 0.67 5.68 15.1
25 -21.13 86.30 11.51 31.9 0.44 0.23 21.6 0.67 5.88 15.7
26 -21.30 86.27 11.50 30.0 0.44 0.23 20.3 0.67 5.53 14.7
27 -21.47 86.23 11.50 31.8 0.44 0.23 21.4 0.67 5.84 15.6
28 -21.63 86.20 11.49 30.9 0.44 0.23 20.9 0.67 5.69 15.2
29 -21.78 86.17 11.49 30.1 0.44 0.23 20.3 0.68 5.53 14.8
30 -21.93 86.14 11.49 31.8 0.44 0.23 21.4 0.68 5.84 15.6
31 -15.27 87.40 11.65 34.1 0.45 0.22 23.0 0.67 6.30 16.7
75
DECEMBER
No.
Of
day
1 -22.07 86.12 11.48 30.6 0.46 0.20 20.5 0.67 5.70 14.8
2 -22.20 86.09 11.48 29.8 0.46 0.21 19.9 0.67 5.55 14.4
3 -22.33 86.07 11.48 31.4 0.46 0.21 21.0 0.67 5.84 15.1
4 -22.45 86.04 11.47 31.1 0.46 0.21 20.8 0.67 5.79 15.0
5 -22.56 86.02 11.47 29.6 0.46 0.21 19.8 0.67 5.52 14.3
6 -22.67 86.00 11.47 30.1 0.46 0.21 20.1 0.67 5.60 14.5
7 -22.77 85.98 11.46 31.3 0.46 0.21 21.0 0.67 5.83 15.1
8 -22.86 85.96 11.46 31.1 0.46 0.21 20.8 0.67 5.78 15.0
9 -22.95 85.94 11.46 29.9 0.46 0.21 20.0 0.67 5.55 14.4
10 -23.03 85.93 11.46 29.4 0.46 0.21 19.7 0.67 5.47 14.2
11 -23.10 85.91 11.45 30.1 0.46 0.21 20.1 0.67 5.59 14.5
12 -23.16 85.90 11.45 31.0 0.46 0.21 20.7 0.67 5.76 14.9
13 -23.22 85.89 11.45 31.3 0.46 0.21 20.9 0.67 5.82 15.1
14 -23.28 85.88 11.45 31.0 0.46 0.21 20.7 0.67 5.76 15.0
15 -23.32 85.87 11.45 30.4 0.46 0.21 20.3 0.67 5.64 14.7
16 -23.36 85.86 11.45 29.8 0.46 0.21 19.9 0.67 5.54 14.4
17 -23.39 85.85 11.45 29.4 0.46 0.21 19.7 0.67 5.47 14.2
18 -23.42 85.85 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.6 0.67 5.44 14.1
19 -23.44 85.84 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.5 0.67 5.43 14.1
20 -23.45 85.84 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.5 0.67 5.43 14.1
21 -23.45 85.84 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.6 0.67 5.43 14.1
22 -23.45 85.84 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.5 0.67 5.43 14.1
23 -23.44 85.84 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.5 0.67 5.43 14.1
24 -23.42 85.85 11.45 29.2 0.46 0.21 19.6 0.67 5.44 14.1
25 -23.40 85.85 11.45 29.4 0.46 0.21 19.7 0.67 5.46 14.2
26 -22.67 86.00 11.47 30.1 0.46 0.21 20.1 0.67 5.60 14.5
27 -22.77 85.98 11.46 313 0.46 0.21 21.0 0.67 5.83 15.1
28 -22.86 85.96 11.46 31.1 0.46 0.21 20.8 0.67 5.78 15.0
29 -22.95 85.94 11.46 29.9 0.46 0.21 20.0 0.67 5.55 14.4
30 -23.03 85.93 11.46 29.4 0.46 0.21 19.7 0.67 5.47 14.2
31 -23.10 85.91 11.45 30.1 0.46 0.21 20.1 0.67 5.59 14.5
76
Appendix 2
Moody diagram [9], this diagram used to find out friction factor.
77
Appendix 3
Commercial pipe diagram [9] this diagram is used to find out ( ) ratio
78
APPENDIX- 4 PART DRAWINING AND ASSEMBLY
79
80
81
82
83
84
85

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Design of solar water heater for DDU students’ cafeteria 2005

DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SOLAR WATER HEATER FOR DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY STUDENT

A Research Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of BSc in Mechanical Engineering

Kidane Hailu …R/563/01

Semhal Gebrehiwot ...R/816/01

Woldemeskel Amare ...R/932/01

Yared Negash ...R/943/01

Mr. TESFAYE M. Date

2.2.TYPES OF SOLAR WATER HEATERS……..……..………..……………..5

3.1.SOLAR WATER HEATING PRINCIPLE……………………………………12

3.2.1 PREDICTION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY GLOBAL RADIATION ……….…15

5.RESULT AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………..…..48

6.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………………..…….63

APPENDIX 4 PART DRAWINING AND ASSEMBLY……………………..79

C=specific heat of water

G= is the global incident solar radiation on the collector

g=the gravitational constant [9.8m/s2]

k =is thermal conductivity [1]

L= is the plate spacing

n= is number of days in a year

V = is the wind speed in[ 3m/s].

υ=is kinematics viscosity of air water [1]

= the short wave absorptivity of the absorber

= the transmittance of the cover Beam radiation

Average temperature produced by the collector

=Area of the collector

The collector’s heat removal factor

̅ = monthly average daily radiation on a horizontal surface

Thermal conductivity of the insulation

= Average temperature of the absorber plate

Overall heat loss coefficient of the collector

̅= monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine

Back insulation thickness

= edge insulation thickness

= is the volumetric coefficient of expansion of air.

=Temperature difference between the plate and the glass

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Objective of the Project

 To calculate energy harnessed by flat plate solar water heater

 Mathematical modeling of outlet water temperature

1.4 Scope of the Research

1.5 Significant the Project

1.7 Organization of the Project

2.2 Types of Solar Water Heaters

Figure [2.1]:-Integrated Collector storage and its component parts [6]

b) Flat plate collectors

Figure [2.2]:- Flat Plate collector and its component parts

c) Evacuated tube collectors (ETC)

Figure [2.3]:- Evacuated tube and its component parts [6]

2.2.2 Types of Circulation System

a) Circulation System (thermo-syphon solar system)

Figure [2.4]:- basic principle of thermo-siphon (natural circulation system)

b) Forced Circulation (or active) Systems

Figure [2.5]:- Forced-circulation system

 Cover. One or more sheets of glass or other radiation transmitting material

Selection of materials for flat-plate collectors

Needed property data can generally be classified into three categories:

Environmental properties: - include resistance to ultraviolet degradation, moisture penetration

3.1 Solar water heating principle

3.2 Estimation of solar radiation data