TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

TE 41 – CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 13

CONCRETE REPAIRS

BSCE – 4C

GAN, ABEGAIL C.
RAMOS, LIEZL ANN P.
SAFLOR, JOMINA D.

ENGR. GEORGE M. CALMA

INSTRUCTOR

May 7, 2019

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1. Introduction

Though concrete is a relatively durable building material, it may suffer damage or distress
during its life period due to a number of reasons. Because of the varying conditions under which
it is produced at various locations, the quality of concrete suffers occasionally either during
production or during service conditions resulting in distress.
Concrete structures will show the degree of deterioration in the form of cracking, spalling
and disintegration. Each one of these is clearly distinguishable. The reasons for their
development may be poor materials, poor design, poor construction practice, poor supervision or
a combination. Crack formation in concrete is most interesting because sometimes the same
causes produce a different cracking pattern, and sometimes the same cracking pattern is
produced by different causes.
Sometimes concrete cracks in a location where no cause can be found out, and in other
places it does not crack where there is every reason for cracks to occur. However, fifty percent of
the cases are straightforward. Cracks in themselves are seldom indicative of structural danger;
accordingly, repair usually does not involve strengthening. So their repairs are basically intended
to seal the cracks against an objectionable flow of water or to improve the appearance of the
construction. In the repair of a structure showing spalling and disintegration, it is usual to find
that there have been substantial losses of section and/or pronounced corrosion of the
reinforcement. Both are matters of concern from a structural viewpoint, and repair generally
involves some urgency and some requirement for restoration
of lost strength.

Fig.1 (a) Concrete Cracking Fig.1 (b) Concrete Spalling

Fig.1 (c) Concrete Disintegration

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2. Reasons Why Concrete Cracks

The first reason among others is excess water in the mix. Concrete does not require much
water to achieve maximum strength. But a wide majority of concrete used in residential work has
too much water added to the concrete on the job site. This water is added to make the concrete
easier to install. This excess water also greatly reduces the strength of the concrete. Shrinkage is
a main cause of cracking. As concrete hardens and dries it shrinks. This is due to the evaporation
of excess mixing water. The wetter or soupier the concrete mix, the greater the shrinkage will be.
Concrete slabs can shrink as much as 1/2 inch per 100 feet. This shrinkage causes forces in the
concrete which literally pull the slab apart. Cracks are the end result of these forces.

The bottom line is a low water to cement ratio is the number one issue affecting concrete
quality- and excess water reduces this ratio. What you can do about it is know the allowable
water for the mix the contractor is pouring- or be very sure you have chosen a reputable
contractor who will make sure the proper mix is poured. It is more expensive to do it right- it
simply takes more manpower to pour stiffer mixes.

Another reason is rapid drying of the concrete. Rapid drying of the slab will significantly
increase the possibility of cracking. The chemical reaction, which causes concrete to go from the
liquid or plastic state to a solid state, requires water. This chemical reaction, or hydration,
continues to occur for days and weeks after you pour the concrete. You can make sure that the
necessary water is available for this reaction by adequately curing the slab. The solution to this is
proper curing.

Another reason is improper strength concrete poured on the job. Concrete is available in many
different strengths. Verify what strength the concrete you are pouring should be poured at. You
can know all about the concrete if you talk to the ready mix supplier.

Another reason is lack of control joints. Control joints are planned cracks which allow for
movements caused by temperature changes and drying shrinkage. In other words, if the concrete
does crack-you want to have an active role in deciding where it will crack and that it will crack
in a straight line instead of randomly. Control joints help concrete crack where you want it to.
The joints should be of the depth of the slab and no more than 2-3 times (in feet) of the thickness
of the concrete (in inches). So 4"concrete should have joints 8-12' apart.

A thing to remember is to never pour concrete on frozen ground. The ground upon which the
concrete will be placed must be compacted

3. Materials for Concrete Repair

a. Cement slurry
It is a small amount of a cement mix that is mixed with water to the
consistency of paint and brushed carefully into the pores and surface of the repair
area just prior to placing the repair material. The slurry coat improves the bond of
the repair to the original concrete surface.

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Fig. 2(a) Cement Slurry Fig. 2(b) Cement Mortar

b. Cement Mortar
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind building blocks such as stones,
bricks, and concrete masonry units together,
c. Epoxy Resin
Epoxy resin is more commonly known as a type of glue that is fast-acting
and bonds to nearly any surface. Epoxy resin is also nearly impossible to remove
from an item so once you use it you can be certain it will not come apart. Epoxy
resin can also be found in many other useful products. Epoxy resin is very
inexpensive to purchase but its effects can last for several years depending on its
use.

Fig. 2 (c) Epoxy Resin

d. Polymer Modified Cementitious Products
Polymers are primarily used to modify mortars (portland cement + water +
sand aggregate), not concrete (mortar + larger aggregates such as gravel or stone),
due to the relative cost involved. The main exceptions are polymer-modified
concrete for bridge deck overlays and road repair work. Most polymer-modified
cement applications involve mortar that is not more than an inch or two thick.
Polymers improve mortars in four main ways:

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 i. More extensive cement cure. Cement/concrete strength depends
on proper curing, a chemical reaction (hydration) between water and
cement that causes crystals to grow and wrap around the mix
components. During the early stages of cure (roughly the first five to
seven days), there must be enough water to maintain the hydration
process or the cement/concrete will not harden properly.

Polymers reduce the rate of water evaporation, allowing the crystal

structure to keep growing and building strength during these critical
early curing stages. This reduced water evaporation is especially
important in thin applications, where the surface area for evaporation
is high, relative to the volume of the mortar.

ii. Improved workability. Polymer modification noticeably

improves application characteristics, making the mortar more fluid
and easier to handle and apply. Certain polymers also prolong the
hydration period, which can increase working time, an important
characteristic in hot climates. This means contractors can use less
water for workability purposes. The polymer acts as a water reducer,
ultimately leading to a stronger mortar with fewer voids, or weak
spots.

iii. Improved adhesion. Polymer modifiers act as an adhesive to

enable the modified mortar overlay to stick to a variety of surfaces
such as concrete, masonry, brick, wood, rigid polystyrene and
polyurethane foam, glass, and metals. Adhesion is an important
property, especially in thin section overlay mortar applications such
as spray coatings, stuccos, and underlayments, and applications with
excessive vibration and heavy traffic.

iv. Improved strength and durability. Cured polymer-modified

mortars generally have improved tensile strength, flexural strength,
impact and abrasion resistance, water resistance, and chemical
resistance versus unmodified mortars. Also, the polymer in the mortar
helps restrain micro-crack propagation, which improves the overall
toughness of the mortar.

At left, an unmodified patch is easily

dislodged due to a lack of hydration during
curing and lack of adhesion. At right, a
modified patch at 10% polymer (percent
polymer by weight to cement) would not
budge.

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 Toughness test of modified and unmodified
mortar patches. Mortar Patches are feathered
down to blend in with original substrate.
Adhesion is a key property in mortar patches
over existing concrete. Without polymer
modification (left), the patch flashes off very
quickly and breaks like a potato chip. Notice
the residual mortar on the concrete substrate.
The 10% polymer-modified patch (right)
could not be moved. Notice the scallop marks
near the bottom where removal was attempted.

4. Concrete Repair Techniques

a. Epoxy-injection Grouting
Cracks in concrete may be bonded by the injection of epoxy bonding
compounds under pressure. Usual practice is to drill into the crack from the face
of the concrete at several locations; inject water or
a solvent to flush out the defect; allow the surface to dry (using a hot air
jet, if needed); surface-seal the cracks between the injection points; and
inject the epoxy until it flows out of the adjacent sections of the crack or
begins to bulge out the surface seals, just as in pressure grouting. Usually
the epoxy is injected through holes of about % inch in diameter and %
inch deep at 6 to 12 inches centers. Smaller spacing is used for finer
cracks. The limitation of this method is that unless the crack is dormant or
the cause of cracking is removed and thereby the crack is made dormant, it
will probably recur, possibly somewhere else in the structure. Also, this
technique is not applicable if the defects are actively leaking to the extent
that they cannot be dried out, or where the cracks are numerous.

VIDEO LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_diXmKZp_8

b. Routing and Sealing

This method involves enlarging the crack along its exposed face and
filling and sealing it with a suitable material This is the most simple and common
technique for sealing cracks and is applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks
and larger isolated cracks. The cracks should be dormant. This technique is not
applicable for sealing cracks subject to a pronounced hydrostatic pressure. The
routing operation consists of following along the crack with a concrete saw or
with hand or pneumatic tools, opening the crack sufficiently to receive the
sealant. A minimum surface width of 1/4 inch is desirable. Smaller openings are
difficult to work with. The surfaces of the routed joint should be rinsed clean and
permitted to dry before placing the sealant. The method used for placing the
sealant depends on the material to be used and follows standard techniques.
Routing and sealing of leaking cracks should preferably done on the pressure

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 face so that the water or other aggressive agents cannot penetrate the interior of
the concrete and cause side effects such as swelling, chemical attack, or
corrosion of the reinforcement. The sealant may be any of the several materials,
depending on how tight or permanent seal is desired. This is a method where
thorough water tightness of the joint is not required and where appearance is not
important
VIDEO LINK : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjOzk-IbCy0&t=207s

Fig. 4 (a) Epoxy Injection

Fig. 4 (b) Routing and Sealing

c. Stitching
Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting
in U-shaped metal units with short legs (staples or stitching dogs) that span the
crack as shown in the figure. Stitching may be used when tensile strength must be
re-established across major cracks. The stitching procedure consists of drilling
holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning the holes, and anchoring the legs of the

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 staples in the holes, with either a non shrink grout or an epoxy resin-based
bonding system.

Fig. 4 (c) Stitching

There are two types of stitching method:

1. CROSS-STITCHING is a repair technique for longitudinal cracks and joints that are in
reasonably good condition. The purpose of cross-stitching is to maintain aggregate interlock and
provide added reinforcement and strength to the crack or joint. The tie bars used in cross-
stitching prevent the crack from vertical and horizontal movement or widening.
Cross-stitching uses deformed tie bars inserted into holes drilled across a crack at angles of 35 to
45 degrees depending upon the slab thickness. A 0.75-inch diameter bar is sufficient to hold the
joint tightly together to enhance aggregate interlock. The bars are spaced 24 to 36 inches from
center to center and alternate from each side of the crack. A 36-inch spacing is adequate to
effectively repair highways or roadways. Heavy truck traffic or airplane traffic requires a 24-inch
bar spacing for added strength.
Any separated joints or cracks should not be sealed prior to cross-stitching as drilling through the
material is not possible or at the very least extremely difficult.
The process of stitching requires the following steps and considerations:

 Drill holes at an angle so that they intersect the longitudinal crack or joint at about mid-
depth. (It is important to start drilling the hole at a consistent distance from the crack or
joint, in order to consistently cross at mid-depth.)

Fig. 4.1 Drilling

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 Select a drill that minimizes damage to the concrete surface, such as a hydraulic powered
drill; Select a drill diameter no more than 0.375 inches larger than the tie bar diameter.
Choose a gangmounted drill if higher productivity is needed for larger jobs.

Fig. 4.1 Selecting drill

 Airblow the holes to remove dust and debris after drilling.

Fig. 4.2 Airblow

 Inject epoxy into the hole, leaving some volume for the bar to occupy the hole. (Pouring
the epoxy is acceptable for small quantities.)

Fig. 4.3 Injecting epoxy

 Insert the tie bar into hole.

Fig. 4.4 Inserting tie bar

 Remove excess epoxy and finish flush with pavement surface

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 Fig. 4.5 Removing excess epoxy

2. Slot-stitching is a repair technique for longitudinal cracks or joints. Slot-stitching is an

extension of the more recent dowel bar retrofit technique, which is used to add dowel
bars to existing transverse joints.

The purpose of slot-stitching is to provide positive mechanical interconnection between

two slabs or segments. The deformed bars placed in the slots hold the segments together,
serving to maintain aggregate interlock and provide added reinforcement and strength to
the crack or joint. These bars also prevent the crack or joint from vertical and horizontal
movement or widening. Larger diameter bars (>1.0 inch) also serve to provide long-term
load transfer capabilities.

Slot-stitching requires the following steps and considerations:

• Cut slots approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal joint or crack using a slot
cutting machine or walk-behind saw. Unlike dowel bar retrofit, precision alignment is not
critical since deformed bars will hold the joint tightly together preventing the slabs from
separating.
• Prepare the slots by removing the concrete and cleaning the slot. If the slabs have
separated, consider using a joint reformer and caulking the joint or crack to prevent
backfill materials from flowing into the area between the slabs.
• Place deformed bars into the slot.
• Place backfill material into the slot and vibrate it so it thoroughly encases the bar. Select
a backfill material that has very low shrinkage characteristic.
• Finish flush with the surface and cure

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 Fig. 4.5 Slot Stitching Diagram

d. Providing Additional Reinforcement

Conventional reinforcement

Additional reinforcement, as the name implies, is the provision of additional

reinforcing steel, either conventional reinforcement or prestressing steel, to repair a
cracked concrete section. In either case, the steel that is added is to carry the tensile
forces that have caused cracking in the concrete.

Applications and limitations. Cracked reinforced concrete bridge girders have been
successfully repaired by use of additional conventional reinforcement (Stratton,
Alexander, and Nolting 1982). Posttensioning is often the desirable solution when a
major portion of a member must be strengthened or when the cracks that have formed
must be closed. For the posttensioning method, some form of abutment is needed for
anchorage, such as a strongback bolted to the face of the concrete, or the tendons can
be passed through and anchored in connecting framing.

Procedure.
1. This technique consists of sealing the crack, drilling holes 19 mm (3/4 in.) in
diam at 90 deg to the crack plane, cleaning the hole of dust, filling the hole and
crack plane with an adhesive (typically epoxy) pumped under low pressure 344 to
552 KPa (50 to 80 psi), and placing a reinforcing bar into the drilled hole.
Typically, No. 4 or 5 bars are used, extending at least 0.5 m (1.6 ft) on each side
of the crack. The adhesive Figure 6-1. Crack repair using conventional
reinforcement with drillholes 90 deg to the crack plane bonds the bar to the walls

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 of the hole, fills the crack plane, bonds the cracked concrete surfaces together in
one monolithic form, and thus reinforces the section.
2. A temporary elastic crack sealant is required for a successful repair. Gel-type
epoxy crack sealants work very well within their elastic limits. Silicone or
elastomeric sealants work well and are especially attractive in cold weather or
when time is limited. The sealant should be applied in a uniform layer
approximately 1.6 to 2.4 mm (1/16 to 3/32 in.) thick and should span the crack by
at least 19 mm (3/4 in.) on each side.
3. Epoxy adhesives used to rebond the crack should conform to ASTM C 881, Type
I, low-viscosity grade.
4. The reinforcing bars can be spaced to suit the needs of the repair. They can be
placed in any desired pattern, depending on the design criteria and the location of
the in-place reinforcement.
5. Concrete elements may also be reinforced externally by placement of
longitudinal reinforcing bars and stirrups or ties around the members and then
encasing the reinforcement with shotcrete or cast-in-place concrete. Also, girders
and slabs have been reinforced by addition of external tendons, rods, or bolts
which are prestressed. The exterior posttensioning is performed with the same
equipment and design criteria of any posttensioning project. If desirable for
durability or for esthetics, the exposed posttensioning strands may be covered by
concrete.

Fig. 4 (d) Providing Additional Reinforcement

e. Drilling and Plugging

Drilling and plugging a crack consists of drilling down the length of the crack
and grouting it to form a key

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Applications and limitations. This technique is applicable only where cracks run in
reasonably straight lines and are accessible at one end. This method is most often
used to repair vertical cracks in walls.

Procedure.

1. A hole (typically 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.) in diam) should be drilled, centered

on, and following the crack. The hole must be large enough to intersect the
crack along its full length and provide enough repair material to structurally
take the loads exerted on the key. The drilled hole should then be cleaned and
filled with grout. The grout key prevents transverse movement of the sections
of concrete adjacent to the crack. The key will also reduce heavy leakage
through the crack and loss of soil from behind a leaking wall.

2. If watertightness is essential and structural load transfer is not, the drilled

hole should be filled with a resilient material of low modulus such as asphalt
or polyurethane foam in lieu of portland-cement grout. If the keying effect is
essential, the resilient material can be placed in a second hole, the first being
grouted.

Fig. 4 (e) Drilling and Plugging

f. External Stressing
Development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can be
arrested by removing these stresses. Further, the cracks can be closed by inducing
a compressive force, sufficient to overcome the tension and to provide a residual
compression. This compressive force is applied by use of the usual prestressing
wires and rods. The principle is very similar to stitching, except that the stitches
are tensioned; rather than plain bar dogs which apply no closing force to the crack
and which may in fact have to permit the crack to open up a bit before they begin

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 to take the load. All the points noted regarding stitching must be considered. An
additional problem is that of providing an anchorage for the prestressing wires or
rods. Some form of abutment is needed for this purpose. The effect of the
tensioning force on the stress conditions in the structure should be analyzed.

Fig. 4 (f) External Stressing

g. Drypack
Drypacking is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and the subsequent
tamping of the mortar into place, producing an intimate contact between the new
and existing works. Because of the low water-cement ratio of the material, there is
little shrinkage, and the patch remains tight. So it will be of good quality with
respect to durability, strength and water tightness. Drypacking is used for filling
small, relatively deep holes, such as those resulting from the removal of form ties,
and narrow slot cut for repair of cracks. The usual mortar mix is 1:2:5 to 1:3.

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 Fig. 4 (g) Drypacking

h. Surface Coating
Fine surface cracks in structural slabs and pavements may be repaired
using either a bonded overlay or surface treatment if there will not be further
significant movement across the cracks. Unbounded overlays may be used to
cover, but not necessarily repair a slab. Overlays and surface treatments can be
appropriate for cracks caused by one-time occurrences and which do not
completely penetrate the slab.

h.1. Surface treatments

Low solids and low-viscosity resin-based systems have been used
to seal the concrete surfaces, including treatment of very fine cracks. They
are most suited for surfaces not subject to significant wear. Bridge decks
and parking structure slabs, as well as other interior slabs may be coated
effectively after cracks are treated by injecting with epoxy or by routing
and sealing. Materials such as urethanes, epoxies, polyesters, and acrylics
have been applied in thickness of 0.04 to 2.0 in. (1 to 50 mm), depending
on the material and purpose of the treatment. Skid-resistant aggregates are
often mixed into the material or broadcast onto the surface to improve
traction.

h.2. Overlays

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 Overlays may be used to seal the cracks and they are very useful
and desirable where there are large numbers of cracks and treatment of
each individual defect would be too expensive. Sealing of an active crack
by use of an overlay requires that the overlay be extensible and not
flexible alone. The occurrence of prolongation of a crack automatically
means that there has been elongation of the surface fibers of concrete.
Accordingly, an overlay which is flexible but not extensible, ie. Can be
bent but cannot be stretched, will not seal a crack that is active.

In addition to seal cracks, an overlay may also be used to restore a

spalled or disintegrated surface. Overlays used include mortar, bituminous
compounds, and epoxies. They should be bounded to the existing concrete
surface. Slabs containing fine dormant cracks can be repaired by applying
an overlay, such as polymer modified Portland cement mortar or concrete,
or by silica fume concrete. In highway bridge applications, an overlay
thickness as low as 1-1/4 in. (30 mm) has been used successfully. Suitable
polymers include styrene butadiene or acrylic latexes. The resin solids
should be at least 15 percent by weight of the Portland cement, with 20
percent usually being optimum.

Fig. 4 (h and i) Surface Coating

REFERENCES:

http://www.cement.org/learn/concrete-technology/concrete-construction/contraction-control-
joints-in-concrete-flatwork

http://www.cipremier.com/e107_files/downloads/Papers/100/26/100026073.pdf

https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/concrete_cracks/preventing_concrete_cracks.htm

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http://www.concreteconstruction.net/how-to/polymer-modified-mortars_o

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjOzk-IbCy0&t=207s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_diXmKZp_8

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