energies

Article
Modelling and Optimization in Microgrids
Tobias Porsinger 1 , Przemyslaw Janik 2 , Zbigniew Leonowicz 2, * and Radomir Gono 3
1 50Hertz Transmission GmbH, 10557 Berlin, Germany; tobias@porsinger.de
2 Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, 50370 Wroclaw, Poland;
przemyslaw.janik@pwr.edu.pl
3 VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,
70833 Ostrava, Czech Republic; radomir.gono@vsb.cz
* Correspondence: leonowicz@ieee.org; Tel.: +48-71-320-2626

Academic Editor: Rodolfo Araneo

Received: 5 December 2016; Accepted: 11 April 2017; Published: 12 April 2017

Abstract: The expansion of renewable energies is progressing strongly. The influence on the power
supply networks by the variability of the infeed must be met with new concepts. In this paper,
we investigate the possibilities of integrating microgrids as a cooperating unit in the power supply
network to support further expansion of renewable energy sources (RES) power plants. In this paper,
a differentiation of microgrids from similar network structures is established, and a classification
of proposed groups is made. Then, after the description of the simulation of the components in
a microgrid, with practical advice, an example model is shown, which aids the dimensioning of the
components within a microgrid to achieve a specified goal.

Keywords: microgrid; classification; simulation; optimization; renewable energy sources (RES);

storage; electric vehicles (EVs)

1. Introduction
The politically-promoted development of renewable energy sources (RES) in recent years is
enormous. The breakdown of the RES plants by technology shows that wind energy (onshore) and
photovoltaics are the most representative of the supplies in Europe [1]. The variability of energy supply
by RES is a matter of concern and ongoing research. One of the studies on the variation of photovoltaics
(PV) forecast in 2013 has shown that the average percentage of a day’s difference between forecast
and gross annual average can be as high as 26.5% [2]. Variations in power generation and increasing
harmonic distortion are the main problems related to PV systems [3].
The necessary network expansion proceeds very slowly due to very lengthy administrative
approval processes. The addition of renewable energy sources, especially in the low-voltage network,
however, is many times faster. Already, low voltage levels in some areas partly exceed the limits of
permissible voltage differences according to EN 50160. Voltage dips, swells, transients and voltage
harmonic content are the main issues [4,5]. The further construction of new renewable energy plants
is therefore thwarted [6]. To ensure secure network operation, alternative concepts are therefore
promoted. Microgrids represent a promising approach, acting as flexible, harmoniously cooperating
cells of the power distribution system within the general context of smart grids.
The original idea of the microgrid presented in [7] is evolving: in this work, a microgrid can
be defined as an association of sources, loads and storage that mutually compensate their outputs
and are connected to a network node to the superimposed network as a harmoniously operating cell.
Microgrids are able to smooth in this way the energy generated from volatile feeds and reproduce the
defined load profile by appropriate control of the microgrid components, as proposed in [8]. Thus,
also the forecast error will be minimized. Moreover, the construction of a microgrid can be done much

Energies 2017, 10, 523; doi:10.3390/en10040523 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 523 2 of 22

more quickly than a network expansion, since the process for setting up a microgrid takes far less time
and expense. Modelling and optimization of microgrids from the point of view of physics, system and
control theory is shown in [9].
In [10], electric cars as a controllable load are considered together with the future potential
of bidirectional operation. Electric vehicles’ (EV) grid interfacing is a challenging problem [9–11],
as the simple load control fails when addressing issues that require a higher control level, such as
managing congestion levels or enabling EVs to participate in the electricity markets. In [12], a similar
concept of the balancing of local distribution grids with EV batteries is presented. In this paper, the
simulation-based approach is applied to fully simulate a complex microgrid connected to a local
medium voltage (MV) distribution grid, including charging stations and EVs.
Research related to the control of microgrids’ components, presented in [13,14], shows that
the simulation-based approach is able to facilitate the evaluation of smart grid- and EV-related
communication protocols, control algorithms for charging and the functionalities of local distribution
grids as part of a complex, critical cyber-physical system. The resulting system can be applied to
studying the balancing of local smart grids with EV batteries.
The main contributions of this paper lie in the presentation of practical considerations related
to the operation and modelling of microgrids, the design of a complete framework for simulation
and the optimization of a microgrid composed of photovoltaic generation, battery storage, combined
heat and power (CHP) and an electrical vehicle charging pool. The flexible optimization approach to
the components’ sizing is presented, as well. Most data are based on real measurements, recorded at
a research facility.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the microgrid structures are described in Section 2,
with differences presented in Section 3. In Section 4, the classification of microgrids into practically
useful groups is justified, and in Section 5, the simulation aspects and recommendations are presented.
In Section 6, the interconnections within microgrids are discussed, and in Sections 7 and 8, an example
of the simulation and optimization task is shown. The discussion of the results and concluding remarks
is provided in Section 9.

2. Microgrid Structure
Similar to the smart grid architectural model (SGAM), a recognized architecture for independent
analysis in the field of smart grids based on system layers, we adopt here an analogous treatment of
microgrids [15].

2.1. Component Layer

The base of the microgrid is the component layer that contains the usual components of a network
infrastructure: loads, generators and storage. Depending on the desired load characteristics, it is
possible to curb individual consumers, if necessary, to increase or to reschedule the demand to
a relevant time. Renewable energy producers as PV and wind turbines are only influenced by the
energy supply and cannot be controlled in their feed. Cogeneration, biomass plants and diesel
generators are also to be found in microgrids. The most common storage technology is the battery
storage in the form of lead-acid or lithium-ion cells.

2.2. Communication Layer

Inside a microgrid, the interaction of individual subcomponents becomes essential. An interaction
of the components can only be achieved through a comprehensive communication architecture. Due to
various system components, communication media and manufacturers’ standards, the definition of
interoperable system becomes essential. At the same time, one should consider the criteria, such as
security, scalability, reliability, data protection, etc. The proven Internet IPv4 and IPv6 protocols offer
in this regard a good solution. However, lack of data protection in the standard Internet protocols
must be addressed by the application of special solutions. A further challenge is the collection of
Energies 2017, 10, 523 3 of 22

power consumption data from end users of the electrical energy. The Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) technology is an emerging technology for data transfer in low voltage power networks, however
vulnerable to harmonic distortion.

2.3. Information Layer

This ensures the data processing based on the communication layer, standardized data models and
a set of required data for each system component. The Standard 61850 provides definitions and models
for substation automation as used in Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.

2.4. Application Layer

This controls the operation of the microgrids. On this level operates the intelligent energy
management system, a central control unit that interacts with the communication and component layer.

2.5. Business Layer

The top layer of the selected display employs the incentive schemes for an intelligent load
management and marketing of the services provided by the microgrid control energy, but has to be
compliant also with political and regulatory conditions.

3. Differences between Microgrid and Similar Network Structures

3.1. Standalone Grid

The standalone grid describes a spatially-delimited, autonomous power supply system, not
permanently coupled to the public network. It contains internal loads, its own generation plants and
energy storage. A stand-alone grid therefore is delimited primarily from the microgrid by a (permanently)
non-available public grid work access. The comparatively low extent of the network leads to an increased
load sensitivity, whereby above-average voltage and frequency fluctuations can be caused. In addition,
permanent generating capacity according to the annual peak load needs to be assured, causing high
power reserve costs. Standalone networks are found primarily in geographically-remote areas or as
an emergency power supply in certain institutions (hospitals, etc.) [15].

3.2. Hybrid Power Plant

A hybrid power plant describes the local association of at least two different types of power
generation equipment in a closed grid. The energy supply comes directly via a grid connection
point (GCP) to the public transmission or distribution network. As far as renewable generators are
integrated into the hybrid power plant, this allows a combination with flexible power generation units,
such as a gas turbine or combined cycle plants, to balance volatile feed. The public grid is therefore
less stressed.
This characteristic of a hybrid power plant thus is similar to the microgrid, but has its own
network structure and has no internal loads, neither controllable nor uncontrollable. Additionally,
there is only one input into the superimposed power grid [15].

3.3. Virtual Power Plant

A virtual power plant is characterized by the networked consortium of decentralized power
generation plants. The central component is an energy management system. In this context, a virtual
power plant can be active over a broad geographical area and at different voltage levels. It describes
a kind of composite system of a decentralized generation plant, which reduces diverse fluctuations by
diversity and large extent. The aim of a virtual power plant is to cope with the difficulty in forecasting
the generation to follow a given supply profile. In this context, even small providers have access to
grid services and can participate in the energy market. This is accompanied by an increased load on
the network in the public grid. The objective of the entire system stands above the economic optimum
Energies 2017, 10, 523 4 of 22

of the individual plant [15]. It is also possible to limit the supply of renewable energy plants, so that
stability is ensured within the whole system.

3.4. 100RE Grid

The so-called 100RE grid is a defined area in the public grid where the balance of generated and
of consumed energy results over a set period of time to zero. Continuous equalization of production
and consumption is thereby not sought. The above-average share of renewable production leads in
these areas, especially in windy and sunny days, to strong network over-loads. Here, primary in this
concept is to build a virtual motivational tool to increase the acceptance of renewable generation by
public opinion [15].

4. Classification of Microgrids
The components within microgrids form a wide variety; therefore, a full list would be impractical
here. Categorization into the most probable occurring groups, however, provides a clear overview and
proposes possible structures’ solutions within the multitude of variations.
Studies [15–17] have shown that a categorization in the three variants urban, rural and industrial
use is the most appropriate, as this categorization is based on the prevailing supply network structures.
These three categories are shown below, and after a brief review of their structures, a classification of
the relationships between load and possible supply is made, so that the size of the storage required
and the possibilities for the support of secure grid operation can be roughly estimated.

4.1. Microgrids for Urban Use

The urban network is characterized by a high settlement and building density and thus
characterized by a high load density. To increase the security of supply in these areas, grids are
usually realized as partly-meshed cable networks with open separation points. PV generation plants
are most often encountered. Cogeneration (CHP) is occasionally present; but the energy delivered
depends heavily on the season, and CHP has the ability to smooth out the feed-in of PV systems.
In the basements of the buildings, the installation of battery storage is also conceivable. The grid
efficiency should be examined in individual cases in detail regarding the relatively low ratio of supply
to consumption in urban microgrids. Since the available roof surface is low within the city compared
to the number of housing units and the additional power supply partially provided by mini-CHP is
also estimated as low compared to the overall demand, in such microgrids, very little reduction of
energy consumption from the superimposed grid can be expected. Storage, however, can reduce the
burden on the public grid. A completely self-sufficient supply without connection to the higher level
grid cannot be realized because of the seasonal variations of infeed by photovoltaic systems.
The urban microgrid as an individually designed combination with possibly a high density
of renewable energy and a sophisticated load management provides the opportunity to reduce the
network load, to economically and optimally expand the space for renewable energy and to integrate
local generation without affecting negatively the grid operation.

4.2. Microgrids for Rural Use

Power grids in rural areas are characterized by low population density. A small number of
homes is facing a relatively high number of farms dispersed over a large area, characterized by long
low-voltage transmission lines in the form of overhead lines. The vast territory of meadows and arable
land offers ideal conditions for wind turbines. Large roof areas for PV systems are available, as well.
Furthermore, biogas plants have been established, which are almost exclusively found in rural areas.
Energy storage and a decentralized energy management system can act against overvoltage, caused by
the high infeed by distributed generation. The ratio of supply to demand will be highest in this type
of microgrid.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 5 of 22

4.3. Microgrids for Industrial Use

An industrial microgrid is assumed to be a grid structure of medium-sized industrial companies
with loads in the hundreds of kilowatts range and annual energy consumption greater than 100 MWh.
Consumers of this size are usually supplied directly from the medium voltage grid. For that reason,
microgrids are in this environment usually only encountered as a separate part of the network,
implemented at the low-voltage level. In commercial areas or industrial sites, general estimation
of the relationships between supply, load and storage is not possible because the design and choice
of components depend on individual objectives. Thus, for example, only a portion of the load can
be supplied from the storage. The variable objectives that can be implemented within microgrids
(for example, increased self-consumption of energy from renewable sources) determine in this category
the dimensioning of the components used.

5. Modeling of Components of Microgrids

5.1. Modeling of Controllable Loads: Electric Vehicles

Controllable loads have been in power supply systems, especially in the low-voltage level, only
in a small proportion. In the future, electric vehicles will offer the greatest potential within medium
and low-voltage distribution systems to become the most important controllable load of the grid.
The modeling of the behavior of electric vehicles as a controllable load is considered together
with its future potential of bidirectional operation.
Upon arrival of the electric vehicle at the charging station, the current state of charge (SoC) and
the maximum loading capacity of the car will be automatically transferred to the control system.
Furthermore, the user of the car is required to communicate his/her most probable departure time
via a user interface. From this information, the charging characteristic is calculated for the car to be
loaded during the service time. Depending on the system, it may be advantageous if the car is loaded
according to different charge characteristics, e.g., at lunchtime, the grid load should be minimized.
After calculating the charge curve, the car has a defined power requirement. This power
requirement cannot be always provided due to lack of power or energy from the superimposed
system. Therefore, the system calculates for each car a coefficient of attenuation that controls the power
consumption of the car. From the departure time, initial SoC and the maximum load capacity of the
car, its characteristic curve can be calculated, so that the battery achieves planned SoC for the specified
departure time point.
If an additional parameter for the minimum SoC (<100%) is set for the departure time by the user,
it increases the degree of freedom for the timing of maximum power charging. However, a minimal
residual SoC should be always guaranteed to allow unexpected trips and emergency driving. If the
characteristic curve is reached, the load attenuation is ignored, and the car is loaded with maximum
power. This additional power requirement must be provided by attenuation of all other loads (or some
selected loads) in the system. If this is not possible for technical reasons, the car at the departure time
cannot be fully charged.
The following functional block diagram in Figure 1 shows the load behavior of a bi-directional
electric car with the possibility of limiting the charge power by the host system.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 6 of 22
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Figure Flowchart
1. 1.
Figure Flowchartofofaabidirectionally-chargeable electric
bidirectionally-chargeable electric vehicle.
vehicle.
Figure 1. Flowchart of a bidirectionally-chargeable electric vehicle.
Example
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(1) A binary block (0/1) tells if the electric vehicle is active during the day and performs initialization
(car_arrived). A signal builder generates for the charging time of the car (here determined as the
(1) A binary block (0/1) tells if the electric vehicle is active during the day and performs initialization
(1) A binary
average block
of (0/1) tells test
the field if thedata)
electric
thevehicle
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in uncontrolled performs
mode.initialization
Power
(car_arrived). A signal builder generates for the charging time of the car (here determined as the
consumption
(car_arrived). A issignal
delayed to thegenerates
builder arrival timeforatthe
thecharging
charging time
station.
of the car (here determined as the
average of the field test data) the maximal charge in uncontrolled load mode. Power
(2) The initialization
average of the field state of charge
test data) of the car
the maximal (determined
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generated by the
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signal builder until the battery is fully
is delayed to the arrival time at the charging station.
(2) The initialization state of charge of the car (determined as the averaged value
charged. The exact value of the charge depends on the technology of the battery. In the absence from field tests)
(2) Thewill initialization state of charge of the car (determined as the averaged
until value from field tests)
of be loadeddata,
empirical with athe power
value of 99%value generated
can be assumed. by the signal builder the battery is fully
will be loaded with the power value generated by the signal builder until
charged. The exact value of the charge depends on the technology of the battery. In the absence the battery is fully
charged. The exact value of the charge
of empirical data, a value of 99% can be assumed. depends on the technology of the battery. In the absence
of empirical data, a value of 99% can be assumed.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 7 of 22

(3) When the SoC threshold is achieved, the power consumption goes into a decay curve until
eventually the battery is completely loaded. If the battery is fully charged, the system goes into
trickle charge. This was in the field determined with 0.2 kW, but is heavily dependent on the
particular system.
(4) Energies
If the 2016, 9, 523
battery is fully charged before the departure time (set by the user) is reached, 7 of 22
no more
energy can be fed into the battery; however, the battery can still be
(3) When the SoC threshold is achieved, the power consumption goes into a decay curve until
discharged into the system,
if allowed by other constraints.
eventually the battery is completely loaded. If the battery is fully charged, the system goes into
(5) The battery
trickle can be discharged
charge. This was in theto supply the system
field determined only
with untilbut
0.2 kW, a minimum value is reached
is heavily dependent on the (to be
defined particular system.Subsequently, only positive values can be transferred to the battery module.
by the user).
(4) If the battery is fully charged before the departure time (set by the user) is reached, no more
(6) As described previously, the charging characteristic must define when limiting of the charging
energy can be fed into the battery; however, the battery can still be discharged into the system, if
powerallowed
becomes ineffective,
by other so that the battery at departure has the desired SoC.
constraints.
(7) The(5)limit
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only untilIfathe available
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All the charging
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power becomes ineffective, so that the battery at departure has the desired SoC.
limitable in the system that are not fully discharged or excluded by reaching the boundary of the
(7) The limit is determined from the available system power. If the available power of the microgrid
charging characteristic. The individual limitation of electric cars requires high computing power
is lower than the needs of all electric vehicles, all are limited to the extent that the power balance
and would cause
is reached. Thethe simulation
limitation to be unnecessarily
of charging complicated.
power can be enforced uniformly. All active vehicles are
limitable in the system that are not fully discharged or excluded by reaching the boundary of the
5.2. Modeling of Feature-Dependent
charging characteristic. TheGeneration
individual limitation of electric cars requires high computing power
and would cause the simulation to be unnecessarily complicated.
Feature-dependent generation, as PV systems, means by their variability strong challenges to
the secure
5.2.network
Modeling ofoperation. Renewable
Feature-Dependent energy sources may be disconnected only as a last resort to
Generation
maintain the safe operation of the grid, according to widely-adopted grid codes. In the simulation,
Feature-dependent generation, as PV systems, means by their variability strong challenges to
the calculation
the secure step mustoperation.
network be set to Renewable
less than one energysecond tomay
sources reflect the strong variability
be disconnected only as a lastof infeed
resort to by PV
systems.maintain
The loss theofsafe
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to widely-adopted grid simulation
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simulation,
and leadsthetocalculation
unacceptable step must
errorsbe set to less than one second to reflect the strong variability of infeed by
[18].
PV systems. The loss of information
Within a microgrid, the PV infeed must aboutbe thecut
system
down dynamics is at longer
by the control simulation
system steps notexceeds
if the supply
tolerable and leads to unacceptable errors [18].
the load and the available storage is fully charged. Furthermore, there may be an important power
Within a microgrid, the PV infeed must be cut down by the control system if the supply exceeds
surplustheif the PV system is oversized. Again, appropriate action must be taken in the course of the
load and the available storage is fully charged. Furthermore, there may be an important power
supply-dependent
surplus if the feed.
PV systemTo record the loss
is oversized. Again,byappropriate
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to the Such a measuring
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one or more measuring cells that are locally installed close to the PV
be simulated accurately by a simple measuring device is shown [19]. It was demonstrated that a PV system. Evidence that a PV
system can be simulated accurately by a simple measuring device is shown [19]. It was demonstrated
system with various geographical orientations of panels can be mapped by a few cells with acceptable
that a PV system with various geographical orientations of panels can be mapped by a few cells with
error. Figure 3 shows
acceptable error. the flowchart
Figure 3 shows the of flowchart
the PV-irradiation model in
of the PV-irradiation a microgrid.
model PPV,max
in a microgrid. andQPV,max
and
PPV,max
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the maximum possible feed, required at a given time point by the microgrid. Current
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Figure 3. Flowchartofofthe
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a microgrid.

ExampleExample of PV Infeed Modelling in Simulink

of PV Infeed Modelling in Simulink
The following shows an example implementation of the PV supply system. Figure 4 shows a
Thescreenshot
following shows an example implementation of the PV supply system. Figure 4 shows
of the Simulink model. For clarity, the model is divided into four sections (red boxes). The
a screenshot of the Simulink model. to
following paragraphs correspond For
theclarity, the model
order according is numbering
to the divided into four sections (red boxes).
of boxes.
The following paragraphs correspond to the order according to the numbering of boxes.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 8 of 22
Energies 2016, 9, 523 8 of 22

storage maximum
PQ_storage

PQ_GCP

PQ_load
2
max

PV-cell-factor

curve_summer -K- SoC_storage > PQ_PV

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max
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4

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Figure 4. 4.Detailed
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exampleofoffeature-dependent generation.
feature-dependent generation.

Through the block “From file”, the irradiation values are input to the simulation. Here, it is
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to define the PVdoing
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available, the historical data from available databases can be used alternatively. However, doing so
will (1)
cause loss
For theof the real
power gradients
balance within of
theirradiation.
closed unit of a microgrid, the radiation must be limited to the
power requirements of the elements of the microgrid. For this purpose, the maximum power
(1) Forfeed
the power balancereal-time
to the storage, within the closed
power unit of a microgrid,
requirement of the load,the radiation
as well as themust be limited
real-time power to the
power requirements
requirement of the elements
superimposed of thetogether.
grid are added microgrid.ThisFor this purpose,
represents the upper thelimit
maximum
of powerpower
feed to the storage,
consumption in thereal-time
microgrid.power requirement
The correct of the via
sign is assured load,
the as well as
matcher the real-time
“min/max”, so thepower
power in the system does not exceed the limit. From the comparison
requirement superimposed grid are added together. This represents the upper limit of power between the input values
and system set
consumption values,
in the the possible
microgrid. The PVcorrect
irradiation
signlimitation
is assured canviabe determined.
the matcherThis comparisonso the
“min/max”,
has not been realized in the model shown, since it can be determined (if desired) directly from
power in the system does not exceed the limit. From the comparison between the input values
the simulation system.
and system set values, the possible PV irradiation limitation can be determined. This comparison
(2) The limit on the PV infeed described in 2 must be adjusted as soon as the existing system storage
hascannot
not been realized in the model shown, since it can be determined (if desired) directly from
absorb more energy. For this, the SoC of the storage has to be incorporated into the PV
the model
simulation
over a system.
“From” block. Via a relay, the real-time SoC of storage is compared with a definable
(2) Thevalue.limit When
on theachieved,
PV infeed thedescribed
switch blockin 2ismust be adjusted
switched as soon
to the second as the
path. existing
In order systeman
to prevent storage
cannot absorb
infinite loop more
in the energy.
circuit ofForthe this,
switch the SoC(when
block of thethestorage
state ofhastheto be incorporated
storage corresponds intoto thethe PV
modellimitover
value and withblock.
a “From” the switching, the level
Via a relay, drops, thisSoC
the real-time forces the repeated
of storage switching),
is compared a second
with a definable
value. When achieved, the switch block is switched to the second path. In order tothe
threshold value may be set in the relay; for that, the relay is to be only switched again. For prevent
upper limit,
an infinite loopain value
the less thanof100%
circuit should block
the switch be selected
(when since
thethe microgrid
state elementscorresponds
of the storage may show a to the
time constant, so although the switching command has been issued, the response is delayed
limit value and with the switching, the level drops, this forces the repeated switching), a second
(SoC recommendation = 99%). The lower threshold should have a distance of less than 2% of the
threshold value may be set in the relay; for that, the relay is to be only switched again. For the
SoC to prevent unnecessary PV limitations (SoC recommendation = 98%).
upper
(3) limit,
If the limitaofvalue lessisthan
the SoC 100%the
reached, should
powerbe selected
cannot be fedsince
intothe
themicrogrid elements
system, resulting frommaythe show
a time constant, so although the switching command has been issued,
real-time power requirement of the load and the real-time power demand from the grid. This the response is delayed
(SoC recommendation
summed power demand = 99%). The lower
corresponds threshold
to the maximum should
powerhave a fed
that is distance ofsystem.
into the less than 2% of the
SoC to prevent unnecessary PV limitations (SoC recommendation = 98%).
In this model, the size and the efficiency of the PV system is set and the infeed by the PV system
(3) isIfregulated
the limitbyofthe the SoC is reached,
observation of the SoC theofpower cannot
the storage. Thebecomparison
fed into the system,
of the possibleresulting
and the from
the real-time power requirement of the load and the real-time power
actual PV output is determined by the simulation. Other provisions of the infeed regulation are not demand from the grid.
This summed power demand corresponds to the maximum power that is fed into the system.
necessary.

In this model, the size and the efficiency of the PV system is set and the infeed by the PV system is
regulated by the observation of the SoC of the storage. The comparison of the possible and the actual
PV output is determined by the simulation. Other provisions of the infeed regulation are not necessary.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 9 of 22

Energies 2016, 9, 523 9 of 22

5.3. Modeling of Controllable Generation

5.3. Modeling of Controllable Generation
Controllable feeds (feature-independent feeds) supply the system with power on the desired
Controllable feeds (feature-independent feeds) supply the system with power on the desired
schedule or in response to a demand for support coming from the control system. A variant of
schedule or in response to a demand for support coming from the control system. A variant of
controllable
controllable feeds
feeds represents
representscurrent-controlled
current-controlled CHPs.
CHPs.
From
From the standby state, themicro-CHP
the standby state, the micro-CHP mustmust be be synchronized
synchronizedonce oncetotothe
thegrid
grid after
after thethe start
start
command
command issued by the control system. After this synchronization, the CHP unit can be adjusted to to
issued by the control system. After this synchronization, the CHP unit can be adjusted
thethe
desired
desired infeed.
infeed.TheThetime
timeconstant
constant forfor the change from
the change fromone
onestate
statetotoanother
another depends
depends ononthethe device.
device.
TheThe heat production (if included in the simulation) can be passed to the heat storage, if availableininthe
heat production (if included in the simulation) can be passed to the heat storage, if available
system. The heat
the system. The storage unit unit
heat storage represents a limitation
represents to the
a limitation mini-CHP.
to the mini-CHP. When
When heat
heatstorage
storageisisfull,
full,the
mini-CHP unit must
the mini-CHP be shut
unit must down.
be shut down.
In In a simulation,
a simulation, thethe current-controlled
current-controlled mini-(micro-)CHPcan
mini-(micro-)CHP canbebeviewed
viewedasasa asimple
simpleinfeed
infeedthat
thatcan
can provide full power at any time. The distinction between active and reactive
provide full power at any time. The distinction between active and reactive power is important, as both power is important,
as both
powers canpowers can be
be provided provided independently
independently and have
and have different differentand
minimums minimums
maximums. andReactive
maximums. power
canReactive powerascan
be provided be provided
capacitive as capacitive or inductive.
or inductive.
Reaction
Reaction timeswhen
times whenchanging
changingbetween
between thethe set
set values
values ofofthe
theactive
activepower
powercan canbebeestimated
estimated with
with
a maximum of 5 s, as long as no measurements or the manufacturer’s
a maximum of 5 s, as long as no measurements or the manufacturer’s data are available. Reactivedata are available. Reactive
power
power cancanbebeassumed
assumed to to change
changestep-wise.
step-wise. ForFor
network
networksynchronization,
synchronization,a timea constant of less than
time constant of less
30 s can be assumed. The thermal power of the mini-CHP is in direct reference to the electric power.
than 30 s can be assumed. The thermal power of the mini-CHP is in direct reference to the electric
If the manufacturer’s data are not given, the ratio of 1:2 can as first approximation be assumed
power. If the manufacturer’s data are not given, the ratio of 1:2 can as first approximation be assumed
(double heat output for the electric power output). With this ratio, a rough estimate can be made
(double heat output for the electric power output). With this ratio, a rough estimate can be made
whether an existing size of storage is sufficient. In [20], the ratio of 1:1 for future current-controlled
whether an existing size of storage is sufficient. In [20], the ratio of 1:1 for future current-controlled
CHP is proposed. If the storage is completely full, the mini-CHP unit cannot be operated if no other
CHP is proposed. If the storage is completely full, the mini-CHP unit cannot be operated if no other
heat dissipation in the system is available. Where the micro-CHP is connected to the district heating
heat dissipation
network, in the
the heat system is
production canavailable. Where
be neglected andthe micro-CHP
heat is connected
storage assumed to the district heating
to be infinite.
network, the heat production can be neglected and heat storage assumed to be infinite.
Example of CHP Modelling in Simulink
Example of CHP Modelling in Simulink
In the following, an exemplary implementation of the mini-CHP can be carried out in Simulink.
In the
Figure following,
5 shows an exemplary
a screenshot implementation
of the Simulink model. of the mini-CHP can be carried out in Simulink.
Figure 5 shows a screenshot of the Simulink model.

storage_max

active power
PQ_PV limit
F3
PQ_GCP
Switch
F2 Delay
PQ_load reactive power >
F1
limit 1 30 To
PQ_CHP

Rate Limiter

Damping all cars damping to high?

0 3
CHP off
Damping w/o CHP >= const

OR
SoC_storage

F4
Relay 2

Figure5.
Figure 5. Mini-CHP
Mini-CHP model
model in
inSimulink.
Simulink.

(1) In order to determine the active and reactive power required by the system, the real-time power
(1) Invalues
order ofto the
determine the active and
active components reactive
are added. power
Only real required bybethe
power is to system,
made the real-time
available power
to the storage
values of the active components are added. Only real power is to be made available
from the mini-CHP. The minimum (=0), as well as the maximum (>0) are limited for the active to the storage
from
powerthe by
mini-CHP.
means ofThe minimum (=0),
a “saturation” asThe
block. wellmaximum
as the maximum
can be set(>0)
byare limited for
a variable the active
during the
power by means
initialization, of awas
which “saturation”
defined in block. The maximum
the workspace. canthe
As a result, be power
set by of
a variable during
the mini-CHP canthe
initialization, whichduring
be easily adapted was defined in the workspace.
optimization. The reactiveAs a result,
power the power oflimits
has independent the mini-CHP
of the realcan
bepower,
easily so
adapted during
a separate optimization.
“saturation block” isThe reactive power has independent limits of the real
necessary.
power, so a separate “saturation block” is necessary.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 10 of 22

(2) A logical “OR” operator is used to decide under which conditions the mini-CHP is required.
On the one hand, the mini-CHP is switched on when the storage level falls below a defined SoC
(e.g., 10%). Then, the mini-CHP remains switched on until the storage reaches a second
Energies 2016, 9, 523
threshold
10 of 22
value (e.g., 50%). On the other hand, the mini-CHP is used as support to charge the electric cars.
When
(2) limiting
A logical the
“OR” charging
operator power
is used per car
to decide (50%
under of the
which maximum
conditions power), is
the mini-CHP the mini-CHP
required. On is also
the one hand, the mini-CHP is switched on when the storage
switched on until the load limitation of the load drops below this value.level falls below a defined SoC
(e.g., 10%). Then, the mini-CHP remains switched on until the storage reaches a second threshold
(3) A “delay” block and a “rate limiter” block are used for the reaction time and the rate of change of
value (e.g., 50%). On the other hand, the mini-CHP is used as support to charge the electric cars.
the mini-CHP. The respective values can be taken from the manufacturers’ data.
When limiting the charging power per car (50% of the maximum power), the mini-CHP is also
switched on until the load limitation of the load drops below this value.
5.4. Modelling of Storage
(3) A “delay” block and a “rate limiter” block are used for the reaction time and the rate of change
In aof the mini-CHP.
microgrid, The
like in respective
any values power
other electric can be taken from
system, the manufacturers’
generation data.
and consumption must be tuned
permanently to each other. If the production is based mainly or partly on feature-dependent sources
5.4. Modelling of Storage
(see Section 5.2), the balancing of these sources by a storage systems can take place. An overview
of storageIn technologies
a microgrid, like in any other
according electric
to their power
energy system, generation
transformation typeand consumption
is described in must
[21]. be
The work
tuned permanently to each other. If the production is based mainly or partly on
in [22] shows an overview of storage technologies categorized by discharging times in relation to thefeature-dependent
sources (see Section 5.2), the balancing of these sources by a storage systems can take place. An
rated power.
overview of storage technologies according to their energy transformation type is described in [21].
Depending on the objectives, the appropriate storage technology can be determined for the
The work in [22] shows an overview of storage technologies categorized by discharging times in
planned microgrid.
relation Electrochemical storage (batteries) is suitable as stationary storage within
to the rated power.
microgrids by its technical
Depending maturity,the
on the objectives, market availability
appropriate and
storage reliability.
technology can be determined for the
The power
planned required
microgrid. by the systemstorage
Electrochemical is retrieved fromisstorage
(batteries) suitabletoasitsstationary
technical storage
limits. Since
withinbatteries
microgrids via
are connected by its
thetechnical
inverter maturity, market availability
to the microgrid, it can be and reliability.
assumed that there are no delays between the
The power
load demand requiredfrom
and infeed by the system
the is retrieved from storage to its technical limits. Since batteries
storage.
are connected via the inverter to the microgrid, it can be assumed that there are no delays between
In modeling, a storage has four key parameters: active power, reactive power, actual energy
the load demand and infeed from the storage.
content and state of charge (SoC). The storage as the reactive element in the system can provide energy
In modeling, a storage has four key parameters: active power, reactive power, actual energy
to the system
content andand absorb
state energy
of charge to its
(SoC). Themaximum
storage as load. Between
the reactive theseinlimits,
element the delivery
the system and uptake
can provide
mustenergy
be limited, because of the technical limitations of inverters.
to the system and absorb energy to its maximum load. Between these limits, the delivery and
For the
uptake calculation
must be limited,of the energy
because balance,
of the technical the physical
limitations effects (such as voltage dips) can be
of inverters.
neglected.For However,
the calculation
the of the energydepth
maximum balance,
of the physicalmust
discharge effectsbe(such as voltage
defined for a dips)
value, can be
where such
neglected.
effects However, the
are negligible. maximum
Since depth of discharge
the recommended must be defined
discharge state for,fore.g.,
a value, where such
lead-acid effects is 70%,
batteries
are negligible. Since the recommended discharge state for, e.g., lead-acid batteries is 70%, to increase
to increase number of life cycles, voltage-related data do not play a decisive role in the simulation.
number of life cycles, voltage-related data do not play a decisive role in the simulation. Voltage-
Voltage-related considerations, however, are included in the evaluation of the required storage size, as
related considerations, however, are included in the evaluation of the required storage size, as in the
in the simulation,
simulation, onlyonly the amount
the amount of available
of available energyenergy can be incorporated,
can be incorporated, but not thebut not theenergy.
installed installed energy.

Example of Storage
Example Modelling
of Storage Modelling
An An
exemplary storage
exemplary storagesimulation implementation
simulation implementation in Simulink
in Simulink is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 6. 6.

P_PV
-T-
PQ_PV
-T-
P_PV
Q_PV -T-

-T- active power

active power
P_GCP -T-
-T- active power
PQ_GCP -T-
limit 2
-T-
P_CHP
Q_GCP
P
active power
reactive power Q
P_load Q_PV reactive power SoC calculation 4
-T-
-T- limit 3
PQ_load
-T- -T-
Q_load
-T- reactive power

-T-
P_CHP Q_CHP
-T-
PQ_CHP
-T-
Q_CHP
1

Figure 6. Storage model in Simulink.

Figure 6. Storage model in Simulink.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 11 of 22

(1) The real power and reactive power of all elements of the microgrid are combined. For this
purpose, the instantaneous active and power performance values of all models are imported into
the model storage via a “From” block and are then added separately according to active and
reactive power.
(2) Since the real power of the storage is limited, the sum of the active power of all other components
must be limited to the minimum and maximum. For this purpose, an upper and lower limit value
can be entered. Since all components have their own limitations, which is based on the maximum
of the storage, there should be in principle no violation of the limit values. In order to be able to
calculate the actual storage from the simulation, however, the limit value violations, should they
occur, should be included in the simulation. For example, a limit value may be briefly exceeded
if an electric car is connected to a charging column. These excesses can be realized by short-term
overloading of the inverter of the storage.
(3) For clarity, the simple reactive power limitation and SoC determination are omitted.

6. Interconnection of Components within the Microgrid

In general, the three classes of components, supply, storage and load, are interconnected and
connected to the superimposed power grid. Any component may be connected and fed directly into
any other component. The energy of the storage can be fed to both the load and the host network, and
from the superimposed grid, in turn, the charging of the storage is possible. Furthermore, the load can
be fed directly from the host network. From this general fully-interconnected model, a specific model
can be derived, required for the simulation of the real microgrid. It is also necessary to incorporate
technical or regulatory constraints that may limit the flow of energy. For example, an infeed from
the energy storage into the superimposed power grid must be suppressed, because the feed from the
storage is not considered a renewable-source energy by the regulations. If the feed from the storage
cannot be separately measured, it must be technically prevented.

7. Modelling of the Power Grid

In order to be able to estimate the possibilities of a microgrid operation mode, it is necessary to
determine which task a microgrid should take over within the energy transmission network. The infeed
of energy from the microgrid into the superimposed power network at high load times, as well as
the uptake of energy in weak load times represents a meaningful task and can be used for basic
considerations. The residual load at the network connection point of the selected medium voltage
network to the high voltage network is the reference load profile. In order to visualize this load profile,
the medium voltage network to be investigated must be simulated with all loads and feeders for a
dynamic load calculation. If the medium-voltage network is not known or only insufficiently known,
various medium-voltage benchmark networks can be used. Figure 7 shows the medium-voltage
benchmark network of International Council for Large Electric Systems (CIGRE) with 30 nodes [23].
The outputs of nodes Kn00 to Kn29 represent loads for which the standard load profiles can
be set if no real load profiles of the grid to be examined are available. With this modeled grid,
a dynamic load flow calculation can be carried out, resulting in the load profile of the overall network.
Capacity bottlenecks in the power supply network are neglected. If, however, the power supply
network is sufficiently known, the integration of these real load profiles at the designated location
must be taken into account in the generation of the load curves for the microgrid. The microgrid can
be connected in parallel to the grid, so the microgrid only affects the load. Figure 8 shows the basic
connection point in the benchmark network shown above (a partial view was chosen for clarity).
Energies 2016, 9, 523 12 of 22

Energies 2016, 9, 523 12 of 22

Energies 2017, 10, 523 12 of 22
Energies 2016, 9, 523 12 of 22

Figure
Figure
Figure 7.
Figure
7. CIGRE
7. 7.
CIGRE
CIGRE benchmark
CIGREbenchmark
benchmark 30-nodemedium
benchmark30-node
30-node
30-node medium
medium
medium voltage
voltage
voltage
voltage (MV)
(MV)
(MV) grid.
grid.
(MV)grid.
grid.

Figure 8. Connection of a microgrid to the CIGRE benchmark network (HVN—high voltage network,
Figure
Figure 8.8.Connection
HV—high
Connection of
voltage,of aa microgrid
microgrid to
MV—medium to the
theCIGRE
CIGRE benchmark
benchmarknetwork
network(HVN—high
(HVN—high voltage network,
voltage network,
Figure 8. Connection of a microgrid voltage, MG—microgrid).
to the CIGRE benchmark network (HVN—high voltage network,
HV—high voltage, MV—medium voltage, MG—microgrid).
HV—high voltage, MV—medium voltage, MG—microgrid).
HV—high voltage, MV—medium voltage, MG—microgrid).
The CIGRE benchmark network was simulated for the transfer profile at the grid connection
The and
point, CIGRE benchmark
thebenchmark
standard load network
profileswas
weresimulated for the transfer
set at the network profile9 at
nodes. Figure the grid
shows the connection
simulated
The CIGRE
Theand
CIGRE benchmark network
network was
was simulated
simulated for
for the
the transfer profile
transferFigure
profile at
at the grid
the the connection
gridsimulated
connection
point, the standard load profiles were set at the network nodes. 9 shows
load profile for a weekday, Saturday and Sunday for the winter, transition and summer seasons.
point,
point, and
andthe standard
thefor
standardload profiles
load were
profiles setset
were at the network
atfor
the nodes. Figure
network 9 shows the simulated load
load profile a weekday, Saturday and Sunday the winter, nodes. Figure
transition 9 shows
and summer the simulated
seasons.
profile for a weekday, Saturday and Sunday for the winter, transition and summer seasons.
load profile for a weekday, Saturday and Sunday for the winter, transition and summer seasons.

Figure 9. Typical load profile applied to the CIGRE benchmark grid.

Figure 9. Typical load profile applied to the CIGRE benchmark grid.

Figure 9. Typical load profile

profile applied
applied to
to the
the CIGRE
CIGRE benchmark
benchmark grid.
grid.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 13 of 22

Energies 2016, 9, 523 13 of 22

Modelling of a Grid Connection Point

Modelling of a Grid Connection Point
An exemplary implementation of the network connection point can be carried out in Simulink.
An exemplary implementation of the network connection point can be carried out in Simulink.
Figure 10 shows
Figure a screenshot
10 shows of of
a screenshot thethe
model.
model.

GCP profile
-K- MG l_cr

Gain 1
SoC_storage >
> PQ_GCP
Relay
Switch SoC_storage
Switch1 Goto
max
PQ_CHP Relay1
MinMax
min
PQ_load -u
MinMax1 3
PQ_PV
2

Figure 10. Model of a grid connection point.

Figure 10. Model of a grid connection point.
(1) The load profile (Figure 9) is loaded into the model via a “from file” block. We assume a constant
(1) The power
load profile
factor (Figure
over the9)entire
is loaded into the
simulation model
time viamodel.
of the a “from
Thefile” block.
reactive We assume
power a constant
curve can be
powerdetermined accordingly.
factor over the entire simulation time of the model. The reactive power curve can be
(2) If the storage
determined can take up the energy from the grid connection point, the power that is to be fed
accordingly.
into the microgrid from the network can be assumed without restriction. According to these
(2) If the storage can take up the energy from the grid connection point, the power that is to be fed
specifications, the storage must be designed in such a way that the power flow is positive, as well
into the microgrid from the network can be assumed without restriction. According to these
as negative. If the storage is full, only the power that is needed as the balance of the other
specifications, the storage must be designed in such a way that the power flow is positive, as well
microgrid elements can enter into the system.
as negative.
(3) If the storage
This also applies is full,
to the power only
that the the powercan
microgrid that is needed
provide to theas the balancenetwork.
superimposed of the other
microgrid
Here, aselements
long as thecanstorage
enter into
has the system.
enough energy, an unrestricted availability can be assumed.
(3) ThisHowever,
also applies
if thetostorage
the power thatonly
is empty, the microgrid
the balance can provide
of power to other
of the the superimposed
components cannetwork.
be
assumed as available.
Here, as long as the storage has enough energy, an unrestricted availability can be assumed.
However, if the storage is empty, only the balance of power of the other components can be
8. Optimization of Microgrid Components
assumed as available.
Microgrids are suitable for achieving certain goals. Common to all of these goals is that the
8. Optimization of Microgrid
components are designed toComponents
meet the requirements of the microgrid and must be dimensioned in
their critical properties. In order not to oversize the components, which adversely affects the
Microgrids are suitable for achieving certain goals. Common to all of these goals is that the
profitability of a microgrid, the optimal component sizes have to be found [24]. In order to properly
components
dimensionarethe
designed
componentsto meet
within thethe
requirements
microgrid, anofoptimization
the microgrid and must
is required. Forbe dimensioned
nonlinear problemsin their
critical properties. In order not to oversize the components, which adversely
with constraints, found here, the trust-region optimization presents a suitable method [25]. affects the profitability
of a microgrid, theregion
The trust optimal
is a component
term used in sizes have tooptimization
mathematical be found [24]. In order
to denote the to properly
subset of the dimension
region
the components
of the objectivewithin the microgrid,
function an optimization
that is approximated is required.
using a model functionFor nonlinear
(often problems
a quadratic). If an with
adequate
constraints, modelhere,
found of thethe
objective functionoptimization
trust-region is found within the trustaregion,
presents then
suitable the region
method [25].is expanded;
conversely,
The if theisapproximation
trust region a term used inismathematical
poor, then theoptimization
region is contracted.
to denoteThethefit is evaluated
subset by of
of the region
comparing the ratio of expected improvement from the model approximation
the objective function that is approximated using a model function (often a quadratic). If an adequate with the actual
improvement observed in the objective function. A model function is “trusted” only in the region
model of the objective function is found within the trust region, then the region is expanded; conversely,
where it provides a reasonable approximation. For clarity, we do not provide more details on this
if the approximation is poor, then the region is contracted. The fit is evaluated by comparing the ratio
optimization method. The theoretical and practical implementation aspects can be found, e.g., in [26,27].
of expected improvement
Figure 11 shows the from
energytheflow
modelof aapproximation
sample plant wherewitha the actual
PV plant andimprovement
a mini-CHP are observed
used in
the objective function. A model function is “trusted” only in the region where it
as feeders, a stationary battery as energy storage, electric cars currently shown exclusively as aprovides a reasonable
approximation.
controllableForloadclarity,
and we to do
be not provideconsidered
eventually more details on this
later optimizationunits,
as bidirectional method. as The
well theoretical
as a
and practical implementation
superimposed medium voltage aspects can be found, e.g., in [26,27].
network.
The
Figure 11bi-directionality
shows the energy is considered,
flow of a sample although
plantcurrently,
where a PVit isplant
not and
sufficiently
a mini-CHPscientifically
are used as
documented regarding the influence, limits and possibilities of bidirectional
feeders, a stationary battery as energy storage, electric cars currently shown exclusively as electric cars on the
a controllable
superimposed
load and energy network,
to be eventually considered in this case
later asthe microgrid. In
bidirectional case of
units, as such
wellanas interconnection
a superimposed formedium
the
simulation of a real microgrid, it must be ensured that there may be technical or regulatory limiting
voltage network.
conditions that can restrict the flow of energy.
The bi-directionality is considered, although currently, it is not sufficiently scientifically
documented regarding the influence, limits and possibilities of bidirectional electric cars on the
superimposed energy network, in this case the microgrid. In case of such an interconnection for the
Energies 2017, 10, 523 14 of 22

simulation of a real microgrid, it must be ensured that there may be technical or regulatory limiting
Energies 2016, 9, 523 14 of 22
conditions that can restrict the flow of energy.

Energies 2016, 9, 523 14 of 22

Figure 11. Energy

Figure 11. Energy flow
flow diagram
diagram of
of aa sample
sample configuration
configuration of
ofaamicrogrid.
microgrid.

Inthe
In theexample
example shown,
shown, as well
as well as in as thein the chapters,
other other chapters,it is assumed it is that
assumed that no restrictions
no regulatory regulatory
restrictions
are are to beThe
to be observed. observed.
control The
of control
each of each component,
component, including including
the regenerative the regenerative
supply, as supply,
well as
as the
Figure 11. Energy flow diagram of a sample configuration of a microgrid.
well as the supply to or from the superimposed power supply
supply to or from the superimposed power supply network is possible. For bidirectional controllable network is possible. For bidirectional
controllable
electric cars, electric cars, it shown,
itInistheassumed
example is assumed
that the wellthat
as energy the
as in
flow energy
the flowload
other chapters,
from the from isthe
it into loadstorage,
assumed
the into
that the
no asstorage,
well asasinto
regulatory wellthe
as
restrictions
into the superimposed are to be observed.
power The
supply control of each
network Technicalcomponent,
is possible. including
Technicalsuchthe regenerative
limitations supply,
such asas capacity
superimposed power supply network is possible. limitations as capacity bottlenecks of
well as the supply to or from the superimposed power supply network is possible. For bidirectional
bottlenecks
the technical of the technical
network
controllable components
electric
network components
(power
cars, it is assumed cables,
that
(power
transformers,
the energy
cables,etc.)
flow from the
transformers,
loadareintonot
etc.)into
taken
the storage,
are consideration,
not
as well as
taken into
consideration,
as the simulations
into the assuperimposed
the simulations
as presented assupply
here
power presented
are energy
network here are energy
balancing
is possible. models. balancing
Technical models.
limitations such as capacity
AApossible
possible
bottlenecks sequence
sequence of the
of the technical
of the simulation
network
simulation components of a(power
of a microgrid microgrid
cables,
is shown is inshown
transformers,
Figure in12.Figure
etc.) are a12.
not taken
Here, Here,
into
24-h a 24-h
simulation
simulation consideration, as the simulations as presented here are energy balancing models.
is describedisasdescribed
an example as an with example
a one-secondwith a simulation
one-second step. simulation
At thestep. At theofbeginning
beginning of the
the simulation
A possible sequence of the simulation of a microgrid is shown in Figure 12. Here, a 24-h
simulation
(starting (starting
time t =is0),
atsimulation at time
the t = 0),
initial the
valuesinitial
of values
all of
componentsall components
of the modelof
described as an example with a one-second simulation step. At the beginning of the
the model
are read. are
The read. The
initial initial
values
values include
include thesimulation the
states (for states (for
example,
(starting example,
at timethe the
mini-CHP
t = 0), mini-CHP is
is in standby,
the initial values in standby,
the charge
of all components the charge
of the state
modelof state
arethe of the
storage,
read. storage,
the number
The initial the
number
of of the controllable
values
the controllable include the
loads, etc.), loads,
states (for
as welletc.),
as as
example, thewell
the as the
mini-CHP
values for values
is in for and
standby,
the active the active
the charge and
state
reactive of reactive
the
power.storage, power.
Thesethe These
values can
values number of the controllable loads, etc.), asallwell as the values arefor the active andwith.reactive power. These
then be can
used then be
to check used to check
whether all whether
limit valueslimit values
are complied complied
with.
values can then be used to check whether all limit values are complied with.

Figure 12. Exemplary flow diagram of a 24-h simulation of a microgrid.

Figure 12. Exemplary flow diagram of a 24-h simulation of a microgrid.

Figure 12. Exemplary flow diagram of a 24-h simulation of a microgrid.

Energies 2017, 10, 523 15 of 22

If the end of the duration to be simulated has been reached (here 24 h) and the energy balance has
been Energies
equalized,
2016, 9,the
523 simulation is terminated successfully. For reasons of clarity, the flow chart 15 of shown
22
in Figure 12 does not show whether the simulation targets have been met. The unconditional supply
of the load If is
thenotendtaken
of theinto
duration
accountto beinsimulated has been
this flowchart, forreached (hereand
example, 24 h) and thefurther
requires energy balance
algorithms,
whichhas beenbe
must equalized, the simulation
used to check is terminated successfully.
all simulation-specific For reasons
targets. These of clarity,
algorithms canthe
beflow chart
implemented
shown in Figure 12 does not show whether the simulation targets have been met. The unconditional
during the limit value check or the modeling of the components themselves, leading to a simulation
supply of the load is not taken into account in this flowchart, for example, and requires further
termination or a subsequent message after the simulation has been completed. A simulation-oriented
algorithms, which must be used to check all simulation-specific targets. These algorithms can be
goal can be, for example, the complete supply of the load, the maximum use of the PV energy or the
implemented during the limit value check or the modeling of the components themselves, leading to
compliance with the
a simulation prescribed
termination or curves on the grid
a subsequent connection
message after thepoint. A combination
simulation of all objectives
has been completed. A is
also conceivable. Targets can either be initialized directly in the simulation
simulation-oriented goal can be, for example, the complete supply of the load, the maximum use of as a termination criterion
(for example, when the
the PV energy PV compliance
or the generation with was limited, even though
the prescribed curves full
on use
the is desired)
grid or evaluated
connection point. A after
combinationIt of
the simulation. all objectives
is therefore left istoalso conceivable. Targets can either be initialized directly in the
the programmer.
simulation
The as a termination
limit-value check is ancriterion
integral (forpart
example,
of thewhen the PV generation
simulation was limited,
of a microgrid. In a even though step,
simulation
full use is desired) or evaluated after the simulation. It is therefore left to the
the limit values entered by the user are compared with the actual values occurring in the simulation programmer.
The limit-value check is an integral part of the simulation of a microgrid. In a simulation step,
at this time step. If the limits are not met, measures are formulated for the next simulation step.
the limit values entered by the user are compared with the actual values occurring in the simulation
In the configuration shown here, the state of charge state (SoC) of the stationary storage is the leading
at this time step. If the limits are not met, measures are formulated for the next simulation step. In
quantity. If set charging states are exceeded, measures are taken for the next simulation step. If, for
the configuration shown here, the state of charge state (SoC) of the stationary storage is the leading
example,
quantity.limit
the If set value hasstates
charging fallenare below (here,measures
exceeded, SoC < 20%), the mini-CHP
are taken for the nextissimulation
started asstep.
an additional
If, for
supply. Whenthe
example, thelimit
lowest limit
value hasis reached,
fallen belowthe entire
(here, SoCmicrogrid
< 20%), theload profileis is
mini-CHP subjected
started as an to a limitation.
additional
supply. When the lowest limit is reached, the entire microgrid load profile is subjected to a limitation.
8.1. Control Concepts for Microgrids with a Focus on the Load Supply
8.1. Control Concepts for Microgrids with a Focus on the Load Supply
The premise for each control concept of a public or semi-public microgrid must be the relief of
the upstreamThe premise
networkfor eachat
while control concept
the same timeofmeeting
a public all
or semi-public microgrid must
network requirements be the
within therelief of
microgrid,
the upstream network while at the same time meeting all network requirements within
as well as the complete load supply, the latter having a very high-ranking role. A microgrid control the microgrid,
as well
concept, as the complete
in which the loadload supply,
supply the latter
is not having a is
top priority, very high-ranking
theoretically role. A microgrid
conceivable, control
but will lead to
concept, in which the load supply is not top priority, is theoretically conceivable, but will lead to a
a strong rejection by the users of the electric vehicles in a real implementation.
strong rejection by the users of the electric vehicles in a real implementation.
Using a priority tree, the variety of possibilities for prioritization can be demonstrated. A priority
Using a priority tree, the variety of possibilities for prioritization can be demonstrated. A priority
tree with five components
tree with five components[16][16]
showsshows120120
options forfor
options thethepriority
priorityorder
orderofofthe
thecomponents. Taking into
components. Taking
account the unconditional load supply and the subsequent use of all available PV
into account the unconditional load supply and the subsequent use of all available PV energy, energy, the reasonable
the
possibilities are reduced to six, which are shown in a tree structure in Figure 13.
reasonable possibilities are reduced to six, which are shown in a tree structure in Figure 13. The The control system
in a complex system,
control system in asuch as asystem,
complex microgridsuch model, can either
as a microgrid model,becan
defined
either bebydefined
one of by
theonecomponents
of the
components
themselves themselves orseparately
or implemented implemented by aseparately by a superimposed
superimposed controller. controller.

Figure
Figure 13.13. Reasonablepriorities
Reasonable priorities for
for aa microgrid
microgridoptimization.
optimization.

The stationary storage is suitable as a guide component. If, on the other hand, circular references
The stationary
occur storage
between the is suitable
components, that as
is ifa mutually-dependent
guide component. If, on the other
components referhand,
to onecircular
another,references
they
occur between the components, that is if mutually-dependent components refer to one another, they are
Energies 2017, 10, 523 16 of 22

unsuitable as a control-guiding component. A circular cover occurs in a microgrid between supply and
load. The load can only supply as much power in a closed system as the supply is currently available.
The feed-in components, on the other hand, can feed only as much into the system as the load allows.
This circular dependence has the effect of an infinite loop in a simulation when the PV system or the
load is selected as the guide component.
This circular dependence between the PV system and the load can be broken by implementing
a component that represents the maximum possible irradiation through the simulated PV system.
Thus, the load can serve as a guide variable for the PV system while the load adjusts to the maximum
possible power that is to a separated component. This separate component then represents, for example,
a measuring device that has been placed locally close to the PV system and with the aid of which,
the available irradiation is transmitted to the system. If the SoC of the stationary storage is selected
as the guide variable, care must be taken of the delays of the components’ reaction during the
control. For example, a mini-CHP has a certain initial and post-run time, so that the system can react
immediately, but the desired effect is delayed. A limit value for the system reaction must be selected
with a safety buffer, so that the battery is not charged above 100% or discharged to less than 0%.
In order to be able to depict these effects adequately, a simulation in the millisecond clock is required.
Exceeding the limit values can result in large inaccuracies during longer cycle times, as a result of
which, information loss may occur when limiting the values. A two-point control should always
be used for a limit implementation. Such a two-point control prevents an oscillation between two
states when a limit value overshoot leads to a reaction, which would prevent the limit value from
being exceeded. A two-point control has a dead region corresponding to a hysteresis. In this way, for
example, the mini-CHP can be connected if the stationary storage falls below a defined SoC and is only
switched off again when a higher SoC is reached. The mini-CHP will then be switched off again until
the lower limit value is reached. Such regulations should be implemented for all supply and related
components to ensure system stability.

8.2. Optimization of Microgrid to Support a Medium Voltage Network

The example is of a microgrid with 10 electric cars supplied by a PV system, a storage unit
and a mini-CHP unit, while at the same time, a load profile on the grid connection point is to be
maintained. By optimizing the component sizing, the smallest possible setup of the photovoltaic
system, the mini-CHP and the storage battery can be found, which can be used to supply both the load
and the specified load profile at the GCP without having to down-regulate the PV system. The control
algorithms and limit values are set according to the example of Figure 12, unless otherwise mentioned
in the component description. The storage has an SoC of 5% at initialization of the model and is used
to temporarily store the PV energy, as well as to ensure the load profile. The cars are only loaded from
the storage when they go into quick charge mode and the power within the microgrid is not sufficient.
This microgrid model corresponds to an industrial microgrid as described in Section 4.3.

8.2.1. Feature-Dependent Generation

The solar irradiance values in a German city were recorded with a measuring instrument for
a complete year for the supply-dependent feed. The measuring instrument consists of 33 measuring
cells arranged on a spherical surface. As shown in [19], such a measuring instrument can be used to
perform an almost exact reproduction of each photovoltaic system in the immediate vicinity of the
measuring device. From the measured values, an average curve for each cell was created separately for
the period of summer. From a combination of different cells, a representative curve can be created for
any PV plant. From all curves measured in the summer period (orientation south, angle of inclination
45◦ ), an average curve is formed, which represents the average single-beam values for this period.
These injection values are introduced into the simulation. The starting value is an installed power of
the photovoltaic system of 80 kW peak, which is to be viewed as an optimization variable.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 17 of 22

8.2.2. Storage
The storage technology is insignificant for the simulation since no transient effects, such as voltage
dips, etc., are considered. The stationary storage is modeled with an initial apparent power of 60 kVA
and an initial capacity of 200 kWh, where apparent power and capacity represent the two variables to
be optimized. The capacity calculated in the simulation represents the usable energy of the required
storage and, depending on the storage technology, must be transferred according to the energy to be
installed. Since the relationship between usable and installed energy differs greatly depending on the
technology, the transfer is not used at this point.

8.2.3. Load
Ten bi-directional electric cars for the simulation are modeled according to the procedure described
in Section 5.1. The average time of arrival and the average service life of each car were determined
from the field tests carried out by electric car drivers. For the arrival time, a random value is calculated
for each day in the determined time span. The average absorbed energy was calculated from the
measurement data of the first three of four test periods (18 months in total).
The required energy per car is 9–20 kWh (total of 169 kWh). Again, the values of the test drivers
measured in the field test were used. The maximum required power per car is 9.5 kW. Each electric car
can be controlled up to a minimum power of minus 9.5 kW, so that it is possible to feed the energy back
from the car storage to the microgrid. Here, the state of charge of each car is considered separately.
Until the time of departure, each car must be fully charged.
When the electric car is fully charged, only the power required to maintain the charge is drawn
from the system until the user or the superimposed system disconnects the electric car from the
charging column. Between arrival and departure, the electric car can be freely controlled within the
simulation until the charging curve is reached. The load is assumed to be constant, i.e., all electric cars
are simulated with corresponding power and corresponding energy requirements. They are not varied
during optimization.

8.2.4. Mini-CHP
The mini-CHP modeled as in Section 5.3 is activated in the simulation if the stationary storage
falls below a critical value of 5% or the load is limited by more than 50% of the maximum power.
When a load condition of 20% or a reduced load limit is reached, the mini-CHP is switched off, taking
into account the start-up and stopping times. The heat component of the mini-CHP is neglected as
it is assumed that the mini-CHP is connected to the heating network, so that this heating network
is an infinite heat storage from the point of view of the mini-CHP. The mini-CHP is inserted into
the simulation as a starting value with a power of 0 kVA. Later, it is added in increments of 5 kVA
separately to illustrate the relationships between the increase in the power of the mini-CHP and the
reduction in the performance of the other feeding components.
The CIGRE benchmark network, as described in Section 7 was simulated for the transfer profile
at the GCP, and the standard load profiles were set at the network nodes.

8.3. Optimization of Components

With the help of the optimization procedure presented in Section 8, the components of a PV
system, storage and mini-CHP are to be chosen in such a way that all conditions are fulfilled:
(1) All electric cars are fully charged at the end of the day,
(2) No PV energy has been lost and
(3) The default load profile has been fully followed at the GCP.
The target function is:

F (w, x, y, z) =k PGCP,set − PGCP,sim (w, x, y, z) k2 − k PPV,set − PPV,sim (w, x, y, z) k2 (1)

Energies 2017, 10, 523 18 of 22
Energies 2016, 9, x  18 of 22 

where w is
where   is storage power, 
storage power, x is  storage
is storage energy,    is power of the PV system, 
energy, y is power   is power of the mini‐
of the PV system, z is power of the mini-CHP
CHP unit,    = default GPC load profile, 
unit, PGCP,set = ,default GPC load profile, PGCP,sim simulated
,   simulated GPC load,  ,   input‐PV power, 
GPC load, PPV,set input-PV power, from
from irradiation and 
irradiation and PPV,sim simulated
,   simulated PV power. 
PV power.

8.4. Results of Optimization and Discussion

8.4. Results of Optimization and Discussion 
In order 
In  order to
to  find
find  aa  suitable
suitable  starting
starting  point
point  for
for  the
the  optimization, the energy 
optimization,  the  energy balance within the 
balance  within  the
microgrid is considered over a whole day. For this purpose, the required daily energy quantity of
microgrid is considered over a whole day. For this purpose, the required daily energy quantity of the 
the cars (111 kWh) and the daily energy amount at the GCP (180 kWh) are added with correct
cars (111 kWh) and the daily energy amount at the GCP (180 kWh) are added with correct signs. The 
signs. The amount of energy required must be provided by the PV system and the mini-CHP
amount of energy required must be provided by the PV system and the mini‐CHP unit. Neglecting 
unit.mini‐CHP, 
the  Neglecting the the mini-CHP, the above-described
above‐described  PV  system  has  an  PVinstalled 
system has an installed
power  of  74  kW power
for  an ofaverage 
74 kW
for an average summer day. This configuration makes it possible to determine the storage capacity of
summer day. This configuration makes it possible to determine the storage capacity of 100 kWh and 
100 kWh and a storage power of 26 kW. Figure 14 shows the real-time load profiles of the GCP, the PV
a storage power of 26 kW. Figure 14 shows the real‐time load profiles of the GCP, the PV system and 
system
the  and the
electric  electric
cars  carsas 
in  kW,  inwell 
kW, asas well
the  as the percentage
percentage  of consumption
of  consumption  in the
in  the  loadfor 
load  forthe 
the defined 
defined
component dimensioning.
component dimensioning. 

 
Figure 14. Microgrid profiles without mini-CHP.
Figure 14. Microgrid profiles without mini‐CHP. 

It becomes clear that with the chosen storage dimensioning, the energy of the PV system can be 
It becomes clear that with the chosen storage dimensioning, the energy of the PV system can
shifted  in  time 
be shifted so so
in time that 
thatno no
energy 
energyis islost. 
lost.When 
Whenthe 
theelectric 
electriccars 
carsarrive, 
arrive,the 
theenergy 
energy available 
available in 
in the 
the
microgrid is not enough to charge the electric cars. It is even necessary to extract energy from the 
microgrid is not enough to charge the electric cars. It is even necessary to extract energy from the
electric cars for the microgrid in order to be able to meet the default profile at the GCP. The energy 
electric cars for the microgrid in order to be able to meet the default profile at the GCP. The energy
flow changes as soon as enough energy is available through the PV system or from the superimposed 
flow changes as soon as enough energy is available through the PV system or from the superimposed
power 
power grid. 
grid. At 
At the 
the end 
end of 
of the 
the usage 
usage period 
period of 
of the 
the electric 
electric cars, 
cars, these 
these were  fully  charged
were fully charged  without
without 
violating the predefined profile at the GCP. The next step is to introduce the mini‐CHP in the range 
violating the predefined profile at the GCP. The next step is to introduce the mini-CHP in the range
from 0 kW–30 kW in 5 kW steps in the simulation. All other components within the microgrid are 
from 0 kW–30 kW in 5 kW steps in the simulation. All other components within the microgrid are
not changed any further. For reasons of clarity, the representation of the performance profiles of all 
not changed any further. For reasons of clarity, the representation of the performance profiles of all
calculated variants is omitted. 
calculated variants is omitted.
Figure 15 shows the performance curves for the variant with a mini‐CHP of 20 kW. The mini‐
Figure 15 shows the performance curves for the variant with a mini-CHP of 20 kW. The mini-CHP
CHP is used to support the charging of the electric cars until the charge is no longer limited to more 
is used to support the charging of the electric cars until the charge is no longer limited to more than 50%
than 50% (see the mini‐CHP model) or the electric cars are fully charged. Furthermore, it supports 
(see the mini-CHP model) or the electric cars are fully charged. Furthermore, it supports compliance
compliance with the specified transfer profile at the GCP, when the energy in the storage is no longer 
with the specified transfer profile at the GCP, when the energy in the storage is no longer sufficient.
sufficient. 
Energies 2017, 10, 523 19 of 22
Energies 2016, 9, x  19 of 22 

 
Figure 15. Microgrid profiles with mini-CHP.
Figure 15. Microgrid profiles with mini‐CHP. 

Due to the simulated control characteristics, the mini‐CHP recharges the storage again if enough 
Due to the simulated control characteristics, the mini-CHP recharges the storage again if enough
power is available. This behavior is programmed in the algorithm and can be modified so that the 
power is available. This behavior is programmed in the algorithm and can be modified so that the
mini‐CHP is only used to support the charging of the electric cars and to assure the compliance of the 
mini-CHP is only used to support the charging of the electric cars and to assure the compliance of the
GCP load profile so that the storage would not be charged. 
GCP load profile so that the storage would not be charged.
Table 1 shows the results of the optimization for the component storage and PV as a function of 
Table 1 shows the results of the optimization for the component storage and PV as a function of
the selected mini‐CHP power parameter. As can be clearly seen, there is almost no relation between 
the selected mini-CHP power parameter. As can be clearly seen, there is almost no relation between the
the  mini‐CHP 
mini-CHP and 
and the the  storage 
storage in  the  shown.
in the example example 
Theshown. 
storageThe  storage  dimensioning 
dimensioning takes  place 
takes place predominantly
predominantly on the basis of the predefined load profile at the GCP, specifically due to the uptake 
on the basis of the predefined load profile at the GCP, specifically due to the uptake of energy from the
of energy from the superimposed network into the microgrid before the electric cars are connected. 
superimposed network into the microgrid before the electric cars are connected. There is, however,
There is, however, a clear relation between the required PV power and the dimensioning of the mini‐CHP. 
a clear relation between the required PV power and the dimensioning of the mini-CHP. If the required
If 
PVthe  required 
power PV  power 
is plotted aboveis  plotted 
the above 
installed the  installed 
mini-CHP power, mini‐CHP 
a straightpower,  a  be
line can straight  line  can  be 
approximated by
approximated by a simple curve fitting, which is given by the function 
a simple curve fitting, which is given by the function f ( x ) = 2.6x + 73. 2.6 73. 

Table 1. Results of the optimization of the component storage and PV as a function of the selected 
Table 1. Results of the optimization of the component storage and PV as a function of the selected
mini‐CHP power. 
mini-CHP power.
Mini‐CHP  PV Storage Capacity Storage Power 
Mini-CHP PV Storage Capacity Storage Power
0 kW  74 kW  100 kWh  26 kW 
0 kW5 kW  7461 kW 
kW 100 kWh
100 kWh  26 kW
26 kW 
5 kW
10 kW  6149 kW 
kW 100 kWh
96 kWh  26 kW
26 kW 
10 kW
15 kW  4935 kW 
kW 9691 kWh 
kWh 26 kW  kW
26
15 kW
20 kW  3518 kW 
kW 9191 kWh 
kWh 26 kW
26 kW 
20 kW 18 kW 91 kWh 26 kW
25 kW  10 kW  91 kWh  26 kW 
25 kW 10 kW 91 kWh 26 kW
30 kW 
30 kW 0 kW 
0 kW 91 kWh 
91 kWh 26 kW 
26 kW
Figure 16 shows this relationship graphically. From this diagram, it is also possible to estimate 
the power required for a mini‐CHP so that the power within the microgrid is still sufficient on   
Figure 16 shows this relationship graphically. From this diagram, it is also possible to estimate
low‐radiation days. Since, in the summer, a large range of different solar radiations can be covered 
the power required for a mini-CHP so that the power within the microgrid is still sufficient on
by installing a mini‐CHP, the microgrid’s objectives can still be achieved. 
low-radiation days. Since, in the summer, a large range of different solar radiations can be covered by
installing a mini-CHP, the microgrid’s objectives can still be achieved.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 20 of 22
Energies 2016, 9, 523 20 of 22

Figure
Figure 16.
16. Required
Required PV
PV power
power in
in relation
relation to
to the
the mini-CHP.
mini-CHP.

9.
9. Discussion
Discussion and
and Outlook
Outlook
Although
Although there there are relations between
are relations between the the feed-in
feed-in components
components for for aa component
component dimensioning,
dimensioning,
no direct relationship between the storage dimensioning
no direct relationship between the storage dimensioning and the dimensioning and the dimensioning of of
thethe
PVPV system
system or
the mini-CHP
or the mini-CHP couldcouldbe established.
be established. TheThe feed-in components
feed-in components complement
complement eacheachotherother
linearly so that
linearly so
the available power within the microgrid can be assumed to be constant.
that the available power within the microgrid can be assumed to be constant. The storage is used The storage is used to vary
the energy
to vary the over
energy time so that
over timeitsocan that beitassumed
can be assumedthat the required capacity capacity
that the required does not doeschange notwith
changethe
power within the microgrid. For the sizing of the battery, the energy
with the power within the microgrid. For the sizing of the battery, the energy absorbed from the absorbed from the superimposed
energy networkenergy
superimposed is primarily
network decisive in the example
is primarily decisivepresented here. Furthermore,
in the example presented here. it was found that
Furthermore,
the objectives
it was found that of thethemicrogrid
objectivesto ofbe thedefined
microgrid beforehand,
to be definedas well as the objectives
beforehand, as well of as each component
the objectives of
strongly affect the dimensioning. A change in the control characteristics
each component strongly affect the dimensioning. A change in the control characteristics leads directly leads directly to an
adaptation of theofrequired
to an adaptation the requiredcomponent
component dimensions
dimensions and must therefore
and must therefore be determined
be determined before the
before
component
the component optimization,
optimization, or be treated
or be treated as asanan optimization
optimizationvariable,
variable,ininorderordertotoadapt
adapt thethe required
required
components to their own
components to their own objectives. objectives.
In this paper,
In this paper, microgrids
microgrids were were generally
generally described
described and and classified.
classified. The The diversity
diversity of the
of the
component
component composition and the importance of the dimensioning of each individual component for
composition and the importance of the dimensioning of each individual component for
the correspondingapplication
the corresponding application areaarea
werewere demonstrated.
demonstrated. It was It was how
shown shown how optimization
optimization of component of
component sizing isFor
sizing is possible. possible. For this purpose,
this purpose, an example an example
microgrid microgrid is simulated.
is simulated. It has Itbeen
has been
found found
that
that component sizing is strongly dependent on the objectives and
component sizing is strongly dependent on the objectives and the target algorithm to be defined. the target algorithm to be defined.
A changeinin
A change thethe control
control algorithm
algorithm for a component
for a component requires requires the re-dimensioning
the re-dimensioning of all
of all components
components
to be considered to bewithin
considered within the microgrid.
the microgrid.
Further
Further studies have shown thatthat
studies have shown the nine
the nine variants
variants resulting
resulting from the from
summer, the summer,
winter and winter and
transition
transition
seasons and seasons
the three andworking
the three daysworking days of
of the week, the week,
Saturday andSaturday
Sunday, leadand to Sunday,
differentlead to different
dimensions of
dimensions of the required components despite the same
the required components despite the same goals and the unchanged algorithm. Therefore, goals and the unchanged algorithm.
all nine
Therefore,
variants all nine
should be variants
simulated should
and the be components
simulated and the components
separately optimized separately
in order optimized
to be able to indefine
order
to be ablethat
a variant to define a variant
corresponds to that corresponds
the desired goals.to the desired goals.
Beyond
Beyond the example microgrid shown here,
the example microgrid shown here, thethe heat
heat component
component is is aa very
very important
important factor.
factor.
Especially in the winter, a mini-CHP is predominantly
Especially in the winter, a mini-CHP is predominantly controlled to cover the heat controlled to cover the heat demand.demand.The
dimensioning
The dimensioning of theofmini-CHP
the mini-CHP is thusisdependent
thus dependent on the on control variablevariable
the control (current(current
controlled or heat
controlled
controlled). Thus, after a separate dimensioning of the mini-CHP due
or heat controlled). Thus, after a separate dimensioning of the mini-CHP due to the heat requirement, to the heat requirement, this
can
this enter into the
can enter intooptimization
the optimization as a fixed
as a variable so thatsothe
fixed variable mini-CHP
that is not further
the mini-CHP adaptedadapted
is not further during
the component dimensioning of the microgrid. The dimensioning
during the component dimensioning of the microgrid. The dimensioning of the required components of the required components within
a microgrid is possible so that an over-dimensioning and thus an extension
within a microgrid is possible so that an over-dimensioning and thus an extension of the economic of the economic payback
time can time
payback be prevented.
can be prevented.

Acknowledgments: Partially supported by the SGS Grant No. SP2016/95 and the project TUCENET No. LO1404
by VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic.
Energies 2017, 10, 523 21 of 22

Acknowledgments: Partially supported by the SGS Grant No. SP2016/95 and the project TUCENET No. LO1404
by VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic.
Author Contributions: Tobias Porsinger and Przemyslaw Janik conceived of and designed the simulation system
and optimization. Radomir Gono supervised the research and analyzed the data. Zbigniew Leonowicz wrote
the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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