CHAPTER- 1

INTRQDUCTION
A. THE GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
TOPOGRAPHY;
The word H imachal derives its origin from two
Hindi words ' H i ni_' and ' Ancha I ' meaning snow and lap
respectively. Thus etymological1y, Himachal Pradesh stands
for the region which lies in the slopes and foot-hills of
snow i.e.the Himalayas .

It may, however, be noted here that the Himalayas

is not a single continuous chain of mountains but a series of
parallel ranges running from Kashmir to the eastern end of
2
Assam . Himachal known as ' Dev Bhumi' to the ancients, is
situated in the heart of the Western Himalayas. According
to the Puranas, Himachal is the JalIandharakhand of the
Himalayas. In praising the glories of Himachal, the Skand
Purana says :

"He who thinks of Himachal, though he may not

behold it, is greater than he who performs worship in Kashi
and he shall have pardon for all his sins. Those beings who
while dying, think of its snows, are freed from their sins.
In a hundred ages of Gods, I could not tell them of the

Himalaya is derived from the word 'Him' meaning snow

and 'Alya' meaning a house i.e. house or home of snow.
Lord Krishan said in the Bhagwat Gita, 'Among
mountains I am the Himalaya It's grandeur and
mysteries have influenced all the spheres of life of
the people of India since the times immemorial.'

For more details see K.L. Joshi, ^ Geography of

Himachal Pradesh. Delhi, 1984.

It covers a tract of land 200 to 400 Kms. in breadth

and 2,400 to 2,500 kms. in length between Indus river
in the west and Brahmaputra river in the east.
glories of Himachal where Shiva lived and Ganges fell from
the feet of Vishnu like the slender thread of the lotus
f 1 ower .

The modern state of Himachal Pradesh is bounded

on the south by fertile plains of Uttar Pradesh (i.e. south-
east of Himachal ) and the Punjab (i.e. south west of
Himachal): on the north-west by the picturesque valley of
Kashmir and on the north-east by Tibet, the land of the
Lamas.

The Himachal region ( 33° 22' 40'-30° 12'40' N and

75° 47' 55' - 79° 04' 22*E) has an area of 55,653 kms and a
population of 51,11,079 (1991 census) covering the State of
Himachal Pradesh. Administratively, Himachal is divided into
twelve districts: Solan, Kinnaur, Mandi, Chamba, Sirmaur,
Bilaspur, .Shimla, Kangra, Kullu, Lahaul Spiti, Una and
Hami rpur,

Himachal Pradesh is veiled from the Punjab plains

by the Shiwalik hills. It is a mountainous tract with the
altitudes ranging from about 450 meters to 6500 meters above
sea level. The region presents an intricate mosaic of the
mountain ranges, hills and valleys.

In Himachal Pradesh, the white snow peaks are the

most prominent landmark. The Dhauladhar range looks in
supreme majesty over the Kangra Valley while the Pir Panjal,
the great Himalayan and Zaskar ranges stand grand over
Chamba, Kullu, Lahaul Spiti and Kinnaur. The mountain
slopes are covered with forests and meadows. The valleys
below are interspread with numerous streams and fields. There
is a gradual increase in elevation from the west and south
to north.

1. Skand Purana cited in Mian Goverdhan Singh, History of

Himachal-Pradesh (Delhi, 1982), p. 9.
 The Pir Panjal, the largest of the lesser
Himalayan ranges, bifurcates from the Great Himalayan Range
near the bank of Chenab on one side and Beas and Ravi on the
other. Rohtang Pass (3995 meters) and many other passes lie
across it.;'^

There are certain famous passes across the range

such as Kangla (5,246 meters), Bara Lacha Pass (4,512
meters), Kunzum La ( 4,551 meters),Perang (5,548 meters) and
Pinparbati ( 4,802 meters). Zaskar range is the eastern most
range and seperates Spiti with Kinnaur from Tibet. It has
8 peaks over 6,500 meters. There are many glaciers over the
Zaskar and Great Himalayan ranges .

Rivers:

Five rivers flow through the Himachal Pradesh. The

eastern most river is Yamuna which rises from Yamnotri in the
Garhwal range of the Himalayas and forms the eastern most
boundry with Uttar Pradesh. Its most important tributaries
2
are Tons, Pabar and Giri .

The Sutlej is the largest among the five rivers

of Himachal Pradesh. It rises beyond the Indian borders in
the southern slopes of the Kailash mountain, Lord Shiva's
abode in the Puran ie 1 ore. It enters the eastern part of
Himachal Pradesh at Shipki (6,608 meters). The Sutlej
receives Spiti from the north west. In Kinnaur it is joined
by the Baspa river. Just below Rampur (Bushahr) it is

For details see K.L. Joshi, Geography of Himachal

Pradesh. Delhi,1984, For Physical geography and
geology of the Shiwalik range of the Himalayas see
E.T. Atkinson, Geology of the Himalayas.
New Delhi, 1980.

K.L, Joshi, op. c i t. , pp. 17-18.

 joined by the Nogli stream. Flowing through Kinnaur, Shimla
hills and Bilaspur district, it leaves Himachal to enter the
plains of Punjab at Bhakra, where one of the world's largest
dam is constructed. As a result of this dam, a large man
made lake (Gobindsagar) has been formed in the Valley of
BiIaspur.

The Beas, which forms the world famous valley of

Kullu and Kangra rises from the Rohtang Pass 3995 m. The
main course of this river is south-ward to Larji and then to
the west. Its tributaries are Parbati, Sujoin, Phojal and
Saraswati streams. At Bajaura, it enters Mandi district.

The Ravi rises from an amphitheatre like basin

called Bara Bhangal - a branch of the Dhauladhar. It first
separates Pir Panjal from the Dhauladhar range and then turn
southwards. Thereafter, it enters Chamba district and after
flowing for about 130 kms. through this region, finally
leaves it at Kheri.

The fifth and the last river is Chandrabhaga or

Chenab. The Chandra and the Bhaga streams rise on the
opposite side of Baralacha Pass at an elevation of 4891
meters, the Chandra on the south-east and Bhaga on the
North west. The streams form one river at Tandi (2,286
meters). A little beyound Bhujind, it enters Pangi Valley of
the Chamba District.

Most of the rivers of Himachal Pradesh are snow

fed. During Monsoons they become raging torrents, carrying
enormous quantity of water and in winter, when snow and
water get frozen at higher altitudes, water discharge drops
' considerably, .

K.L. Joshi, op. ci t. , pp. 19-29.

RAINFALL AND CLIMATE;

In Himachal region, there is much diversification

in climatic conditions due to variation in elevation which
ranges from 450 to 6,500 meters.

in general, the climate of Himachal Pradesh is

distinguished from the Punjab plains by a shorter and less
hot weather and a somewhat higher precipitation and colder
and more prologned winter. The climatic conditions vary from
hot and sub-humid tropical the southern low tracts to
temperate, cold, alpine and glacial in the northern and the
eastern high mountains. Generally, the rainfall increases
from the plains to the hills according to relief and aspect.
Beyond Kullu, the rainfall again decreases due to rain-
shadow effect towards Lahual Spiti and Kinnaur. About 7 per
cent of the annual rainfall is obtained during July to
September; about 20 per cent from October to March and 10 per
cent from the month of April to June.

The rainfall in the first zone varies from 60 to

70 inches and in the second zone from 30 to 40 inches. The
Alpine zone remains under snow for about 5 to 6 months in a
year, and this compels the inhabitants to become migratory.
The average rainfall is 63-45 inches .

Popularly the year is divided into three seasons;

(1) Hyund or cold season (Oct. to Feb.)

(2) Taund i or hot season (March to J u n e ) ; and
(3/ Barsat or rainy season (July to September)

1. Techon-Econotnic Survey of Himachal Pradesh,

New Delhi, 1981, p.1.
Natural Vegetation;

Owing to wide range of altitude and climatic

conditions, Himachal Pradesh has a diversified and rich
f1ora .

Here we come across every type of west Hisialayan

Flora from Himalayan meadows and high level birch and
rhododendron down to the tropical scrub and bamboo forests of
the low foot-hills. The forests cover an area of 26,768 kms.
or about 48 percent of the total area. The area is
classified as under:

(1) Reserved forest : 1,918 kms.

(2) Demarcated protected forest : 6,886 kms.
(3) Undemarcated protected forests : 15823 kms.
(4) Unclassified forests : 868 kms,
(5) Other forests : 203 kms. and
(6) Forests not under the control of the forest
Department : 1,070 Kms.

Total : 26,768 kms.

The National forest policy has laid down that in

the hilly areas like Himachal Pfadesh, 60 per cent of the
total geographical area should be under forests. Efforts are
being made to bring the areas as near to national forest

'Techno Economic Survey of Himachal Pradesh', op.cit..

P. 1.
policy as possible. The following classification will best
illustrate the vegetation zones in Himachal Pradesh:

Vegetation Zone Altitude in meters

1. Tropical and sub-tropical : 300 - 1525

2. Temperate : 1525 - 3650
3. Alpine : 3650 - 4650^

ETVflOLOGy

EtymoIogical1y, Hiamchal Pradesh stands for the

region which lies in the slopes and foot-hills of snow i.e.
the Himalayan region. Himachal Pradesh is a recent creation,
but history of the land comprised in it goes back to the
remote past. Some of the ruling dynasties, now extinct,
claim decent from the heroes of Mahabharata and even to the
pre-Mahabharata age. This makes the history of Himachal more
dim and obsecure as the centuries recede away from our vision
into the distant past which has left very scanty vestiges in
the shape of archaeological and traditional remains as we
shall see in the ensuing pages.

1, K.L. Joshi, op. ci t. . pp. 34-36; see also

Mian Goverdhan Singh, Social. cultural and
Economic Survey of Himachal- Pradesh,Simla.1985,
Chapter 1.
B. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD :

The discovery of stone iraplements by the archaeol-

ogists and the anthropologists in the foothills of Shiwaliks,
the area traversed by Banganga-Beas valleys of Kangra, the
2
Sirsa-Sutlej valleys of Nalagarh, Bilaspur and the Markanda
valley of Sirmavr, gives a sure evidence that about two
million years ago some form of human beings lived here. But
these sources do not yet help to determine exactly as to who
were the pre-historic inhabitants of Himachal region.

It is believed that since prehistoric times this

region was settled by a long series of migrations over
centuries, chiefly from various surrounding areas. It seems
probable that the aboriginal Proto-Australoid, or, Munda
speaking kolorian people, were the first immigrants to
3
Himachal region

Before the spread of Indus valley civilization (c.

3,000 B.C to 1,750 B . C ) , these people inhabited the Indo-
Gangetic plain. But the people of Indus valley civilization
forced them to take shelter in the difficult Himalayan
forests and valleys. With the passage of time, the Kolorian
people might have spread over the whole of central and

1. B.B. Lai, "Palaeoliths from Beas and Banganga Valleys,

Panjab*, Ancient India. No. 12,pp. 58-92, vide
also R.V. Joshi, "Early Stone Age Discoveries in the
Beas-Banganga Region*.CulturaI Forum. 1968
Vol.9(1-2?, pp.96-99.

2. D.Sen, 'Nalagarh Palaeolithic Culture", Man in India.

Vol. XXXV. (3), 1955, p. 176-184.

3. Mian Goverdhan Singh, History of Himachal Pradesh

(Delhi, 1982), p.33.
western Himalayas. They appear to be the original inhabitants
of pre-historic Himachal. They were probably the Dasyus, of
the Vedas And the Kinnar, Naga, Yaksha and Gandharva of the
Puranic literature.

The second influx of immigrants might have entered

into the Western Himalayas from noth-west frontier and
engulfed the whole of cis-Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal.
These people are believed to be of Aryan origin and might
have preceded the Vedic Aryans in coming to India. They came
to be known as Khashas.

The Khashas assimilated the aboriginal tribes.

Uhen they had settled permanently in the Western Himalayas,
they organised themselves into families and villages. They
divided the whole region into small administrative units
which were called havanas. Each unit had its own elected head
who was known as Mavi or rtavana. Later, these Mavanas
developed into tribal republics of Janpadas.

These Janpadas are mentioned in Mahabharata,

Raraayana and other literary works in Sanskrit. Panini has
mentioned them in his Astadhyav i as Parvatavudhiivi Sanghas^
meaning those who lived by the profession or arms. The
Important tribal republics of ancient Himachal region were
the Audumbara, the Trigarta, the Kuluta and the Kulinda or
Kuninda.

ANCIENT PERIOD

The people of ancient Himachal had contacts with

their counterparts in the plains. It is said that
Chandragupta Maurya, the contender for the throne of Nagdha

1. Astadhyayi. tr. S.C.Vasu, (Allahabad, 1929),

4 : 3 : 91, 5:3:114 and 4:4:114.
 10

entered into an alliance with Parvataka, a Himalayan Chief,

to strengthen his position. According to a Buddhist account,
Parvataka was a close associate of Chanakya or Kautilya, and
might have been the chief of Trigarta.

After his accession to the throne of Magdha,

Chandra-gupta subdued most of the States of northen India. He
might have tried to penetrate into the inner hills. According
to Vishakhadatta's play Hudrarakshasa. he was opposed by a
coalition of five kings among whome the name of Chitravaran
of Kuluta is mentioned .

Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, might have

extended his boundaries upto the Himalayan region, as he is
acredited with spreading buddhism here. According to the
Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen-Tsang (A.D. 629 -A.D 645), Ashoka
erected many Stupas in the Himalayan region. He mentions in
his records that the stupa in Kuluta was built by Ashoka
raja to commemorate the visit of Mahatma Buddha to that
2
Country.

That the rulers of the hills accepted the

overlordship of Ashoka is further testified to by the rock-
edict of Kalsi, an important settlement on trade -route at
that time in Jaunsar- Bawar region of Sirmaur State.

After the decline of Mauryas, the Shungas (B.C.

187-75) came into power. But they might have failed in
keeping the tribal republics of the Himachal region under
their control, and as a result, the latter asserted their
independence and issued their own coinage.

1. Visakhadatta.Mudrarakshasa. 1:20.

2. Samuel Beal, Travels of Hiuen Tsang. Vol.2,

(Calcutta, 1958), p.210-211.
 11

The first century of the Christian era witnessed

the growth of Kushana power in north and north-western
India. The tribal republics of Himachal region appear to
have been under the supremacy of the Kushanas for a long
period. This fact is testified to be the discovery of 382
copper coins of Uema Kadphises alongwith 40 copper coins of
Kanishka on the Kalka-Kasauli road and two coins of Wema
Kadphises, one of Kanishka and one of Vasudeva at Kanhiara in
the Kangra district. As we actually have the tribal coins
issued during second century B.C. to second century A.D., so
it seems that the Kushana rulers allowed the circulation of
the vice-regal coinage.

Evidence, regarding the politicl condition of

Himachal region in the post Kushana and pre-Gupta period, is
lacking. This region might have passed through an age of
confusion and anarchy; consequently no significant
development in any field took place.

We have more definite evidence regarding the

Gupta age. Varahamihira mentions the Kuluta in the lists of
people, to the north-west and noth-east, that are contained
2
in the Brihatsamhita.

The countries annexed by Samudragupta are

specially mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar inscription.
Besides this, there is a list of those .frontier states
which acknowledged the supermacy of Samudragupta without war.
Among these are the republican tribes of the Punjab. But
there is no mention of the Janpadas of the Kunindas,
Audumbra, Kuluta and Trigarta. However, it is certain that
theses tribal states were strongly affected by the Imperial

1. Baldev Kumar, The Early Kushanas. (New Delhi, 1973),

p.42.

2. Varahamihira, Brihat Sarobita. Ch XIV Vs.22,29.

 12

Guptas and they might have adopted the monarchical form of

government under the influence of their Imperial lords.
Again, various anchoaeological and epigraphic sources point
out towards the influence of Guptas on the art and
architecture of Himachal region.

Harsha appeared on the polotical scene of north

India in A.D. 606 and during his reign the famous Chinese
pilgrim, Hiuen-Tsang visited India. As the latter was a State
guest, so he was supposed to visit only those areas which
were either within the empire of Harsha or were under
friendly rulers. He visited Jalandhar which was the capital
of Jaladhar-Trigarta State and stayed there as the guest of
Raja Utilas before proceeding to Kanauj, the capital city
of Harsha. Utilas is identified with Adima of the
Jalandhara as the soverign of north India and this is the
Vanshavai1. The works of Hiuen-Tsang call the king of
conclusive proof of the independent status of the State.

Hiuen-Tsang also visited Kuluta (Kullu) and

Srughna, but he is silent about the political conditions of
these States. It appears that these States were under the
suzerainty of Harsha.

After the disintegration of Harsha's empire,

there was a great political upheaval in north Indian plains.
The Gurjara - Prstiharas emerged as one of the leading powers
here. They seem to have left their influence on various parts
of Himachal region. Several bronze and stone sculptures
depicting the Pratihara art styles have been found here.

Mian Goverdhan Singh, op.ci t.. p.61.

 13

THE PERIOD OF RANAS AND THAKURS ;

After the collapse of the Imperial Vardhana empire

northern India again became congeries of small states. In the
cis-Himalayan region, between the Rave and the Yamuna, a new
group of petty chiefs, known as Ranas and Thakurs, emerged.
They claimed themselves to be Kashatr iyas. This period is
known as the Apthakuri or Apthakurai, while the territory of
a Rana was called ranhun and of a Thakur thakur i or
thakurai. .

On the slab- inscriptions and copper-plate title

deeds the Ranas are indicated by the name of Rajanaka. the
court aristocracy of the pre-Rajput period. Hutchison and
Vogel are of the view that the word Rana is derived directly
from Prakrit title rajana ( i.e. rajanna. Sanskrit rajanya)
and was used either as the title of a petty chief or as a
caste name. In the former meaning it is synonymous with
2
Sanskrit samanta and thakkura. the oldest record actually
bearing the title Rajanaka was found on a image at Svain, the
Himgiri Pargana of Chamba which may be assigned to the ninth
3
or tenth centry A.D.

The name Thakur means 'Lord'. In ancient period

when might was right it seems improbable that all the
ancient rulers of the hills were Kshatriyas. The men of the
other communities, who had a strong personality and
qualities of leadership, might have conquered a tract of
country and assumed or were given the title of Thakkura,

1. J.Hutchison,J.PH. Vogel, History of the

Punjab Hill States. Vol - 1,(Lahore, 1933), p.12.
2. Ibid., p.12.
3. Ibid., p.15.
 lA

later Thakur. The word Thakkura occurs as Thakura in the

Mirakula image inscription, but is not found elsewhere in
Chamba epigraphs.

The Ranas and Thakurs exercised authority either

as independent rulers or under the suzerainty of a paramount
power. The territories of the Ranas and Thakurs were of very
diminutive size and their boundaries were liable to constant
change according as each ruler gained ascendency or yielded
to superior powers.

As a result of the foundation of Rajput

principalities in Western Himalayas by the Rajput
adventurers, the Apthakurai period came to an end sooner in
some parts than in others. These Rajput adventurers either
came direct from Indian plains, or were cadets of one or
other of the noble families which had already established
themselves in the hills.

MEDIEVAL OR RAJPUT PERIOD;

The power of Gurjara -pratiharas declined in the

later half of 10th century A.D. Their feudatory chiefs tried
to fill in the vacuum and consequently the Rajput States
rose to power in Rajputana and Ganga-Yamuna Doab,

It is probable that some Rajput adventurers

penetrated into the Western Himalayan hills, subdued the
local petty cheifs, Ranas and Thakurs, and established
powerful principalities, These Rajput Chiefs invited other
Rajputs from the pal ins to join their forces against the
local chiefs. Most of the hill States were founded before the
eleventh century, when the Mohammedan invasions of North
Ind ia s tar ted.
 15

Trigarta was the oldest among the hill states.

Previous to the Muhammedan invasions in the begnning of
eleventh century A.D., it comprised almost all the country
between the Sutlej and the Ravi in the outer hills, except
Kullu, and also the Jalandhar Doab on the plains. But as a
result of Mohammedan invasions, the Territory on the plains
was lost and Nagarkot or Kangra then became the capital of
the State. The other name of the country was Katoch from
which the royal family derives its clan name.

The traditional history of the state goes back to

a time long anterior to the Christian era. According to
tradition, the State was founded by Susarma-Chandra, who
figures in the Mahbharata as an ally of the Kaurvas.

The famous fort of Kangra was captured by Mahmud

of Ghazni in A.D. 1009 and is said to have changed hands
several times during the subsequent centuries, till it was
finally garrisoned by Imperial troops in A.D. 1620 in the
reign of Jahangir. Raja Sansar Chand lost this fort to Ranjit
Singh in A.D. 1809, who annexed the State of Kangra to the
kingdom of Lahore in A.D. 1828.

Jaswan. an offshoot of Kangra, was founded by

Purab Chand, a cadet of the Katoch family, in about A.D.
1170. It was suject to the Mughals from the time of Akbar. It
was annexed to the Sikh Kingdom in 1815 by Maharaja Ranjit
Singh.

Guler state was another offshoot of Kangra and

was founded in A.D. 1405 by Hari Chand, the raja of Kangra.
Ranjit Singh annexed this state to the Sikh Kingdom in 1813.

A Cunningham, The Ancient Geography of India.

Vol. I (London, 1871), p.37.
 16

Siba was an offshoot of Guler, founded by Sibaran

Chand in about A.D. 1450. This state seems to have preserved
its independence throughout the Mughal period.

Datarpur was a offshoot from Siba and was founded

by Datar Chand in A.D. 1550. This state came under the sikh
control in 1809 and was annexed to Sikh kingdom in 1830.

The state of Nurpur is said to have been founded

by a Tomar Rajput, Jhet Pal, of Delhi who settled at
Pathankot (originally Pratishthana) in about A.D. 1000. The
capital was shifted from Pathankot to Dahmari in the
beginning of the seventeenth century. It was renamed Nurpur
after Emperor Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir. It came under
the sikhs in 1809 and was annexed in 1816.

Chamba state was also one of the oldest

principalities of the Western Himalayas. Its old capital was
at Brahmpura, founded by Maru Verman in
about A.D. 550. The
2
original home of the family is said to have been in Ayodhya .
The rajas of Chamba belonged to the Suryavanshi (Solar) line
of the Rajputs.

Raja Sahil Verman (c.A.D. 920) conquered the lower

Ravi valley and transferred his capital from Brahmputa to
Champa, now called Chamba.

Chamba State was for many centuries subject to

Kashmir, but it regained its independence in the twelfth
century. It was under Mughal supremacy from the time of Akbar
till 1752, when it passed under the sway of the Durani
kings of Kabul. It became tributary to the Sikhs in 1770;
from 1786 to 1805 it was tributary to Raja Sansar Chand of

1. Hutchison and Vogel, op.ci t.. Vol. I. p.52.

2. Ibid..p.277-278.
 17

Kangra. It was again subject to Sikh kingdom in 1809.

Kullu was another old principality in the Western

Himalayas, it was known as Kuluta in ancient times. As
already said, it was a tribal republic of Janpada.
According to Hutchison and Vogel, this state was founded by
Behangmani Pal not later than the first century A.D. ^ The
ruling family, the tradition holds, "Came from Mayapur
2
(Hardwar, U.P)" Its earliest capital was at Nast or Jagat
Sukh. During the reign of Jagat Singh (A.D. 1637-1672).
Sultanpur was made the seat of government.

Under Man Singh (A.D. 1637-1719) Kullu reached the

zenith of its power. He brought the local chiefs of Lahaul
under his sway.

The Sikh army

under the Sidhanwala Sirdars
3
invaded Kullu in A.D. 1840, and brought it under the Sikh
contro1.

The Chiefs of Suket, Mandi, Keonthal and Kashtwar

claimed descent from a common ancestor of the Sena dynesty
4
of Bengal. The descendants of the common ancestor were three
brothers , namely, Vira of Bira Sen, Giri Sen and Hamir Sen
who respectively founded the States of Suket, Keonthal and
Kashtwar (in Jammu).
Mand i State was an offshoot of Suket. It was
established by Ban Sen, eleventh in descent from Bahu Sen who
was younger brother of Raja Sahu Sen (c.A.D. 1000) of S.uket.
The old capital of Mandi was at Bhiuli, on the right bank of
the river Beas,

1. Hutchison and Vogel, op ci t. . Vol-ll p.424.

2. Ibid.,Vol-I,p.52.
3. G.C.Barnes, Kangra Settlement Report.Lahore.1889, p.78
the expedition was preliminary to an invasion of Tibet
which did not mature.
4. Hutchison and Vogel,op ci t. . Vol-l,p.341.
 18

Raja Ajber sen built the new town of Mandi on the

left bank of Beas in A.D. 1527. Maharaja Ranjit Singh made it
a tributory to the Sikh Kingdom in A.D. 1809, but he never
tried to annex it. During the reign of Raja Balbir Singh,
the Sikh forces under General Ventura invaded Mandi. He was
treacherously imprisioned and forced to surrender all the
important forts in the State. Later, he was sent to Amritsar
as a prisoner and confined in the fort of Govindgarh, but he
was set free in May, 1841, by Maharaja Sher Singh.

According to tradition the State of Bilaspur

(Kahlur) was established by Bir Chand in about A.D. 900. He
was a descendant from the ancient rajas of Chanderi in Bundel
Khand . Kahlur became tributary to the Mughals during the
reign of Raja Gian Chand (c-A.D 1570). Raja Dip Chand founded
the town of Bilaspur in about 1654. Originally it was called
Beaspur, as it was situated on the left bank of river
Sutlej which was traditionally called Beas Gufa.

Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra invaded Bilaspur in

1795 and annexed moist of the territory on the right bank of
Sutlej. In his great despair. Raja Mahan Chand of Bilaspur
sought the intercession of the Gurkhas who defeated Sansar
Chand in 1805 and occupied the fort of Kangra. But they were
compelled to retire across the Sutlej by Maharaja Ranjit
Singh in 1809. They continued to occupy Bilaspur and the
states of Shimla Hills till 1814.First Nepalise war began in
1814, in consequence of their invasion of the British
Territory. The Gurkhas were defeated, and the British
Government granted a Sanad, dated 6th March, 1815, to
Bilaspur confirming Raja Mahan Chand in the possession of
the territory on the left bank of Sutlej. The territory on
the right bank of the river, restored by the Gurkhas, was
held on condition of allegiance and tribute to the Sikhs.

1. Hutchison and Vogel, op.ci t.. Vol. If,p.496.

 19

The principality of H indur (Nalagarh) was an

offshoot of Kahlur.

KutIehr state was founded by a Brahmin named Jas

Pal, in about tenth or eleventh century A.D. who, on the
acquisition or regal power, was recognised as a Rajput. This
State became tributroy to the Sikhs in A.D. 1809.

The state of Bangahal consisted of Bara-Bangahal

.and Chota-Bangahal, divided by the high mountain range of the
Dhaula Dhar. It is said that its progenitor was a Brahmin
who ranked as Rajput on becoming a raja. When Dalel Pal
became raja in A.D. 1749, most of the territory of this state
has been encroached by Kullu and Mandi. Towards the end of
the eighteeth century, these states paid five lakhs of rupees
to Sansar Chand of Kangra to secure themselves in its
possession. 1.

The territory between the rivers Sutlej and

Yamuna was divided into a number of Small and big states,
governed by chief's more or less independent in proportion as
they were powerful. These states were classed under the
Shimla Hill States. Among them, the States of Bushahr and
Sirmaur were more important and they occupied the largest
portion of this tract. The remaining territory was divided
into great number of petty chiefships, all of which were
recognised under the appellation of the Bara Thakurais or
Twelve lordships and Athara Thakurais or Eighteen
Lordships.

The Bara Thakurais were :1. Keonthal 2 Baghat 3.

Kunihar 4. Kuthar 5. Bajji 6. Dhami 7. Mehlog 8. Koti
9. Mangal 10. Beja 11. Bharoli and 12, Baghal.

1. Hutchison and Vogel.op.cit..Vol. II. p.493.

 20

The Athara Thakurais were located in the valleys

of the rivers Sutlej, Giri and Pabar. These were : 1, Jubbal
2. Sari, 3. Rawingarh, 4. Balson 5. Ratesh, 6. Ghund, 7.
Madhan, 8. Theog, 9. Kumarsain, 10. Khaneti, 11. Delath,
12. Karangala, 13. Kotkhai- Kotgarh, 14.Darkoti, 15. Tharoch,
16. Dhadi, 17. Sangri, and 18. Bharauli.

The 9ara Thakurais and the Athara Thakurais were founded

either by the Rajput adventurers from the plains or by the
cadets of the ruling families of other hill states. The Bara
Thakurais were tributaries to Kahlur, Hindur and Sirmaur
according to the degree or power they respectively possessed.

On the commencement of first Nepalese war in A.D.

1814, most of these Thakurais sided with the British
Government and were successful in expelling the Gurkhas out
of their territories. The war ended in A.D. 1815, and most
of the chiefs of these Thakurais were confirmed in the
possession of their territories. The British Government
granted them sanads defining their rights and obligations.

According to the tradition the State of Bushahr-

Kinnaur was established by a man, named Pradhuman and his
capital was at Kamru . In the early tenth century the
capital was transferred to Sarahan. The most prominent ruler
in the history of Bushahr-Kinnaur was Raja Kehri Singh (A.D.
1639-1696) upon whom Emperor Aurangzeb confirred the title of
Chhatrapati. On the conclusion of First Nepalese war in A.D.
1815, this State came under the British control.

There is no authentic information regarding the

early history of Sirmaur State. It is said that its original
rulers, who belonged to Rathore clan of Rajputs, perished in
a great flood. There was disorder and anarchy in the State.

1. Mian Goverdhan Singh , op.ci t.. pp.82-83.

 21

On the invitation of a minister, the prince of Jaisalttjer

House, Shobha, established peace and order in the State and
assumed the regal power under the title of Subhans Prakash.
His capital was at Rajban which was shifted to Kalsi in the
reign of Udit Praksh (A.D.1217-1227).

On the conclusion of the first Napalese War in

1815, Sirmaur also came under the British control.

During the medieval period Lahaul and Spiti were

two separate states in the higher Himalayan zone. Lahaul
included the valleys of Chandra and Bhaga rivers to their
confluence and the main valley of Chandrabhaga river.

It appears that a loose connection between Lahaul

and Ladakh might have existed from a remote past. At the
same time it might have been more or less under Chamba and
Kul lu.

In the early centuries of Christian era, Lahaul

was ruled by petty chief tans, called Jo who were of Tibetan
origin and corresponded to the Ranas and Thakurs elsewhere.
Whenever these Jos were subjugated by the rulers of Ladakh,
Chamba or Kullu, they paid annual tribute to the State
concerned. This was the only symbol of their submission.

Raja Bidhi Singh of Kullu (A.D.1672-1686) brought

upper Lahaul entirely under his sway. Thus, the supermacy of
Ladakh over Lahaul came to an end. His successor, Man Singh
A.D. 1688-1719, fixed boundry between Kullu and Ladakh at
L ingti piains.

When Kullu State was annexed to the Sikh Kingdom

in A.D. 1840-41, Lahaul eventually came under Sikh control.
 22

Spiti is separated from Lahaul by a high mountain

range. During ancient and medieval period it was a separate
political, social and cultural unit. In very early period it
was probably ruled by a Hindu dynasty bearing the suffix of
'Sena' . This fact is corroborated by Kullu annals according
to which Rajendra Sen, King of Spiti, made Kullu his
tributary in the reign of Rudar Pal (A.D. 600-650) Raja
Prasidh Pal of Kullu defeated the ruler of Spiti in a battle
near the Rohtang Pass. Soon after this, Spiti was invaded by
the Tibetans and thus the pro-Buddhist Hindu dynasty might
have come to an end.

Spiti was probably always under the suzerainty of

the Tibetans of Ladakh and Guge Kingdoms. Raja Man Singh of
Kullu invaded Spiti sometimes after A.D. 1680 and made it
tributary to Kullu.

The Jammu and the Sikh armies invaded and

plundered Spiti in about A.D. 1841, but none of them tried to
annex it to their respective kingdom.

According to the peace treaty of March 9, 1846,

the Sikhs had to cede the Doab, between the Sutlej and the
Beas, in perpeatuaty to the British Government. Consequently,
the Hill states of Jallandhar group, i.e. Kangra and its off
shoots, Nurpur, Kutlehr, Mandi, Suket and Kullu alongwith
Lahaul and Spiti, passed into the British hands. The State of
Chamba followed suit in 1847.

The complex topographic features of Himachal

region rendered it impossible for any ruler, internal or
outsider to establish a major empire over the whole region.

Journal of Punjab Historical Society. Vol.VII No.12,

p. 145.
 23

T'lerefore, only small states could flourish here. They always

"ni.d strifes amongst themselves which weakened them to a
cons id«jrabl e extent and paved the way for the imposition of
direct political control by Maharaja Ranjit Singh from A.D.
1809 onwards, except in Shimla Hill states. After the defeat
of the Sikhs in the first Sikh War of 1845, most of these
•states came under the British control.

THE BRITISH PERIOD

On the decline of the Mughal empire, the Gurkhas

of Nepal, having made themselves masters of the whole of
that country, conceieved an ambitious military programme of
bringing the entire western Himalyas under their sway.

Araar Singh Thapa along with 40,000 men crossed

the Sutlej at Bilaspur where he was joined by various
contingents from the hill states of the Kangra group.

The Gurkha forces then advanced into the heart of

the Kangra state and laid seige to the fort, where Raja
Sansar Chand had taken refuge. For four years the Gurkhas
tried unsuccessfully to capture the fort but failed, the
continuous seige of the fort greatly affected the agriculture
and economy of the surrounding territotries. The Gurkhas
plundered the countryside.Raja Sansar Chand sought Maharaja
Ranjit Singh's help, as a result Thapa had to retrieve in
1809^.

The Gurkhas then conquered Nahan and Jythak (in

i rmaur)

M.S. Ahluwalia.History of Himachal Pradesh (Delhi,

1988), p.156.
 24

In 1810 the Gurkhas went on to conquer Hindur,

Jubbal and Pundar. Amar Singh Thapa took possession of
Rampur Bushahr. The Rajmata, with her infant son took shelter
in the deep forests. The Gurkha leader took possession and
remained there with his forces. In 1812 he agreed to leave
Rampur, the country north of Sarahan mountains and the area
beyond the Sutlej in return for payment of a tribute of
Rs.12,000/- annually. Perhaps the Gurkha leader found this
area too remote.

Shortly afterwards Thapa faced a new challenge

from the British who defeated and stripped them of all their
possession in the Himachal hills. The English decided to
expel the Gurkhas from all the hill states east of the
Sutlej, with the help of the local chiefs.

As the hill chiefs were already fed up with the

incessant inroads of the Gurkhas they immediately consented
to extend all help to the British. The British, on their part
promised the hill chief tains, the restoration of their
lost territories soon after the expulsion of the Gurkhas. A
joint military operation was planned under the command of
Major General David Ochterlony.

But this turned out to be a trap for them. They

compelled the local rulers to sign certain treaties,
according to which the paramount power from the hands of
2
these rulers passed to the British Government in India .

After the second Sikh war of 1848, Punjab was

occupied by the British, consequently Kangra, Nurpur, Kullu,
Lahaul & Spiti became a part of British India whereas the

1. M.S. Ahluwalla.op.cit. , p.157.

2. Mian Goverdhan Singh, Himachal Pradesh History, Culture
and EconomyTShimla,1990, p. 30.
 25

states of Chamba, Mandi and Suket were returned to their

rulers.

This caused a great resentment among the Katoch

and Pathania Chiefs. In 1857, they revolted alongwith some
other princes, one of which was Raja Shamsher Singh of
Bushahr. The Britishers succeded in suppressing the revolt.
But the freedom movement continued and assumed the name of
Praja Mandal movement .

In 1948 thirty odd princes of Shimla and Punjab

hills met in Delhi and inscribed their signatures on the
document and surrendered their centuries old Raj to the
Indian masses and thus Himachal Pradesh in the form of a unit
came into existence on 15th April, 1948,

In 1950, Kotkhai and Kotgarh were handed over to

Himachal in lieu of Sanjauli which was given to Punjab. In
1954, Bilaspur was merged with the state. On 1st November,
1966 with the re-organisation of Punjab and Haryana on
linguistic basis, Kangra, Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti and Shimla
district of the Punjab were merged with Himachal Pradesh.
Full statehood was granted to Himachal Pradesh on 28th
2
January, 1971.

1. Mian Goverdhan Singh, Himachal Pradesh History. Culture

and Economy.Shimla,1990 p 31.

2. Ibid., pp.31-32
 26

C. A SURVEY OF SOURCE MATERIAL.

The information left by the Foreign travellers

concerning the state of Himachal Pradesh forms a very
important source material. It is well known that as early as
the seventh century A.D., we have the earliest and authentic
historical accounts of the Himalayan states including
Himachal Pradesh, in the accounts left by Hiuen-Tasang the
famous Chinese traveller. Since then, a number of foreign
travellers visited the Himalayan states, including the hill
areas now forming the part of present Himachal Pradesh. The
climax is reached during the British period. A number of
English travellers have left their accounts of the tours
they made through the different parts of Himachal Pradesh.
The brief personal details of these English travellers are as
foilows:

WILLIAM FINCH

William Finch is one of the earliest travellers to

record information about Himachal Pradesh. The account
written by him was edited by William Fostsr and published in
2
the book titled Early Travels in India Finch arrived in
India at Surat in 1606. In 1611 he was sent to Lahore on the
company's behalf to sell Indigo. He remained there till
August, 1611 and then proceeded to Baghdad where he died.

Baron Charles Hugel (German) is the only non-English

traveller who has been included in the present study.
William Foster, Early Travels in India. 1583-1619,
Delhi,1966.
 27

Finch has given political account of Nurpur,

Kangra and Sirmaur. He has also made obsevations about the
religious beliefs of Kangra people. He has mentioned that ,
most of the Indian drugs which grew in the mountains came
from Nurpur and surrounding areas.

EDWARD TERRY

Edward Terry was born in 1590. He was the first

Englishman to set out for India with no intention of trade
but to see the Country and to write about his experiences.
He died in October, 1660.

Terry has mentioned in his account published in

Early Travels in India about the temples of Kangra and
Jwalamukhi and described the religious beliefs of the people.
For example he has recorded, •Nagarcutt(Nagerkot, old name of
Kangra) the chief citie(city), in which there is a chappel
most richly set forth both seeled and paved with plate of
gold. In this place they keep an idoll (idol), which they
call liatta. visited yearly by many thousands of Indians, who
out of devotion cut of part of their tongue to make a
sacrifice for it. In this province there is likewise another
famous pilgrimage to a place called Jal1amakae{Jwalamukhi)
where out of cold springs and hard rocks there are dayiy to
be seene incessant eruptions of fire, before which the
2
idolatrous people fall down and worship.*

The temples referred to above are Mata Bajreshwari

temple in Kangra and Jawalamukhi temple at Jawala Ji
respectively.

1. William Foster, Early Travels in India. 1583-1619,

Delhi, 1968.
2. Ibid.. P.29A.
GEORGE FORSTER

George Forster visited Himachal in 1783. He was

a civil servant in the Company's Presidency of Madras and
journeyed through Bengal, Lucknow, Srinagar, Nadaun and over
mountains of Kashmir, Afganistan, Herat and Persia by the
Caspian sea to Russia, His account is found in Journey from
Bengal to England which was published in 1798. He died at
2
Nagpur on an embassy to Marathas.

Forster entered Himachal from the direction of

Dehradun at Nahan. Then he proceeded to Bilaspur and
described his journey through various villages and hamlets
enroute the hill route which he followed. He stopped at
Bilaspur for some days and wrote a description of this town.
Then he went to Kangra which was called the land of
Kotchien. Some of the places visited and mentioned in his
account are Sooree, Bompal and Doda. Later he went to
Nurpur, He gives a description of this district before he
proceeded to Jammu.

Although Forster mainly wrote about the rulers and

polity, he also described the economy and society of the
areas.

1. George Forster, Journey From Bengal to England. through

the Northern parts of India. Kashmir. Afganistan and Persia
and into Russia by the Caspian Sea,Vol.1. London, 1796.

2. C.E. Buckland, Dictionary of Indian. Biography. New Delhi,

1971,p.151.
 2Q

JAMES BAILLIE FRASER

Eraser visited Himachal in 1815. He was born in

1783. Alongwith his brother William, he explored the
Himalayas to the sources of Ganges and Yamuna. In 1821 he
accompanied Dr. Jukes to Persia, Mashad, Kurdistan and
Tabris. In 1833-34 he was on a diplomatic mission to Persia
and wrote narratives of his traveles there and in
neighbouring countries,

Gerard entered Himachal at Nahan in March 1815,

and travelled through Sirmaur, Jubbal, Bushahr, Kumarsain and
Theog. He has given extensive details about these areas,
which include social, economic and religious conditions.

ALEXANDER GERARD

He joined the Bengal N.1. in 1808 and was employed

in survey work in 1812-17 and afterwards in 1825-27. He
ascended great heights in the Himalayas and penetrated into
Tibet in 1821. He travelled from Subathu to Shipki and from
Shipki to Chinese Tibet and wrote an Account of an Attempt
3
to Penetrate by Bekhur to Garoo and the Lake Mansarowara.
He died in 1839.

He has travelled extensively in Kinnaur and has

written interesting details appearing in his book. Account
4
of Koonawur in the Himalayas.

1. James Baillie Eraser, Journal of a Tour in the Snowy

Ranges of the Himala Mountains and to the sources of
the Rivers Jamuna and Ganges. London, 1820.
2. C.E. Buckland, op. cit. . p.155,
3. Alexander Gerard, Account of an Attempt to penetrate by
Bekhur to Garoo. and the Lake Mansarowara. edited by
George Lloyed, London, 1841.
4. Capt. Alexander Gerard. Account of Koonawur In the
HImalaya. edited by George LLoyd, London, 1841.
 30

JAMES GILBERT GERARD

J.G, Gerard (1795-1835, Surgeon by profession,

entered the E.l. Go's Bengal Medical service in 1814,

He travelled extensively through Himalyas along

with his brother Alexandder Gerard. The account of his
travels is available in 'Observations on the Spiti valley,
and circumjacent country within the Himalaya' published in
Asictic Researches Vol.IX and his letter dated 18th August,
1822 to George Lloyd published by the latter in 1841.

PATRIC GERARD (1794-1848)

2
Patric Gerard entered the bengal N.I., in 1812
Capt. 1828: died Oct., 4, 1848. He recorded observations of
the climate of Subathu and Kotgarh , and wrote on
3
meteoroIogy.

He reached Subathu in 1817: the observations made

by him have been principally taken at Subathu and Kotgerh.
He has recorded information about the agriculture produce of
Subathu such as corn, cotton, opium, rice, barley, wheat
various pulses and ginger. He has also written about
agriculture and horticulture in Kotgarh and its
neighbourhood. In particular he records, that opium was
produced in great quantity for export.

1. J.G. Gerard, Observations on the Spiti valley and

• circumjacent country within the Himalaya, As iatic
Researches. Vol.IX Delhi, 1980.
2. Patrick Gerard, 'Observations on the Climate of Subathu
and Kotgerh, Asiatic Researches. New Delhi,
1980, Vol.15.
3. E.G. Buckland, op. cit.. p-162.
 31

CAPT. J.D. HERBERT

In 1819 J.D. Herbert .traced the river Sutlej to

the confines of British authority and the object of his
survey was to explore and lay down as much of the course of
this river as might be accessible. Herbert chose a
circuitous route for the purpose of laying open the part of
the area not then visited.

He started his journey from Ropar via Bilaspur and

reached Kotgarh on 1st September 1819. He crossed Narkanda and
proceeded along the Salar stream a feeder of the Giri and
crossed the latter. He described Giri as the largest among
the non snow fed rivers in these parts of the mountains. He
ascended and reached Chopal from where he decended to Jubbal
and then proceeded to cross river Pabar at Raunigarh.

From there he began his ascent of the Chanshal

ridge, the seprating ground of Pabar and Rupin rivers. From
Chanshal he decended to Dodra and crossed Rupin river and
then ascented to Kowar. He proceeded through Jaka the last
inhabited village on that side and crossed over to Kinnaur
through Gunas pass and decended via Nuru Bassa to Sangla in
the Baspa valley.

He travelled extensively through Kinnaur observing

the social and economic conditions of Kinnaur and their trade
links with China Ladakh and Tibet. Herbert however was not
allowed beyond Shipki and he returned to Rampur, attended the
Lavi trade fair there and then proceeded to Kotgarh ,
Bilaspur and Ropar. His account is available in the As iatic
Researches. Vol. 15.

1. Capt. J.D. Herbert. 'An account of a Tour made to lay

down the Course and levels of River SetleJ or Satudra
as far as traceable within the limits of the British
authority, performed in 1819.'Asiatic Researches.
Vol. 15, New Delhi, 1980.
 32

MAJOR SIR WILLIAM LLOYD

Lloyd travelled in Himachal through places like

Subathu, Kotgarh, Rampur, Sarahan and Rohru upto Buran pass
then returned to the plains via Nahan. His account titled
'Narrative of a Journey from Caunpoor to the Boorondo Pass
in the Himalaya Mountaints.— via Gwal1ier, Agra, Delhi and
Sirhind has been edited by George Lloyed and published in
1840. His account throws light upon the social and economic
1 ife.

HAMILTON FRANCIS (1762-1629)

Francis joined the East India company Service in

1794 and was the Superintendent of the Botanic garden
Calcutta 1814-15. He has written an account about the
economic activities of Sirraaur, Dharampur and Kangra which is
2
available in his book,An account of the Kingdom of Nepal.

U ILL I AM MOORCROFT

Moorcroft was born in 1765 and educated at

Liverpool as a Surgeon. He studied veterinary science in
French and made a fortune by his veterinary practice in
London. He was appointed veterinary surgeon to the Bengal

William Lloyd. Narrative of a Journey from Caunpoor

to the Boorendo Pass in the Himalaya Mountains, via
Gwalior , Agra. Delhi and Sirhind. edited by George
Lloyd, Vol. I, London, 1840.
Hamilton Francis, An account of the Kingdom of Nepal
and the Territories Annexed to this Dominion by . the
House of Gorkha. Delhi 1971.
William Moorcroft and George Trebeck, Travels in
the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab;
in Ladakh and Kashmir; in Peshawar, Kabul. Kunduz and
Bokhara; 1819 to 1825. New Del hi,reprint.1971.
 33

Army and inspector of Military studs in 1811-12. Moorcroft

visited Himachal during the years 1819-25. He crossed the
Himalayas and traced the sources of the Sutlej and Indus, and
went to Lahore, Ladakh, and Leh. Further he went to Kashmir,
via Attok and to Peshawar Kabul and Bokhara, disposing of his
marchandise. He commenced his return journey in August 1825.
Soon after he died at Andkhul and was hurried at Balkh. He
wrote on veterinary subjects and on the countries he
visited. His book titled Travels in the Himalayan Provinces
of Hindustan and the Punjab have been edited by H.H. Wilson,
in 1841,

Moorcroft entered Himachal in February 1820 at

Nahan and then went to Bilaspur via Pinjore and Nalagarh.
Soon he was at Mandi and then proceeded to Lahore via Nadaun
to call upon Maharaja Ranjeet Singh. He was again at Nadaun
on 15th July. At Sujanpur Tira he met Raja Sansar Chand who
sent him escorted to Kullu where he reached in August. From
there he went into Lahaul and crossed over into Ladakh, by
Bara-Lacha Pass.

Moorcroft has recorded his observation about the

political and administrative events in great details
analysing the position of local chiefs viz-a-viz Gurkha and
Sikh activity in the area. He has also been a keen observer
of social, economic and religious aspects.

C.E. Buckland, op. ci t..p.298.

 3A

CAPTAIN MUNDY

Captain Mundy visited Himachal in April, 1828 at

Nahan, via Banaras, Allahabad, Kanpur, Lucknow, Delhi and
Haridwar. From Nahan he proceeded to Shimla via Subathu.
After staying in Shimla for about six months he marched
towards Shathal pass. He travelled via Fagu, Theog,
Kotkhai, Jubbal, Rohru and after reaching the pass he
followed back the same route till Saree then he turned
towards the villages of Karassa, Kashiane, Tikkar,Kotgarh
Matiana, Shimla, Subathu and finally he proceeded to the
plains.

Through his account of Himachal one finds useful

informations about the economic activities and social habits
of people of Nahan and upper Shimla.

BARON CHARLES HUGEL.

2
The account written by Hugel about his travels
are available in his book Kashimir and the Punjab which was
originally in German and has been translated by Major T.B.
Jervis. On his way to Kashmir Hugel passed through various
parts of Himachal. He came to Shimla on 25th September, 1835
from Musoorie, He left Shimla, after a stay of 18 days to
Bilaspur via Kunihar and Sahikoti. Later, he went to Jawala
Mukhi and Nurpur in October, from where he proceeded
to Kashmir. He has given his impressions about the Chieftains
of the area through which he travelled and also about social
and economic conditions of the people.

Captain Mundy, Pen and Pencial Sketches, The Journal

of A Tour in India Vol.I.London, 1832.
Baron Charles Hugel, Kashmir and the Punjab containing
a particular account of the Government and Character
of Sikhs, tr. from German by Major T.B. Jerves,
Jammu, 1972.
 35

GODFREY THOMAS VIGNE

Vigne was son of Thomas Vigne and was born in

1801. He was educated at Harrow and was called to the bar
at Lincoln's Inn in 1824. He travelled in America in 1831
and came to India the following year through Persia. Vigne
visited Kashmir and, Ladakh and Afganistan, saw the Amir and
wrote Personal Narrative of a visit to Ghazni, Kabul and
Afganistan in 1840 and travelled through Kashmir in 1842. He
died in 1863.

Vigne travelled quite extensively through several

parts of Hiraachal. He came to Shimla from Delhi via Pinjore
and then returned to Ludhiana. Again he entered Himachal by
the way of Nainadevi to Bilaspur in March 1839 and then
travelled through Mandi. He also covered Nurpur and Chamba
and then went through Jammu to Kashmir. He has written a
vivid account of the contemporary rulers and places he
visited and also wrote about social customs of hill people in
2
different parts.

THOMAS THOMSON

3
Thomson was born in December, 1817. He was
educated at Glasgow and studied Botany (M.D.) He came to-
Calcutta in the medical service of the E.I. Co. in 1840 and
was curator of the museum of the Asiatic Society. He was
sent to Kabul in 1841, where he was besieged and taken
prisoner at Ghazni in March, 1842. He , however, escaped by

1. Godfrey Thomas Vigne, Travels in Kashmir. Ladakh,

Iskardo. the countries adjoining the mountain- course
of the Indus and the Himalaya North of the Punjab.
Vol.I. New Delhi, 1981.
2. C.E. Buckland.op.cit..p. 436.
3. Thomas Thomson, Western Himalayas and Tibet. A
Narrative of a journey through the Mountains of
Northern India during the year 1847-48.
Kathmandu, 1979.
 36

bribing. He was on the Sutlej Compaign during 1845-46 on

the boundary commission between Kashmir and Chinese Tibet,
He travelled with Sir J.D. Hooker in Sikkim, Assam etc., on
botanical research. Both brought out the Flora India in
1855. He was also Superintendent of the Botanic Garden,
Calcutta during 1854-61 and Professor of Botany, Calcutta.
He wrote a book, 'Uestern Himalaya and Tibet' in 1852 and
other works for scientific journals. He died in April, 1878.

Thomson commenced his journey at Ferozpur in 1847

and came to Shimla via Kalka, Kasauli and Subathu. He left
Shimla in August and travelled through Fagu, Theog, Matiana,
Narkanda, Kotgarh and reached Rampur. Thereafter he
travelled through Sarahan, Tranda, Nachar, Wangtoo bridge
Chini, Lipa and Runrang pass in Kinnaur. Thereafter he
travelled through Spiti passing Hango, Hio and Rangrig. In
September, he left Himachal through Parang Pass into the
Indus val1ey.

Although Thomson has mostly covered geographical

details and about the flora, he has also made a reference to
the rulers and of the places through which he passed apart
from few observations about the society and economy.

CAPTAIN MADDEN

Madden left Shimla to reach Shathal and Buran

passes on September, 3rd 1845 via Fagu, Theog, Sainj,

1. Captain Madden, 'Diary of an Excursion to the Shatool

and Boorun Passes over the Himalaya, in September, 1845.'
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1846,
No. CLXX.
 37

Kotkhai,Jubbal Sari, Rohru, Chirgaon, Moojwar, Jutwar and

then over the Shathal Pass. He reached in Kinnaur and
marched from Panwee to Melung, Keelba , Sangla, Nuru pass and
then again crossed over the Chohara valley over the Gunas
pass, then decended via Jaka, Dodra-Kowar, Chargaon, Rohru,
Thana, Kashaini, Narkunda, Matiana and Shimla.

He travelled extensively in upper Shimla and

Kinnaur and has recorded an interesting account about the
social and economic activities of the people. He is the
only traveller to record significant information about social
and economic conditions of the people of the remote area of
Dodra-Kowar,

WILLIAM HOWARD RUSSELL

William Howard Russell was a special correspondent

of the times. He visited Himachal in 1858-59. He travelled
via Kasauli to Shimla and stayed here for about a month and
then again made an excurtion to Kasauli via Kiaree and Solan
and back to Shimla via Subathu, Syree.

His expedition started for upper Shimla in

"September, 1858 and his ambition was to cross one of the
snowy ranges to China. He travelled via Mahasu, Fagu, Theog,
Matiana, Narkanda, Baghi, Rohru, Jubbal, Balson, Mahasu,
Shimla and then returned to the plains.

Russell has observed the social customs of the

people of upper Shimla particularly about Sungri, the
account of which is available in his book My Diary in India.

William Howard Russell, My Diary in India in the year

1858-59. London, 1860, Vol-II.
 38

A.P.F. HARCOURT

Harcourt visited Kullu during 1867 and travelled

through Kullu, Lahaul and Spiti. His account has been
published in his book titled. The Himalayan Districts of
Kooloo, Lahoul and Spiti . He has given a very exhaustive
description about the topography, climate, administrative
set-up, and religious , economic and social customs of people
of this area.

ANDREW UlLSON

Andrew wilson was a well known Journalist who

visited Himachal in 1873 and his book Abode of snow contains
significant information about the social and economic life of
the people of the places he visited such as Shimla, Kotgarh,
Bushahar, Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti. He also gives reference
of high passes into Chinese Tibet and Kashmir through which
he passed.

SIR FRANCIS Y0UNGHU5BAND

3
Sir Francis Younghusband visited Himachal
Pradesh in April, 1884. He came to Himachal from Rawalpindi
where his regiment, the Kings Dragoon Guards was stationed.
He travelled through Himachal to spend his holidays and
entered at Dharamshala. He travelled through Palampur,
Baijnath, Kullu, Lahaul & Rampur to reach Shimla and went
back to Rawalpindi via Solan and Kasauli.

1. A.P.F. Harcourt, The Himalayan District of Kooloo.

Lahoul and Spiti.New Delhi, 1982.
2. Andrew Wilson, Abode of Snow.London,1875.
3. Sir Francis Younghusband, Wonders of the Himalaya.
London, 1924.
 39

He has observed the economy trade and social

habits of the people. In particular he has described the
temple of Baijnath in great detail.

ST, GORE

F.St. J, Gore visited various parts of Himachal in

1890, the account of his journey is available in his book
published in 1835 . He travelled in the company of his
brother, St. George Gore, in charge of the Himalayan Survey
party at that time.

He reached Larji in Kullu via Fagu, Narkanda,

Kumarsain after crossing the Jalori Pass and then he marched
to Bajoura and stayed there for about a fortnight. From
Bajoura he visited the Parbati Valley.
Gore then crossed
c
Rashol and Malana passes and reached the upper Seas Valley.

From Sultanpur, the capital of Kullu at that time,

he followed a different route to return to Shimla via Mandi,
Suket, Bilaspur and Arki. From Shimla he travelled to
Dehradun via Solan, Dagshai, Sarhan, Nahan and Paonta Sahib.

He has recorded elaborate information about the

social customs and economic activities of the people of
Kullu, Mandi, Bilaspur and Sirmaur.

F.St. J. Gore, Lights & Shades of Hill Life in the

Afghan and Hindu Highlands of the Punjab A Contrast,
London, 1895.
 AO

R.H. TYACKE

Mrs. R.H. Tyacke spent two years travelling

through various parts of Kullu and Lahaul. She reached
Sultanpur the Capital of Kullu on November 28th 1891, from
Pathankot travelling through Kangra valley. The details of
her travel are available in her book How 1 shot My Bears;or.
Two years Tent Life in Kullu and Lahoul. She has left
interesting account of the customs, fairs, and agriculture.
Mrs. Tyacke has thrown light on the domestic life, religion
and superstitions. She has also left detailed account of the
wild life of these areas.

J.C. MURRAY AYNSLEY

Mrs. J.C. Murray Aynsley who visited Himachal in

1878 has made copious notes about the local people their
customs and
published them in 1879 in a book Our visit to
2
Hindustan Kashmir and Ladakh .

CAPT. J.ABBOTT.

3
Capt. J. Abbott has given a detailed account of
the process of obtaining gold from the sand of the river Beas
in Kangra. We find his account in the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal No. CLXXVl Calcutta, 1847.

1. R.H. Tyacke, How I shot my Bears;or.Two Years Tent

life in Kullu and Lahoul. London, 1893.
2. J.C. Murray Aynsley, Our Visit to Hindustan,
Kashmir, and Ladakh, London, 1879.
3. Capt. J. Abbott, Account of the process employed for
obtaining gold from the sand of the river
Beyass; with a short account of the Gold mines of
Siberia; Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
(Calcutta, 18A7) No. CLXXVl.
 41

HAMILTON WALTER

Hamilton Walter visited Himachal in early

nineteenth century and has generally written about the
political history of Himachal, but has also given some
details regarding economy. Referring to trade carried out in
Rampur he writes that, "This is the largest town in this
quarter of hills and a principal mart for the goods of Tibet,
the hills, and the plains; but the total amount is
inconsiderable cloth, sugar and cotton are brought here from
the plains; and sold to the hill people, as also iron,
copper, grain and Indigo which are exchanged with the
Tibetans (here named Bhooteas) for shawl wool tea and China
clothes " ,

CHARLES A. SHERRING

Sherring has given brief account of the trade

routes passing through various parts of Himachal to the
neighbouring countries. This account is found in his book.
Western Tibet and the Indian Border Land. He has stated that
The different passes leading from India into Western Tibet
are as foilows:-

(1) There is the route from Srinagar in Kashmir which

goes through Leh and up the Valley of the Indus to Gartok,
and is used by the traders of Cashmere and Chinese Turkistan,

1. Hamilton Walter, Geographical. Statistical. and

Historical Description of Hindustan and the Adjacent
Countr ies First published in 1820 (Delhi, reprint
1971),Vol. 1 I.p.622.
 42

(2) From Lahaul, in the Kangra District of the Punjab,

traders visited Rudok by means of a pass between Hanle and
Denichok.

(3) Kulu traders of the Kangra district pass through

Spiti and use the Shangrang pass by means of a bad cooli
track.

(4) The Shimla route follows the Sutlej river and goes
over the Shipki and Sirang passes: this is the principal road
for the native traders of Bashahr and it is hoped that in
future there will be a great increase of other India trade
also."

MAJOR GENERAL D.J.F.NEUALL

2
Major General Newall, a fellow of Royal
Geographical Society and member of Royal United Services
Institution, London, has travelled extensively in parts of
Himachal Pradesh during the years 1848 to 1874. The account
of his travel is available in two volumes of his book The
Highlands of India. Volume I contains the description of the
areas Dalhousi, Chamba, Kangra Valley, Dharamsala, Kullu,
Shimla,Keontha1 State, basins of Sutlej and Giri, Kasauli and
Subathu. Although the account has been written from the
strategical consideration, but it also gives a good details

1. Charles A.Sheering, Western Tibet and the Indian Boderland.

The sacred country of Hindus and Buddhists with an account
of the Government, Religion and Customs of its peoples,
Delhi, 1974 P.340.
2. Major General D.J.F. Newall, The Highlands of India Vol 1
Startegically Considered, The Special Reference to Their
Colonization as Reserve Circles, Military, Industrial and
Sanitary (London 1882) Vol II. Being a Chronicle of field
Sports and Travel in India London, 1887.
 43

about the social and economic conditions of the people in

these areas. The second volume contains description of his
travel in Bharmour, Chamba, Kangra valley Kullu, Lahaul,
Zansker, Spiti valley and the valley of Sutlej.

C.J.C. DAVIDSON

Davidson reached Himachal in 1839 at Nahan. His

account is found in his book titled Diary of Travel and
Adventures in Upper India.

He reached Bilaspur and Subathu and then

unfortunately he was robbed of his record account, the
robbers threw it into the Yamuna river, so only a part of his
account is available which briefly throws light on the
social and economic conditions.

CAINE WILLIAM SPROSTON (1642-1903)

2
U.S.Caine came to Shimla via Saharanpur, Kalka,
Kasauli and Solan around the year 1886. He visited India as
a member of the Royal Commission of Indian Expenditure. The
account of his journey is available in the book, P icturesque
I nd ia. He has made observations about the important trade
which took place in Shimla and its hinterland of commodities
such as opium, charas, fruits, nuts and shawl wool brought
from neighbouring hills or brought in from beyond the border
via Rampur.

1. C.J.C. Davidson, Diary of Travels and Adventures in

Upper India, From Breilly, in Rohilcund, to Hurdwar,
and Nahun, in the Himalaya mountains with a Tour in
Bundelcund, A Sporting excursion in the kingdom of
Oude, And a Voyage Down the Ganges, London 1843.Vol.1.
2. U.S. Caine, Picturesque India. Illustrations Drawn by
John Pedder H. Sheppard Dale and H.H.Stanlon , London,
1898.
 44

MAJOR D.G.P.M. SHEUEN

Shewen started his journey from Shimla to Baspa

via Narkanda Bagi, Sungree, Rampur, Sarahan and Nichar, He
calls the people of Baspa as friendly and helpful and states
that, "Their religion seems to be a hybrid calling itself
ffindu, but savouring strongly of Buddhism and a red lama and
his Chela were met on the road spinning a prayer wheel a form
of worship popular in the villages*. He has also described
the architecture in Chitkul is of Mongolian style. He
returened to Shimla via Rampur,Nirth,Thanedar and Narkanda.

K.G..LETHBRIDEG

2
Mrs. K.G. Lethbridge alongwith her husband
started from Roorkee and reached Kullu via Pathankot and
Kangra. From Kullu they marched to Chandra Valley of Lahaul.
They then crossed the Kunzum pass (14,300) into Spiti. They
crossed Parang La (18,300) to enter into Para valley. Then
further travelled through Rupshu and Hanle provinces and then
returned through Parang La to Spiti and then to Kullu. She
has described the tough living conditions in Spiti.

REEVE HERBER AND KATHLEEN HERBER

They entered Lahaul from Ladakh via 2ansker

crossing over high mountain passes such as Sengela and
Shingkung La. From Lahaul they travelled to Kullu by
crossing Rohtang pass and reached Mandi.

1. D.G.P.M. Shewen,'The way to the Baspa'.Himalayan

Journal. April, 1929, Vol.1,

2. Mrs. K.G. Lethbridge, 'A Journey through Spltl and

Rupshu', H imalayan Journal. (April 1929) Vol-I.
 45

Their account provides interesting information

about the mode of travel in the highlands.

The above mentioned travellers have left

interesting account of their tours through the various parts
of the hill States of Himachal. Their description covers a
vide range of subjects such as, the political conditions of
the Hill States, the power of the various Rajas, economic and
social conditions, art and architecture, sculpture,
paintings, climate, flora and fauna etc. However, the
present study is confined only to the socio-economic
conditions of the people 51s given by the foreign travellers.

The English travellers were undoubtly keen

observers and have recorded facts as witnessed by them during
the time of their travel, covering details about the social
conditions, religious beliefs and economic activities of the
Hill people. Different travellers have left details about
one or the other parts of Himachal . Fortunately, the entire
region of modern Himachal has been covered including the
remotest and interior parts of the State.

Fraser, for example, has recorded in great details his

observations about the people of Sirmaur, Jubbal, Bushahr,
Kumarsain and Theog to such an extent as no other traveller
has. Every aspect of the contemporary hill society in this
part of the Pradesh including their dress and ornaments,
language, customs and manners, religion and superstitious
beliefs has been recorded by him. He has also minutely
observed economic activities such as agriculture and
horticulture, weaving industry and handicrafts, domestic
animals, trade ( and commerce of these areas. He has also

A. Reeve Herber and M. Kathleen Herber, H imalayan

Tibet and Ladakh. a description of Its Cheery folk,
their ways and religion of the Rigours of the Climate
and beauties of the Country, Its Fauna and Flora
Delhi, 1976.
 46

observed gold collection, Iron smelting processes, water

mills, oil extraction and such other techniques deployed by
the hill men.

Moorcroft, (1819-25) the legendry traveller,

passed through Nahan, Bilaspur, Nalagarh, Mandi, Nadaun ,
Kangra, Kullu and Lahaul on his way to Ladakh giving useful
information about the social and economic conditions in
these areas. He stayed with Raja Sansar Chand at Tira and
gives us first hand information about the people, their
customs, food habits religious beliefs superstition and
agriculture. His observations about Jwalamukhi temple, and
the dreadful rite of Sati which he witnessed in Mandi are,
indeed, note worthy. He has also given information, about
the iron ore in Kangra and Mandi and the salt mines of Darang
and Gumma in Mandi. Further he has described the people of
Kullu and Lahaul and given details of domestic animals.

Forster was one of the earliest English travellers

to visit Himachal in 1783. He travelled through Nahan,
Bilaspur, Kangra and Nurpur. He has thrown light upon the
society and economy of the areas, which he found to be in
very good condition. At the time of his visit Himachal was
free from the invasion of the Gurkhas and influence of Sikh
activity was also not felt anywhere.

Vigne has also made valuable observations about

the social conditions and economic activities of Kangra,
Mandi and Chamba. He was much impressed by the folk songs of
Chamba and recorded his observation about the temple at Mansa
lake. He witnessed the rite of sati at Mandi and has also
given an account about the iron and salt mines of Mandi.
 47

A.P.F. Harcourt has given the most exhaustive

account of the social and economic life of the people of
Kullu Lahaul and Spiti leaving the reader spell bound. He has
described the people, their dress ornaments, language,
marriage customs, religion, fairs and festivals. Similarly,
he has described at great length the economic activities such
as agriculture, sheep-rearing, weaving industry and trade
carried out in these areas.

Three brothers from Aberdeen, James, Patrick and

Alexander Gerard were intrepid explorers and made their
speciality the ranges east of Shimla. Their description of
high altitude travel, the first of their kind, were quickly
published. They travelled extensively through Subathu,
Kotgarh, Rohru, Kinnaur, Spiti and Rampur. Alexander Gerard
has made detailed observations about Kinnaur and Spiti on
both social and economic aspects.

Patric Gerard has made observations mainly about

the agriculture and horticulture in Subathu and Kotgarh,
while J.G. Gerard has made observations about the socio-
economic conditions in Spiti Valley.

Likewise Uilliam Lloyd has also given an account

of the people of Kotgarh, Rampur and Rohru including their
dress and ornaments. He has indicated occurance of female
infenticide during the past in Kotgarh area, and described
the wool trade, iron smelting, horticulture and agriculture
and numerous other economic activities of these areas.

Like the Gerard brothers. Captain Madden and

Captain Mundy are other travellers who travelled in high
altitutde area upto Shathal pass. Captain Madden crossed
over into Kinnaur. He is the only traveller to have observed
 <^6

in detail the socio-economic conditions of the remote Dodra

Kowar area. Captain Muday who returned from Shathal pass has
1e^t valuable account about the social and economic
activities of Upper Shimla and Nahan areas.

William Howard Russell, a special correspondent of

The times, is yet another traveller whose ambition was to
cross snowy ranges into China. He has left behind
facinating account about the social customs of Soongri(Rohru)
and other places in upper Shimla.

Andrew Wilson, a journalist, has also made useful

observations about the social and economic conditions of
people in Shimla, Bushahr, Kinnaur and Spiti. He as well as
Charles Sherring have given details of the various trade
routes over high mountain passes used by the native traders
during those times.

F.St.J. Gore who travelled extensively through

various parts of Himachal has given facinating account of the
hill life particularly in Kullu. His account includes
description of life in Parbati valley and the isolated
Mai ana.

Prominent among the English women travellers are

Mrs. R.H. Tyacke and Mrs. Murray Aynsley. The former has
made revealing observations about the people and their life
style in Kullu and Lahaul, with special attention to the
dresses and ornaments of women and their role in economic
activities. She had touched upon the nomadic life style of
the Gaddis and made keen observations about the fairs of
Kullu and Lahaul which she witnessed. The latter has left
interesting observations about Bilaspur, Mandi, Lahaul,Kullu
and Chamba. She has left an interesting account about the
place of widows in Chamba and Kullu Society.
 69

The other English travellers, Edward Terry,

William finch, Hamilton Walter, J. Abbott , C.J.C. Davidson,
Thomas Thomson, Major General D.J.F. Newal1 and Hamilton
Francis, too have provided useful information about the
social and economic aspects of the hill life.

Indeed, the English travellers were keen observers

who have provided us eye witness accounts containing
valuable, authentic and precise information which has served
as a vast source material for the present study as we shall
see in the ensuing pages.