MUSHROOMS

OBJECTIVES

 To know about Mushrooms and its Properties.

 To have a deepen knowledge about Mushroom Processing. In terms of canning,
dehydration, freeze drying, freezing and Steeping Preservation.

DEFINITION
-Mushroom is a fungal fruiting body which produces and disseminates spores. Since it is a
fungus, it does not possess chlorophyll and hence cannot produce its own food and depends
upon other living or dead plants to obtain organic matter.

-Mushrooms are of variable shape and size. Many have cap and stalk, but there are varieties
devoid of stalk. There are a large number of mushroom species growing wild in nature. While
many are edible, some are mild to deadly poisonous.

-Mushroom cultivation is done indoors and hence little land area is re¬ quired. Mushrooms can
be grown on substrate or compost based on various agricultural wastes which in turn are
recycled.

-Mushrooms are popular for their delicacy and flavour rather than food value. However, it is
now a well-established fact that they are excellent sources of vitamins and minerals.

SPECIES OF MUSHROOM
-Most popular ones are white button mushroom (Agaricus bispoms), paddy straw mushroom
(Volvariella spp.), oyster mush¬ room (Pleurotus spp.) and Shiitake (Lentinus edodes). In India,
first 3 mush¬ rooms can be artificially cultivated in different parts, depending on the suitability
of season as these varieties need different range of temperature for growing.

-The white button mushroom is more acceptable to the consumer and fetches higher price. For
its successful and profitable cultivation, careful attention must be paid to 4 aspects, i.e. good
compost, pure and productive spawn, proper environ¬ mental conditions (temperature,
relative humidity and aeration) and good hygiene of the farm. Details of various stages in the
cultivation of white mushroom are as follows.
MUSHROOM PROCESSING
Canning -Mainly buttom mushrooms are used for this purpose. The mushroom with small
button and with 0.5-1.0 cm stem only be selected, and stalk is cut close to the button. These
buttons are blanched for about 5 min. in steam or boiling water, followed by prompt cooling.

-Blanching time is determined on the basis of catalase test. Blanching removes gases,
inactivates polyphenoloxidase enzyme; reduces bacterial count; improves texture and gives
greater drain weight in the cans.

-After exhausting, the cans are hermetically sealed and proc¬ essed in a retort for about 25-30
min. at 0.703 kg/cm2 steam pressure, or for 15-20 min. at 1.054 kg/cm2 steam pressure.
Moreover, processing time should be increased by 2 min. for every 152.4 m elevation from sea-
level. Prompt cooling is essential after processing and then only cans should be stored in a cool,
dry place.

Dehydration-Mushrooms to be dried are taken at full mature stage and used with full stalk.
Early break (i.e. first flush) gives better product due to low tyrosine content. It may be dried
whole or diced.

-Drying can be done under the sun or in a drier (at 60-70°C temperature). Weight of dried
mushrooms would be about 1/8 to 1 / 12th of their original weight depending on the
mushroom used. Moisture content in dried product should not be more than 5%. The dried
mushrooms are packed in hermetically sealed airtight tins for quality retention and then stored
at a cool dry place.

Freeze Drying- Agaricus bisporus to be used for this purpose, should be processed within 3
hours of harvest. For inhibiting the activity of polyphenoloxidase enzyme, it may be given a dip
for 30 min. either in 0.5% NaHS03 solution or 2% NaCl solution.

-For better retention of quality, freeze-dried mushrooms are packed in aluminium foil
containing pouches under N2 atmosphere and stored at lower temperature. A 12-kg fresh
mushroom gives 1 kg freeze- dried product which can yield 8 kg reconstituted material.

Freezing- Agaricus bisporus is used at the same stage as in the case of canning. The buttons are
pre-cooled to 2-4°C; washed with water contain¬ ing 50 ppm Cl followed by 2-3 min. blanch in
water containing 0.1% citric acid. They can then be frozen as such or after packing in pouches.

Steeping preservation-After washing, mushrooms are to be blanched for 5 min. in water con¬
taining 0.1% citric acid followed by washing in cool plain water. Then they are put in 15% salt
solution containing 0.05% critic acid and 100 ppm S02. By this method mushroom could be
preserved only for a short period (about 2 months).
 BLUE GREEN ALGAE (SPIRULINA)

OBJECTIVES

 To have further Knowledge about Blue Green Algae.

 To know the Nutritional Quality and Safety of Blue Green Algae.
 To Know Different Applications of Spirulina.

DEFINITION

-Blue green algae, Spirulina, is being used as nutrient dense food material in natural and
health food and for some therapeutic uses. It also has some potent probiotic
compounds that enhance health. Interest in food ap¬ plication of micro-algae has its
origin on 2 counts.

-Initially it was the green algae Chlorella and Scenedesmus which received attention and
in eighties, a cyanobacterium, Spirulina had overtaken the lucrative Chlorella production
dominated earlier by Japanese .

-Presently spirulina commands a premium price in health food mar¬ ket. Internationally,
spirulina application has been increasing due to the technology being easily adaptable
and algae being nutrient dense.

-Protein derived from bacteria, yeasts, moulds and algae can, thus, be called single-cell
proteins though the name is not an accurate description of these materials, since some
of them are not monocellular at all.

- Apart from proteins, these organisms also contain carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids,
vitamins and minerals. Thus, in addition to proteins, they also ensure an intake of
energy and other nutrients.
 TECHNOLOGY

The alga consists of spiral cylindrical filaments with a length of about 300-500 pm with
width of spirals 6-8 mm (Fig. 63).

The wet algal biomass is homogenized and dried in a spray drier to obtain food-grade material.
The steps involved in the production of this alga is shwon in Fig. 64.
CONSTITUENTS
Spirulina is the most nutrient-dense food currently known with a protein content of more than
60% with high availability of essential amino acids (Venkataraman, 1993). It is an excellent
source of vitamins including beta-carotene (provitamin A), Bv B2, B6, B12, C, E and biotin.

Table 37. Composition of spray-dried Spirulina (constituents /100 g)

-The other valuable constituent is gamma-linolenic acid which is a poly¬ unsaturated fatty acid
(PUFA). This along with superoxide dismutase (SOD) acts as anti-oxidant and hence useful in
chemoprevention.
-There is no starch but the carbohydrates are in the form of water-soluble polysaccharides. The
alga may also have potent probiotic compounds that enhance health. Com¬ parison of this alga
with milk and egg is given in Table 38.

Nutritional quality and safety

The protein efficiency ratio (PER) value of Spirulina has been reported to be higher than
vegetables, cereals and soy-proteins. The values of the di¬ gestibility coefficient, biological
values etc. are given in Table 39.

Therapeutic applications
-The B-carotene content of Spirulina is 18 times more than carrot, which is the normally known
popular source. The natural p-carotene of Spirulina is different from the synthetic p-carotene,
as it contains high percentage of 9-cis-isomer than over 47% of all trans in synthetic form.

-The B-carotene as a dietary supplement has been shown to inhibit the development of 7,12
dimethyl benzanthrazene (DMBA) induced salivary gland carcinomas in rats.

-The antioxidant properties of Spirulina were seen in in vitro studies using human erythrocyte
ghost. Both alcohol and decolourized aqueous extract of Spirulina effectively inhibit lipid
peroxidation induced by ferrous sulphate and ascorbic acid in erythrocyte membrane.
-The hypoglycemic effect of Spirulina in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
patients has been shown in limited clinical studies carried out at Coimbatore.

-Cholesterol-lowering property of Spirulina has been very well documented both in animal
experiments and in clinical trials.

-Spirulina was supplemented at 500 ppm level. In Vietnam, Spirulina is com¬ mercially sold as
lactogil to increase the milk production in nursing mothers. Mahadevaswamy and
Venkataraman (1986) reported healing of epidermal blisters and wounds in the skin of male
rats treated with ointment based on Spirulina (15%).

-Spirulina as active ingredient produced accelerated cicatrization of wounds leading to

complete recovery at a shorter time than with salicylic acid-based commercial ointment.

Cosmetics
-There is an increasing interest to develop skin ointments and range of beauty products by
incorporating Spirulina in reducing lotions, antiwrinkle creams, pimple lotion and face masks.

-This is not merely due to high protein and vitamin contained in the alga but also due to the
presence of sig¬ nificant amounts of superoxide dismutase (SOD) which has been correlated to
the ageing process.

-The phycobiliproteins are now used as fluo¬ rescence tag to couple antibodies for
immunodiagnostics and these are called ‘phycoflour probe’. This has a high potential in medical
field.

Quality standards
The quality standards for food-grade Spirulina has now been released as a document by the
Bueau of Indian Standards (IS: 12895:1990). This will assure the quality standards or
commercially produced Spirulina to be used in various formulations and also for exports.
 LEAF PROTEIN CONCENTRATES (LPC)
OBJECTIVES

 To have Further Knowledge about Leaf Protein Concentrates (LPC)

DISCUSSION

-Plant proteins are synthesized in the leaf and partly translocated to seed or tubers. In suitable
climates, forage crops maintained as photosyn- thetically active structure throughout the year.

-Because of the elimination of translocation losses and the ripening period, forage can yield
more pro¬ tein and dry matter than any other type of crop, but this advantage is usu¬ ally lost if
the forage is fed to ruminants, as they convert only 5-25% of their feed into products that
people eat.

-Soft, lush leaves are easier to extract than leaves that are fibrous or dry, even when pulped
with added alkali, leaves do not extract well, and glute- nous or slimy extracts are difficult to
handle.

-Protein-containing juice is liberated from leaves by rubbing and bruis¬ ing, fine subdivision is
not essential, it may be detrimental.

-Leaf protein can be coagulated by acidification or heating the extract. Heating is preferable
because it partially sterilizes the curd and gives it a texture that makes filtration easy.

-Carefully made dry leaf protein contains 6(3-65% true protein and 0.1-0.2% p-carotene.
Feeding experiments with chicks, mice, pigs and rats showed that leaf protein is safe and
nutritionally useful.

- Experiments on human subjects (children) also showed good nitrogen retention, improved
growth rate and improved appetite and mental alertness.
-Leaf protein isolates contain 10-20% protein on the dry basis.

The fact that the isolation of leafy protein for food has not so far been used by a large industry
indicates that there are problems.
 PROTIEN FROM PETROLEUM YEAST

OBJECTIVES

 To have further Knowledge about Single cell Protein.

 To know what is the definition of Protein from petroleum yeast.
 To know the Nutrional Properties of Microbial protein.

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN

-Micro-organisms have a high protein content and contain useful quan¬ tities of vitamins. Their
rate of growth is very rapid, and the rate of protein synthesis in micro-organisms has been
compared favourably with that of animals.

- A 500 kg bullock produces an extra 500 g protein/day, whereas 500 kg yeast grown in suitable
conditions can produce 50 tonnes protein in 1 day.

- It can be seen that micro-organisms are potentially a very valuable source of protein,
especially if they can be produced economically by the use of a cheap food. Work has been
carried out on bacteria which utilizes methanol obtained by the oxidation of natural gas..

-Algae, which do not require organic material for growth, theoretically have an even greater
potential as a protein food. Extensive research has been carried out on the production of
protein from algae, particularly from the Chlorella species..

-Single cell proteins like Scenedesmug obliques, Chlorella pyrenodosa, a type of algae, and
many more yeast cells help in producing more protein from the industrial waste like spent
grains, rot vegetables, fruits, bagasses of sugarcane, molasses, washed water, unwanted meat
and poultry waste, from fish and shrimp wastes.

-These single cell proteins increase the protein by 50-60% and enhance the sugars for alcohol
conversion, the minerals and vitamins, bioavailability also increases.

-The commercial production of yeasts by fermentation on certain hydro¬ carbons is now an

accomplished fact and is taking place in the United Kingdon and France. These yeasts are
included in the class of products widely, some¬ what imprecisely, referred to as single-cell
proteins (SCP).
Product
The result, in either case, is a cream-coloured powder with no smell and, virtually, no taste. A
typical analysis of the commercially produced material would be as shown in Table 40

PROTEIN FROM PETROLEUM YEAST

It can be seen that the effect of the solvent extraction to which the yeast from middle distillate
was subjected has been to remove some of the natural lipids from the yeast and consequently
to increase the content of protein.

SAFETY OF HYDROCARBON-GROWN YEAST

Products which are, in themselves, new or are the result of new tech¬ nology cannot be
assumed to be safe; their freedom from toxicity must be demonstrated by appropriate tests
before they are put into general use. These yeasts do not present any threat to existing
agricultural products; they are complementary to them and add to the pool of raw materials
from which the quantity and quality of livestock may be improved, for the ulti¬ mate benefit of
all.
MICROBIAL PROTEIN

-Perhaps the earliest fermentation processes are the manufacture of al¬ cohol (ethanol) and
vinegar (acetic acid) by micro-organisms.

- Today, there are many such processes. Antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids and vitamins, citric
and lactic acids as well as various carbohydrates are produced by fermentation methods on an
industrial scale.

-Such substrates include hydrocarbons, alcohols, agricultural byproducts such as whey and
molasses, as well as sewage and industrial waste. Some examples of micro-organisms and their
substrates are given in Table 41.
 PROTIEN FROM PETROLEUM YEAST

- Algae, being autotrophs, require only water, mineral salts and, as their only carbon source,
carbondioxide. The limiting growth factor is sunlight. Therefore, in the open, algae grow best in
the tropics. Commercially, a balance must be drawn between maximum stocking and maximum
exposure to sunlight.

- The other micro-organisms are heterotrophs and require or¬ ganic carbon as a food source.
They are usually grown in fermenters where the growth medium and air are supplied. The
micro-organisms are har¬ vested by filtration or centrifugation. They are finally dried and sold
as a powder or pelleted as a cattle food.

- Industrially, good progress has been made with the fermentation of methanol. An unusual
feature of this process is the pressure cycle fermenter. This allows the oxygen concentration to
be increased more effectively than with traditional fermenters fitted with power-driven
paddles. This system is shown in Fig. 66.
 PROTIEN FROM PETROLEUM YEAST

NUTRTIONAL PROPERTIES OF MICROBIAL PROTEIN

- The protein recovery in microbial fermentations is generally high, i.e. 50-75% on the dry basis.
Since the protein is high in lysine, it is useful when combined with a cereal diet which is lysine-
deficient.

- As with many plant proteins, it is deficient in methionine; but B vitamins and iron levels are
high.

-Nevertheless, in using microbial protein, caution must be taken be¬ cause it is unlikely that
lettuce will form a major part of the daily diet, but microbial protein could well do so.

- The relatively high levels of nucleic acids have also given rise to concern. Clearly, nucleic acids
are of genetic importance but, so far, there is no concrete evidence of any harmful effects of
nucleic acids at the levels to be expected.

Analytical and nutritional data for some micro-organisms on a dry ba¬ sis are given in Table 42.
 BY-PRODUCTS OF OIL SEEDS
OBJECTIVES

 To know what are the by-products of oil seeds

 To have further knowledge on this topic.
 To have better learnings about isolation of proteins from oilseeds and nuts.

DISCUSSION
- Nuts and oilseeds are in general rich sources of proteins (with the exception of coconut) and
of fat. Edible oilseed meals obtained from oilseeds are rich in proteins and have been used for
the preparation of infant foods, and protein foods for feeding infants and preschool children in
developing countries.

EDIBLE OILSEED MEAL

- The steps involved in the preparation of oil and edible meal from nuts and oilseeds are as
follows: (i) cleaning and de-husking, (it) removing oil from the kernel (free of husk) by one of
the following methods: (a) mechanical pressing (hydraulic pressing), (b) screw pressing, (c)
prepress solvent extraction and (d) direct solvent extraction.

-The method of preparation of edible meals from soybean, cotton seed, peanut (groundnut)
and sesame is described in this chapter. Protein Advisory Group specifications for-these
products are given in Table 43 .
Soybean meal
The processing of soybean involves the following steps: (z) cleaning, (iz) de-hulling of the seed,
(in) steaming of de-hulled split seeds and drying, (iv) screw pressing or solvent extraction for
removal of oil, and (z/) powdering.

Cleaning and de-hulling: Soybean is cleaned of all impurities. The cleaned seed is passed
through a huller to remove hulls. The dehulled seed is-split.

Steaming and drying: The de-hulled seed is soaked in water for 1 hr and water is drained
off. The wet material is heated in steam at 6.35 kg pressure for 30 min. to inactivate trypsin and
growth inhibitors, haemagglutinins, etc. The steamed seed is dried under the sun or in a tunnel
drier.

Screw pressing or solvent extraction: The oil from heat-processed seed is removed by
pressing in a screw press or by solvent extraction.

Powdering: The cake is powdered in a hammer mill to pass through 50 mesh sieve.

Groundnut (peanut) meal

The processing of peanut for edible meal consists of the following steps: cleaning of good-
quality kernels from impurities, light roasting and decuticling, removal of germ and fungus-
affected kernels and (iv) screw pressing or solvent extraction.

Cleaning: Good quality of groundnut kernels are cleaned of all impurities.

Roasting and decuticling: The kernel is roasted lightly for 5-10 min. The red cuticle is
removed by rubbing. The germs are separated and the fungus- affected kernels are removed by
hand picking.

Screw pressing: The cleaned decuticled kernels are pressed in a screw press (expeller) for
removing the oil. The resulting white cake containing about 8% oil is powdered in a hammer
mill. The cake can be extracted with food-grade hexane to obtain fat-free flour.

Cotton-seed meal
The processing of cotton-seed consists of following steps: (z) cleaning, de-linting and de-hulling;
)steaming of kernels, and screw pressing or solvent extraction.

Cleaning, de-linting and de-hulling: Good quality cotton-seed is cleaned of impurities. It is

de-linted and de-hulled.
Steaming of kernels: The kernels are steamed for 15 min. to fix free gossypol in the bound
form.

Screw pressing or solvent extraction: The steamed kernel is pressed in a screw press. The
resulting cake containing about 8-10% oil is powdered in a hammer mill. If a fat-free flour is
required, the cake can be extracted with food-grade hexane.

Sesame meal
The processing of sesame for production of edible flour consists of the following steps: cleaning
and de-hulling of sesame seeds and screw pressing or solvent extraction.

Cleaning and de-hulling: Sesame seeds are cleaned of impurities. The de-hulling is carried
out by soaking seed in water or in dilute alkali and removing skin by rubbing. The de-hulled
seeds are dried in a tunnel drier.

Screw pressing or solvent extraction: The de-hulled seeds are pressed in a screw press.
The resulting white sesame cake containing about 10% oil is powdered in a hammer mill. If a
fat-free flour is desired, the cake is extracted with food-grade hexane.

Coconut meal
The processing of coconut for edible meal consists of the following steps: (z) preparation of
copra and (zz) removal of oil from copra in screw press and solvent extraction.

Preparation of copra: Coconut meal is cut into small pieces and dried in a tunnel drier.
Screw pressing or solvent extraction: Copra thus obtained is pressed in a screw press. The
resulting cake containing about 10% oil is powdered in a hammer mill. If a fat-free flour is
required, the cake is extracted with food- grade hexane.

Sunflower seed meal

The processing of sunflower seeds for oil and edible meal involves the following
steps: (z) cleaning and decortication of seed and screw pressing and solvent extraction.

Cleaning and decertification: Good-quality sunflower seeds are cleaned of all impurities.
The cleaned seeds are decorticated in a special type of decorticator.
Screw pressing or solvent extraction: The kernel is pressed in a screw press to separate
oil. The residual cake contains about 10-15% oil. It can be extracted with food-grade hexane
and the fat-free cake is powdered to pass through 50 mesh sieve.

Rapeseed meal
Rapeseed contains toxic factors and pungent principles such as allyl and crotonyl
isothiocyanates. It also contains goitrogenic principles. These will have to be removed in
preparation of edible protein concentrate from rapeseed. The process for preparation of oil and
edible protein concentrate from rapeseed consists of the following steps: cleaning and de-
husking, screw pressing and solvent extraction, (in) treatment of solvent extracted cake with
water for removing toxic principles, and (iv) drying cake in a tunnel drier.

PROTEIN ISOLATES FROM OILSEEDS AND NUTS

-Processes have been standardized for preparation of protein isolates containing about 85-90%
proteins from soybean and groundnut meals.

-The process for production of protein isolate from soybean or groundnut consists of following
steps: solvent extraction of edible soybean or peanut meal, extraction of proteins with dilute
sodium hydroxide at pH 8, precipitation of proteins at pH 4.5 from the extract by the addition
of hydro¬ chloric acid, (iv) filtration of proteins and washing with water, and solubilizing the
wet protein in water by the adjusting pH 7.0 and the spray drying.

Solvent extracted soybean or groundnut meal

Soybean dhal (decuticled soybean) or decuticled groundnut is expressed in a screw press to
remove oil. The cake is extracted with food-grade hexane, desolventized and powdered to pass
through 50 mesh sieve.

Extraction of proteins
The soybean or groundnut cake flour (1 part) is suspended in 15 parts by weight of water.
Concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is added while stirring till pH increases to about 8.0.
The extract is separated using a basket centrifuge.

Precipitation of proteins
The proteins in extract are precipitated by adjusting pH of the extract to 4.5 by the addition of
hydrochloric acid.
The proteins are separated using a basket centrifuge and washed with water.

Solubilization of proteins and drying

The wet proteins are suspended in 4 times the weight of water. The pH is adjusted to 7.0 by
addition of sodium hydroxide. The resulting sodium proteinate is spray dried.

Uses
Protein isolate from soybean or groundnut cake can be used in the production of vegetable
toned milk, infant foods, protein-enriched biscuits and bread.
 FOOD ANALOUGE
OBJECTIVES

 To have further Knowledge about Textured Vegetable Proteins.

 To have learnings about meat and dairy analogues from vegetable proteins.
 To know the Design of Meat Analogues.

TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEINS

- The proteins from certain oilseeds can be used to make textured prod¬ ucts, which can be
used to replace or partly replace meat in a wide variety of dishes.

-The seeds most frequently used are of soybean. Defatted soybean meal contains about 50%
protein but it is not suitable as a human food, because it contains substances which inhibit
growth.

- Some of these substances are heat-sensitive and are easily destroyed by cooking or roasting.
Others are water soluble and can be removed by soaking and extraction.

- Soybean meal can be used to manufacture a product with a meat-like texture, known as
textured vegetable protein (TVP).

- Textured vegetable protein is the generic name given to a range of different products from
spun fibers to extruded meat analogues.

-Texturization involves conversion of powdered protein into cubes, chunks or granules with
‘mouth feel’ characteristics of meats.

- The protein is extracted by adding an alkali, and fibres are formed by extruding protein
through fine nozzles or spinnerettes.

- The fibres are combined with fat, a protein binder, colours and flavours. The product is similar
to cooked meat and can be frozen, canned or dehydrated.

-The TVP is being used increasingly in this country, particularly in industrial canteens and in
school meals service. It is also sold in retail market.

- Seeds other than soybean used in the preparation of TVP include sunflower, cotton and
groundnut (peanut).
-Soya proteins are the most versatile widely used and accepted of the vegetable proteins. The
binding, gelling and emulsifying properties of soya- protein isolates are particularly useful in
many products.

-Novel methods of augmenting or dilating meat products using isolate-self-polyphosphate

brines are outlined, including the preparation of restructed meats. Textured flours (textured
soya flour, textured soya protein) are widely used as meat extenders.

- Their structure and texture can be modified by varying extrusion parameters and by addition
of salts to the mix before extrusion. Textured flours absorb water, and to some extent fat, so
they can be regarded as having a physical function in addition to their main role as extenders.

Spun vegetable protein

- Preparation of spun protein analogues is to solubilize the protein in a high-solubility soya
flake-flour and then separate the soluble from the insoluble. A common method of commercial
separation is centrifugation.

-the desired soya protein is separated from the ‘whey’ by collecting the preciptated protein
curd which forms when pH of the clarified liquor is adjusted to the isoelectric point (pH 4.5) of
the protein

- Protein streams coagulate immediately to form somewhat fragile threads which can be drawn
out of the acid bath in the form of the continuous ribbon or tow, which is heated to adjust their
texture or chewability. The acid in the tow is neutralized and washed out.

MEAT AND DAIRY ANALOGUES FROM VEGETABLE PROTEINS

- The enormous pressures for protein food products in the coming decades, brought on by
world population increases, will be solved through the extension of traditional animal protein
foods with vegetable proteins and through development of food products based on vegetable
proteins alone.
- Analogues of beef, fish, poultry and other traditional animal protein products, which are based
solely on vegetable proteins, are an established food category, and are expected to increase
market share.

- Dairy analogues based on vegetable proteins are currently marketed in the form of simulated
cow’s milk and dairy desserts. Vegetable forms of cheese and other milk protein products are
also expected to increase.

- Nutritional equivalence of vegetable protein products is fundamental to product design.

Protein and fat contents must be standardized. Vegetable proteins are blended to reach
desirable protein quality.

- Analogues currently marketed are primarily blends of soya and wheat proteins containing
lesser amounts of yeast and egg albumen. The products are fortified with vitamins and minerals
to levels present in animal protein foods.

-Processed meat-manufacturing facilities, which exist in most developed countries, can be

readily adapted to produce meat analogues.

-The technology which has been developed to-date is based on soya or soya/ wheat
combinations. The technology can readily be adapted to other vegetable proteins such as
rapeseed, cotton seed, sesame or sunflower.

-“Analogue” is a food product which is designed as an alternative to traditional animal protein

foods such as meat, poultry, seafood or dairy products.

-The key term in this definition is the word alternative. Analogues are not merely substitutes for
animal protein products but are an entirely separate class of food products.

-The analogue will be familiar to the consumer in terms of its functional characteristics, such as
appearance, texture, flavour and colour.
Meat analogues
-The earliest meat analogues were developed by John Harvey Kellogg and presented to his
patients in his Battle Creek, Michigan sanitarium, as early as 1898.

-These products were based exclusively on wheat gluten which was obtained by the washing of
starch from high protein wheat flour. More recently, and particularly since 1955, the pioneering
work of Hartman and Robert blended the proteins from soy, wheat, yeast and egg albumen
resulting in products for the Worthington Foods Company.

-These products were designed to satisfy the nutritional needs of many religiously motivated
vegetarians. These developments formed the base of the present day technol¬ ogy for the
manufacture of meat analogues.

Dairy analogues
-The most widely known examples of dairy analogues are margarine, whipped toppings and
non-dairy coffee whiteners. These products have achieved world-wide success in the market
place in the last 30 years.

DESIGN OF MEAT ANALOGUES

- The greatest challenge to the food technologists in the design of these sophisticated food
products is in the area of taste and texture. Manufactured of meat analogues parallels very
closely to those of processed meat, such as, bologna, salami, pre-cooked sausage and
frankfurters. However, when the raw materials are vegetables in their physical characteristics,
particularly regarding taste, they are extremely difficult to flavour.

- Appropriate artificial seafood flavours are currently receiving a great deal of attention but so
far are lagging behind, particularly in terms of their ability to withstand even the mildest of
processing conditions.
 NUTRITION
Vegetable protein analogue products, because they may include almost any nutritional
attribute, can clearly be designed to correct or improve nutritional qualities inherent in a diet
based largely on animal protein products.

-For example, meat analogues contain no cholesterol and can have a favourable
polyunsaturated: saturated fat ratio. Moreover, the protein levels can be increased if this is
desirable. The fat levels are almost always reduced for the products.

- This results in less caloric density, an attribute widely sought in products utilized in weight-
reduction diets. The micronutrient contents of analogues are carefully controlled. Vitamins and
minerals can be added to the products at virtually any level.
 FERMENTED SOYA PRODUCTS
OBJECTIVES

 To know what are the different kinds of Fermented Soya Products.

 To know what are the Properties of those Products.
 To have a further learning about the process on those Products.

DEFINITION
- Main fermented vegetable protein foods in Japan and China are soy- sauce (shoyu in Japan,
chiang-yu in China), fermented soy paste (miso in Japan, chiang in China), safu, and natto,
which are all traditional foods. Chiang, which originated in China some 2,500 years ago, was
introduced into Japan during the seventh century and transformed into the present Japanese
shoyu and miso, which are now quite different from their Chinese counterparts.

- Their fermentations consist of koji fermentation by Aspergillus species and subsequent by

brine, which contains lactic acid and alcoholic fermentations. The characteristic appetizing
aroma observed in Japanese style of soy sauce (shoyu) is derived through a special brine
fermentation from the component of wheat which constitutes about one-half of the materials.

-During the recent 2 decades, the fermentation technology and engineering on shoyu and miso
have made great progress in Japan. Sufu (Chinese soybean cheese) is a cheese-like product;
originated in China in the fifth century. It is made through the fermentation by Mucor or a
related mould from soybean protein curd called tofu, which is made by coagulating soy milk.

- This product is widely manufactured in China on a small scale, but it is not made and
consumed in Japan. On the other hand, natto is the fermented soybean protein food common
in Japan. It is a whole soybean product fermented by Bacillus species, and has originated in
north-eastern Japan.
 DIFFERENT FERMENTED SOYA PRODUCTS
MISO

- The Japanese fermented soya paste miso is now manufactured commer¬ cially in modernized
factories on a large scale.

- There are many differences in the way fermented soybean pastes are consumed in Japan and
in China. In China, chiang is used as the base for sauces served with meat, sea food, poultry, or
vegetable dishes. In Japan, however, miso is mainly used as the base for soups. The average
annual consumption of miso is 7.2 kg/ person in Japan.

-The manufacturing methods for miso differ by the type of miso, but the basic process is all the
same as shown in Fig. 67 for rice miso which is the most popular miso.
 - The manufacturing methods for miso differ by type of miso, but the basic process is all
the same, as shown in Fig.67, for rice miso. There are 2 basic differences between the
miso and shoyu manufacturing, though both are very much alike.

TEMPE
- Tempe is the name ordinarily used for soybean-fermented product and is termed Tempe-
kedale.

- Tempe is the name to describe the most impressive fermented food nationally adopted for
improving nutrition and health of the children in Indonesia. Tempe, a popular traditional food,
had originated hundred years ago in Java as fermented soybean cake.

Traditional method of its preparation with soybean is given in Fig. 68.

Changes in soybeans during tempe preparation
Hessettine (1965) reported following changes in soybean during tempe preparation.

Proteins: Large amounts of proteins are broken down into simple amino acids. Total nitrogen
remains about the same, but soluble nitrogen greatly increases. Ammonia is produced in last
stages of fermentations.

Lipids: One-third of the neutral fat is hydrolysed to palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and
lmolenic acids. Rhizopus uses only linolemc acid. Total fat remains relatively constant.

Carbohydrates: Reducing sugars decrease. The pH changes little towards alkaline side.
Hemicelluloses decrease.

SOYBEAN CHEESE (SUFU)

-Sufu is a soft cheese-type product made from soya milk curd by the action of micro-organisms.
Sufu had originated in the fifth century in China and has been widely consumed as a relish by
Chinese people. However, sufu is not consumed in Japan.

-Sufu-making process consists of 3 major steps, viz. preparation of soy milk curd, moulding
process, and brining process.

- The first step, that is, soya milk curd-making is essentially the same process as used for making
tofu. Tofu can be consumed directly and is widely eaten throughout the Far East. In the case of
making sufu, however, tofu is made so hard that its water content may be less than 70%, while
the water content of directly consumed ordinary tofu is about 90%.

-The second process of sufu making is the moulding process. After the hard-made tofu is cut
into 3 cm cubes, the cubes are heated for pasteurization and for reducing water content of the
cube surface, and then the mould is inoculated on it.

-The last process of sufu-making is brining and aging. The freshly moulded cubes are placed in
various types of brining solutions depending on the flavours desired. The usual brining solution
consists of salted fermented rice mash, soya sauce moromi mash, fermented soya paste or 5%
NaCl solution containing rice wine having ca. 10% ethyl alcohol. The time of aging ranges from
1-12 months, depending on the varieties of the brining solution. Finally, the product is bottled
with the brine, sterilized, and marketed as sufu.

-Sufu is a creamy cheese type product which has a mild flavour, and therefore it would be
suitable for western people in using it the same way as cheese.
 IRRADIATED AND RADIATED FOODS
OBJECTIVES

 To know the Safety of Irradiated foods.

 To have further learning about irradiated and radiated foods.
 To know the purpose of irradiation.

DISCUSSION
-Food preservation by irradiation has unique merits over conventional meth¬ ods in retaining
flavour, texture, colour etc. of fresh foods.

-Irradiation tratment can replace chemical preservatives and fumigants, is less energy
demanding, improves hygiene, and is applicable to pre-packed items. The application of low-
dose treatment for insect disinfestation of grains, sprout inhibition in root crops, delayed
ripening in some fruits, elimination of stone weevil in mango; medium-dose for reduction of
microbial load including spoilage organisms and some pathogens (Salmonella) in frozen sea-
foods and meat; and high-dose for sterilization of spices, have commercial signifcance.

-Food irradiation, unlike other methods of food preservation, does not leave any trace of its
effects in observable physical characteristics of the product and hence has to be performed
only at source at governmental licenced irradiation facility to ensure good irradiation practice.

-Radiation processing is recognized as capital-intensive, and hence ef¬ forts are being made to
develop cost-efficient systems, tailored for commod¬ ity-wise applications and requires
integration of such units initially into the prevailing practice of harvest, storage and distribution.

ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA RADIATIONS

-In 1899, it was shown independently by several researchers that the radiations of uranium
compounds could be deflected and resolved in part when under the influence of strong
magnetic fields.

-The portion not affected by the magnetic field was observed to be capable of traversing thick
layers of matter.

-The entire undeflected part was at first termed alpha radiation. The deflected part of the
radiation behaved like electrons and was termed beta radiation.
-The alpha rays were ultimately shown to be a particle of matter consisting of a helium atom
stripped of the outer electrons and hence a positively charged nucleus; the beta particle a high
energy electron and negatively charged; and the gamma radiation a non-corpuscular electro-
magnetic radiation of extremely short wave length.

Radioactive decay
-Radioactive elements constantly decay, or lose radioactivity. The time required for a substance
which is radioactive to lose 50% of its activity is termed as half-life of the radioisotope.

- This decay is an example of a statistical process, i.e. the number of particles undergoing a
reaction is proportional to the number of such particles present. The decay of radium is such
that half the radium disappers in approximately 1,600 years.

-Thus, starting with 1 g radium, in 1,600 years only 0.5 g would remain. In the following 1,600
years, only one forth of 1 g would remain. The decay rate of a radioactive element is defined by
its half-life, the time required to decompose such that only one-half remains.

Units of radiation
-Measurement of radiation involves intensity of source (characteristic solely of the source),
cumulative effect on the substrate, and rate at which the effect is brought about.

- The source is characterized by the nature and energy distribution of the radiations, and how
fast the radiation is being emitted (1 curie equals 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/sec.).

-The original roentgen was defined in terms of ionization events but has conceptual difficulties.
The rad is more useful because it is a unit based upon energy absorbed (100 ergs/g), which is
measurable.

SAFETY OF IRRADIATED FOODS

-The research and development work over the years on radiation preservation of foods has
involved substantial inputs of basic information to answer all possible questions relating to the
efficacy of the treatment, quality of the materials and the safety of the irradiated foods for
human use.
-Food is the most essential aspect for the existence of all living beings. On the other hand,
anything relating to the nuclear energy could cause concern. The safety of irradiated foods for
human consumption has received utmost attention nationally and internationally.

-The WHO has endorsed the view that any item of food exposed to radiation up to 1 megarad is
safe for consumption and does not need any toxicological evaluation.

-After WHO recognized the safety of irradiated foods in 1980, the British Government
appointed an Advisory Committee on Irradiated and Novel Foods (ACINF) to review
independently the scientific data on the safety, with a view to allowing flexibility to the existing
prohibitory regulations in that country, since irradiated products were making their way into
the UK from the neighbouring European countries.

-The ACINF recommended in 1986 that irradiated foods are safe. The studies carried out
recently in China with human volunteers have dispelled all scientific hesitations in respect of
irradiated foods. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has permitted in 1986 the treatment
of spices at doses up to 3 megarad, 3 times the dose limit cleared by the WHO.

PURPOSE OF IRRADIATION
-The purpose of irradiation is different with each commodity and in¬ volves (a) low dose
treatment for insect disinfestation in grains etc. and sprout inhibition in root crops; (b) medium-
dose treatment for reduction of microbial load including spoilage organisms and some
pathogens as in sea¬ foods and meat; (c) high-dose treatment to attain sterilization as in spices;
and (d) releases high temperature of the product irradiated and makes food preservation
possible in the uncooked state.

Sprout inhibition in potato and onion

-The application of low doses of radiation (< 15 kilorads) can arrest sprouting of potato and
onion. As a result, storage losses due to sprouting of the tuber and bulbs and their dehydration
can be reduced substantially. Adoption of the new technology, especially for the onion, could
mean significant benefits to India which is among the largest producers of onions in the world.

-Radiation dose is measured by the unit Guy (Gy). International health and safety authorities
have endorsed the safety of irradiated foods up to dose less at 10 kilo Gy, which is 100 to 150
times higher than the dose required (0.15 kilo Gy) for inhibition of sprouting in onion.
Delaying ripening of fruits
-Low doses of radiation (<50 kilorads) are effective in delaying the natural processes of ripening
in fruits. Thus, shelf life of mango can be extended by about a week and that of banana up to 2
weeks.

-This could improve the scope for internal trade and augment export of these commercially
important fruits of India. Furthermore, gamma radiation can eliminate the seed weevil, an
insect that lodges deep inside the stone of the mango. This can be a satisfactory solution to a
vexing quarantine problem.

Disinfection of grains
The success of green revolution has enabled India to produce more than 190 million tons of
food grains every year. However, inadequate storage facilities lead to losses, of 10-15% every
year, due to pest alone.

-With progressive increase in the quantity of food grains and necessity for longer storage
periods, these losses will escalate unless disinfestation measures are improved.

-Chemical disinfestation methods, such as fumigation, require repeated applications as these

do not eliminate insect eggs. They may also leave harmful residues in the treated grains.

Preservation of sea foods

-Fish is an important source of animal protein, available in plenty all along the 5,000 km Indian
coastline. However, the existing inadequate preservation facilities cannot cope with the rapid
spoilage of the catch and thereby limit the availability of sea foods in the interior regions.
Microbial decontamination of spices
-India is a major spice producing and exporting country. Spice export trade is always faced with
stringent quality requirements relating to insectinfestation and microbial contamination.

-Fumigation of spices with chemi¬ cals like methylbromide, ethylene oxide and propylene
oxide, has inherent disadvantages, especially of the retention of chemical residues.

-Single treat¬ ment of gamma radiation (< 1 Mrad) can make spices free of insect infesta¬ tion
and microbial contamination without the loss of flavour components.

-The treatment can also be used for ground spices and curiy powder prepacked in cartons.
Summary of irradiation product and process specifications is given in Table 44.
There are many advantages of irradiation.
• Storage losses due to sprouting and dehydration can be reduced substantially.

• Shelf-life of certain fruits could be extended.

• Food grains have better quality.

• Free of grain pests.

• Huge amount of sea food can be prevented from going waste by selective destruction of
spoilage bacteria.

• Single treatment of gamma radiation makes the spices free of in¬ sect infestation, which is a
better method than fumigation with chemicals.

INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS
-According to the available information several countries have now accorded clearance to more
than 40 items of irradiated food. Some of these, including the USA, former USSR, the
Netherlands, Japan, France, Hungary etc., have taken steps to commercialize the food
irradiation process.

-The export trade is always faced with stringent quality requirements relating to insect
infestation and microbial contamination in spices. Irradiated spices are cleared in several
countries which essentially import these commodities.

-The incidence of Salmonella sp. in sea foods and meat has caused a world wide concern.
Contamination with pathogen Salmonella has affected the international trade in frozen sea
foods and meat products. No treatment other than radiation is available for the elimination of
Salmonella from the frozen products.

PRELUDE TO COMMERCIALIZATION
-Food irradiation is among the most intensively investigated subjects com¬ pared to any other
method used for preserving food. The methodology is now at the stage of application.
-For actual commercialization, the Govern¬ mental acceptance is necessary to ensure
confidence of the users.

-The ultimate purpose of food regulations is the protection of the health and safety of the
consumer and to prevent unethical practices in the trade. The regulatory agencies dealing with
food quality need to issue authorization before an item is allowed in the market.

-Radiation processing is recognized to be capital intensive. The users particularly the traders will
be attracted only if the costs are favorable to allow them sufficient margin of profit.

- The precise figures are available on the total production of agricultural commodities, but it is
difficult to obtain actual estimates of the extent of the wastage. This factor alone could tilt the
balance towards favorable economics, particularly in the tropical countries.