AP Lab Manual I BETCH II SEM 2018-19 PDF

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VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

& SCIENCE
Deshmukhi(V), Pochampally(M),Nalgonda Dist.
I B.TECH II SEM - 2018 - 2019
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Name of the student:……………………………………….
Roll Number: ………………………………….....
Branch: …………………………………….
VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

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INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. A prior study about the experiment is essential for good performance in

the class. Read the instruction manual carefully before coming to the
lab class. If you come unprepared to the lab, your performance would
be accordingly affected.
2. Attend the Lab sessions in time.

3. Don’t forget to bring following accessories while attending the lab
sessions
i. Lab manual ii. I-Card iii. Lab, iv. Scientific Calculator v. Fully
equipped compass box including Pencil, scale, sharpener and eraser vi.
Plain papers
4. Switch-off your mobile phones when you are in the lab.

5. Bags should be kept on the racks. On lab tables keep only whatever is
required for the experiment.
6. Handle the instruments with due care. Note that you are fully
responsible for your apparatus in your lab session.

7. In case of electronic experiments, don’t switch on the circuits unless
checked by teacher or lab assistant. Operate millimeters with proper
AC/DC settings & proper ranges.
8. You are expected to perform the experiment, complete the calculations
and data analysis, and submit the report of every experiment on the
same day within the laboratory slot assigned for it.
9. At least one set of observation should be signed by the instructor.

10. It is important to estimate the maximum possible error of the results
using the given apparatus/data.
11. Each graph should be well documented; abscissa and ordinate along
with the units should be mentioned clearly. The title of the graph
should be stated on the top of each graph paper.

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APPLIED PHYSICS LAB

B.Tech. I Year I Sem.
L T P C Course Code: PH107BS/PH207BS
0 0 3 1.5
(Any Eight experiments compulsory)
S.No Name of the experiment Page. No
1) Energy gap of a material of p-n junction. 5
2) V-I characteristics of a solar cell. 11
3) Light emitting diode: Plot V-I characteristics of light emitting

diode- 15
4) M
agnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil – Stewart
and Gees method and to verify Biot – Savart’s law. 21
5) Hall Co-efficient of a given Semiconductor - Hall Effect 31
6) Work function of a given material – Photoelectric Effect 37
7) Characteristics of LASER Sources 41
8) Bending losses of Optical fibres - Optical fibre. 47
9) L-C-R circuit – Resonance & Q-factor. 49
10)Charging, discharging and time constant of an R-C circuit. 59

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PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED
S.No Date Name of the Experiment Signature
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11
12
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1.ENERGY GAP OF A SEMI CONDUCTOR
AIM: To determine the energy gap of a given semiconductor diode.
APPARATUS:
Germanium diode, Thermometer, Copper Vessel, Regulated DC power supply,
Micro ammeter, Heater & Bakelite lid, 2T oil.
PROCEDURE:
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Pour 2T oil in the copper
vessel. Fix the diode to the Bakelite lid such that it is reversed biased. Bakelite
lid is fixed to the copper vessel, a hole is provided on the lid through which the
thermometer is inserted into the vessel. With the help of heater, heat the copper
vessel till temperature reaches up to 800 C , note the thermometer reading
800C, apply suitable voltage say 1.5v( which is kept constant) note down the
corresponding Ammeter reading (Is), for every 50C fall of temperature, till the
temperature reaches the room temperature.

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A graph is plotted between ( log10 Is ) and l/T(k) is a straight line. Slope is
measured by taking the values of two points where each one of them intersect
on the straight line as shown in the fig.
OBSERVATIONS
2.303 X Slope X Boltz man ' sconstnt

The Energy gap Eg = − (ineV )
1.6 X 1019
Boltz’s man’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 J/K ( 1 eV = 1.6 X10-19 Jouls)
Eg = 1.9863 X 10-4 X slope
Depending upon the doping level of the diode the energy gap may vary between
0.5ev to 0.7ev.
1
( X103 )K 1

T

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TABLE :
1
S. No. T ( =t0 + 273) Is (μA) Log10 Is ( X10 3 )K 1
T
1
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PRECAUTIONS:
1. The current flow should not be too high, if the current is high then the
internal heating of the device will occur. This will cause actual
temperature of the junction to be higher than the measured value. This
will produce non-linearity in the curve.
2. There may be contact potentials, thermo emfs and meter dc offsets which
must be add and subtract from the readings.
3. Poor contacts result in huge variations in the results and must be
carefully soldered.
4. It is better to repeat a few measurements at end of each run to check the
source of error.
RESULT: The energy gap of the p-n junction material is ............... eV

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VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q. What do you mean by energy band gap?

Ans. A measure of energy gap between valence band and conduction band is
called energy band gap.
Q. How does it depend on the metals?

Ans. The value of energy gap is different for different metals such as for semi-
conductors it is of the order of 1 eV, for insulators it is more than 7 eV while
in the case of conductors, there is no gap.
Q. What is diode?
Ans. A p-type semi-conductor in contact with an n-type semiconductor
constitutes ap unction diode.
Q. What type of oil you are using?

Ans. Oil should be of high boiling point.
Q. Water cannot be used in place of oil, why?

Ans. Oil acts as an electrical insulator. Whereas water may conduct and spoil
the constituent diode, thermometer etc. Also water starts boiling even at lower
temperatures and one cannot perform the experiment for a whole range of
temperatures. So oil with high boiling points is used in the experiment.
Q. How are the conductor, insulator and semi-conductor differentiated

on the basis of energy gap?
Ans. In a good conductor, there is no band gap because in this case
conduction band and valence band overlaps.
In the case of insulator, the energy band gap is about 7 eV while in the case
of semiconductor it lies between 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV.
Q. What is meant by valence band, conduction band and forbidden band?

Ans The band which is occupied by valence electrons is called valence band.
It may be partially or completely filled.
Conduction band is the lowest unfilled energy band and in this band the
electrons are free to move.
Between conduction band and valence band, there is a region of energy gap
known as forbidden band.
Q. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors?

Ans. In intrinsic semiconductors, number of free electrons and holes are
solely created by thermal excitation and numbers of electrons and holes are

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equal. It has small electrical conductivity. Pure germanium and silicon are the
examples of intrinsic semiconductors.
When a small amount of arsenic (pentavalent) or boron (trivalent) is added to
the pure semi-conductor, the conductivity is significantly increased. These
semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors.
Q. What la a n-type semi-conductor?

Ans. By adding pentavalent impurity to pure silicon or germanium, number
of free electrons increases. Such an impure semiconductor having excess of
electrons as charge carrier is called n.type semiconductor.
Q. What is a p-type semi-conductor?

Ans. A germanium or silicon crystal with trivalent impurity is called p-type
semiconductor because the charge carriers are positive holes.
Q. Why does a semi-conductor behave like an insulator at absolute zero

temperature?
Ans. At absolute zero, electrons in valence band do not have sufficient energy
to cross the forbidden energy gap. So the semiconductor at absolute zero
temperature behaves as insulator.
Q. What is a depletion layer?
Ans. When junction diode is formed, holes from p-region diffuse into n-region
and electrons from n-region diffuse into p-region. During the formation of
junction sonic of the electron meet holes and cancel the effect of each other
as a result a thin layer at junction free from charge carriers is formed. This
region is called depletion region.
Q. What is order of thick ness of a depletion layer?

Ans. It is of the order of 10−6 𝑚.
Q. What is meant by forward and reverse biasing of a junction diode?

Ans. Forward bias: When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the p-region and negative terminal to the n-region,
Reverse bias: When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-
region and negative terminal to the Jo-region.
Q. What is meant by potential barrier in semi-conductors?

Ans. During formation of junction diode a depletion layer in formed and it is
separated by two layers one of immobile positive ions on n-side and immobile
negative ions on the p-side of the junction. This setup a potential difference
across the junction and this is known as potential barrier.

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2. SOLARCELL CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To plot the V-I characteristics of solar cell.
APPARATUS: Micro board consists of
1. Solar cell/ Photo voltaic cell mounted on the wooden base.

2. Single directional mercury coated variable intensity source.
3. Volt meter.
4. Ammeter.
5. Load resistance.
THEORY:
Sun light consists of little particles of solar energy called photons. As the
photovoltaic cell is exposed to this sun light, many of the photons are reflected,
pass right through or absorbed by the solar cell.
When enough photons are absorbed by the negative layer of the photovoltaic
dell, electrons are freed from the negative semiconductor material. Due to the
manufacturing process of the positive layer, these freed electrons naturally
migrate to the positive layer creating a voltage differential similar to a
household battery.
When the two layers are connected to an external load, the electrons flow
through the circuit creating electricity. Each individual solar energy cell
produces only1 − 2𝑊. To increase the power output, cells are combined in a
whether tight package called solar module. These modules (from one to several
thousands) are then wired up in serial and/or parallel with one another, into
what is called the solar array, to create the desired voltage and ampereage the
output required.
Due to the natural abundance of silicon, the semiconductor material that PV

cells are primarily made of and the practically unlimited resource in the sun,
solar power cells are very environmentally friendly.

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They burn no fuel and have absolutely no moving parts, which makes them
virtually maintenance free, clean and silent.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

shown in the figure 1.
2. Place the solar cell at a particular distance
say 1cm from the variable light source.
3. Vary the load resistance and note down the
voltage and current in the tabular form.
4. Note down the short circuit current (𝐼𝑆𝐶), when the voltage across the solar
cell is zero and the open circuit voltage 𝑉𝑂𝐶 by removing the load
resistance across the solar cell.
5. Calculate power 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 for each reading.
6. Plot the graph between the voltages
𝑉𝑠. Current.
7. Mark the maximum power point.
8. Calculate the fill factor using
𝐼𝑠𝑐 × 𝑉𝑂𝐶
𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑚 × 𝑉𝑚
9. Repeat the experiment by changing the
distance between the solar and light
source.

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TABLE
Voltage across load Current through

S.No resistance load resistance P=VI
(in volts) (in mA)
10
RESULT:
1. Short circuit current=

2. Open circuit voltage=
3. Maximum power=
4. Fill factor=

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Why efficiency of solar cells is limited to 10% only?
2. Does solar cell work on minority carriers or majority carriers?
3. What is the role of electric field across the PN junction in the action of solar
cell?
4. Explain what you mean by ISC i.e. short circuit current. Why ISC has to be
obtained by extrapolation method only? Why cannot it be measured in the
experiment?
5. Explain what do you understand by VOC i.e. open circuit voltage. Why VOC
has to be obtained by extrapolation? Why it cannot be measured in the
experiment?
6. Why ideal power is practically unachievable?
7. Why workable power cannot be extracted by a small or large load?
8. Why fill factor can never reach to 100%?
9. How does fill factor of a solar cell differ from its’ efficiency?
10. Does fill factor signify the quality of the solar cell itself or the load or both?
11. What do you mean by RW i.e. workable load? What is it’s significance?
12. Why solar cell cannot deliver large power when workload is too large or
too small?
13. Solar cell is basically a PN junction diode. Why, then, the characteristics
of solar cell does not appear like that of diode?
14. Give any two advantages and any two disadvantages of solar cell.
15. Give any five applications of solar cell.

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3. CHARACTERISTICS OF LED
AIM: To study the voltage-current characteristics of LED source
APPARATUS:
Milli voltmeter, micro ammeter, light emitting diode power supply, connecting
wires.
THEORY:
In LED, the input supply is electrical energy and the output from these is light
energy. That is, LED convert the electrical energy into light energy. The light
coming out of an LED is not highly intense and highly monochromatic and
hence it can be seen directly with our eye. The volt- ampere characteristics of
these two devices are studied here and comparison is made between these
devices.
PROCEDURE
The circuit diagram id connected as shown in the figure. 1.0 to 10 v D.C power
supply is connected to a LED and a micro ammeter in series as shown in
figure.

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A Milli-voltmeter is connected across the

terminals of the LED. The power is switched
ON, and varied slowly. The reading in the
microammeter and the reading in the miili
voltmeter is noted. The procedure is repeated
by slowly varying the power supply and at each
step the reading of the micro-ammeter and
Milli-voltmeter are recorded. The readings are
tabulated in Table-I and a graph is drawn
between voltage and current.
V-I characteristics of LED
TABLE:
Voltage Reading in the

across Milli ammeter
S.No
LED For LED
(in volts) (in mA)
1

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Voltage Reading in the

across Milli ammeter
S.No
LED For LED
(in volts) (in mA)
7
10
11
Result: - I-V Characteristics given LED was verified an threshold voltages

of were found as
Threshold voltage of given LED is = V

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Q. What is LED?
A. A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source.
Q. How LED is used?

A. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are
increasingly used for lighting.
Q. What is electroluminescence in LED?

A. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence.
Q. What are advantages of LED over incandescent light sources?

A. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability.
Q. what are Practical use of LED?

A. The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements
for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment
displays,[19] first in expensive equipment such as laboratory and
electronics test equipment, then later in
such appliances as TVs, radios, telephones, calculators, and even
watches (see list of signal uses).
Q. What Technology is used in LED?

A. Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semi conducting
material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other
diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or
cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons
and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different
voltages. When an
electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases
energy in the form of a photon.
Q. What are the applications of LED?

A. 1.Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the
source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. 2.
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual
response of these objects. 3. Measuring and interacting with processes
involving no human vision. 4. Narrow band light sensors where LEDs
operate in a reverse-bias
mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.
Q. What is Photo sensor?

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A. Photo sensors or photo detectors are sensors of light or other

electromagnetic energy.
Q. What should we do for converting LED to photodiode?

A. LEDs reverse-biased to act as photodiodes
Q. Give examples of photoconductors?

A. vacuum-tube devices, semiconductor photodiodes, thermocouple
semiconductor, photocondtive devices

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4. STUDY OF MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE

AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL –
STEWART AND GEE’S APPARATUS
AIM To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular
coil carrying current.
EQUIPMENT & COMPONENTS
Stewart and Gees type of tangent galvanometer, Rheostat, Ammeter, deflection

magnetometer, Battery eliminator, 4way & 2 way key.
FORMULA
The magnetic field (B) at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current
"i" is given by the expression
0 n i a 2
B Telsa

3 2

2 x +2 a 2
Where 'n’ is the number of turns,

‘a’ the mean radius of the coil,
‘x’ is the distance of the point from the center of the coil along the axis, and
‘i’ is the current passing through the coil.
DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
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DESCRIPTION
The apparatus consists of a circular frame "c" made up of non- magnetic

substance. An insulated Copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the
wire are connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals
the number of turns used can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long base B
at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side. The base has leveling
screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the uprights.
The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes
through the circular coil. A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection
magnetometer is supported on a movable platform. This platform can be moved
on the frame along the axis of the coil. The compass is so arranged that the
center of the magnetic needle always lie on the axis of the coil.
The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic
meridian. The frame with compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base
is rotated so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the
compass. The compass is rotated so that the aluminum pointer reads 00-00.
Now the rectangular frame is along East-West directions. When a current "i"
flows through the coil the magnetic field produced is in the perpendicular
direction to the plane of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is under
the influence of two magnetic fields. "B" due to coil carrying current and the
earth's magnetic field "Be" which are mutually perpendicular. The needle
deflects through an angle 'θ' satisfying the tangent law.
PROCEDURE
With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of
about one meter is drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic
meridian. Another line perpendicular to the line is also drawn. The Stewart and
Gees galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian as shown in the
fig. The external circuit is connected as shown in the fig, keeping the
ammeter, rheostat away from the deflection

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magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because, the magnetic

field produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent
magnetic field due to the magnet inside the ammeter affect the magnetometer
reading, if they are close to it.
The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the
aluminum pointer reads (00-00) in the magnetometer. The key K, is closed and
the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the magnetometer is about 60°.
The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection in the
magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after
reversal of current should not differ much. In case of sufficient difference say
above 2° or 3°, necessary adjustments are to be made.
The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d=0. The
readings are noted in Table. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the
axis of the coil in steps of 2cm at a time. At each position, the key is closed and
the deflections before and after reversal of current are noted. The mean
deflection be denoted as E. The magnetometer is further moved towards east in
steps of 2cm each time and the deflections before and after reversal of current
be noted, until the deflection falls to 30°.
The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards West from
the center of the coil in steps of 2cm, each time and deflections are noted
before and after the reversal of current. The mean deflection is denoted as w.
It will be found that for each distance (x) the value in the last two columns of
the second table are found to be equal verifying equation (1) & (2).
A graph is drawn between x [the distance of the deflection magnetometer
from the center of the coil along x-axis and the corresponding Tan e and Tan
w along y-axis. The shape of the curve is shown in the figure. The point A and
B marked on the curve lie at distance equal to half of radius of the coil (a/2) on
either side of the coil.

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OBSERVATIONS
Horizontal component = 0.38 10−4 Tesla (or Wb.m–2)

of earth’s magnetic
field Be
Radius of a coil “a” is = 11.14 X 10−2 meter

(Diameter of coil / 2)
Current carrying in = 0.2 Amps

the ammeter
No.of turns in the coil = 50

(n)
0 = 4  10–7

1
TABLE
Distance Deflection in East Deflection in East

from the direction Mean direction Mean
center of coil θ1 TanθE TanE  Tan W
θ2 θ3 θ4 E θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 w Tanθw Tan 
2
X cm
0
10
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EXPECTED GRAPH
RESULT:
Distance in Theoretical Practical

meter (x) in cm
 n0 i a 2 B = BH Tanθ
B Telsa
 
3 2
2 x2 + a 2
10
Conclusion: -
Intensity of magnetic field along the axis of the coil is determined

and compared with standard values of tangent law hence tangent law is
verified
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Q. How does the field vary along the axis of the coil?
Ans. Magnetic field 𝐹at a distance 𝑥 from the centre of the coil of radius 𝑟is given
as
2𝜋𝑛𝑖 𝑟2
𝐹 =
10(𝑟2 + 𝑥2)3⁄2
where 𝑛 is the number of turns and 𝑖is the current flowing through the coil.
Q. What is the magnitude of the field at the center?

Ans. For 𝐹 at center 𝑥 = 0,
𝜋𝑛𝑖
𝐹=
5𝑟
Q. How can you increase the region of uniform field?
Ans. By using two identical vertical flat circular coils placed co-axially at a
distance equal to the radius of the either coil.
Q. Whether the field is uniform at the center or not?

Ans. Field is maximum at the center and decrease on either side.
Q. What precautions should be taken in this experiment?

Ans. (i) Plane of the coil should be set in magnetic meridian (ii) Current flowing in
the circuit should be constant and the value of current should be such that there
is deflection of 70", (iii) For every observation position of both the pointers of the
compass needle should be noted.
Q. What is the strength of magnetic field at any point on the axis of circular
coil?
Ans. See Ansl.
Q. What is the strength of magnetic field at the center of the coil ?

Ans. See Ans 2.
Q. What is tangent law ?

Ans. 𝐹 = 𝐻 tan 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle made by magnetic needle with horizontal
component of earth's magnetic field H. F and H are two mutually perpendicular
uniform magnetic fields.
Q. Why is it necessary to set the plane of the coil in magnetic meridian? Ans.
To make the magnetic field F produced by circular coil at right angles to the
horizontal components of earth's magnetic field.

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Q. What is magnetic meridian?

Ans. A plane passing through the aids of the magnetic needle freely suspended
through its center of gravity and is at rest under earth's field is called magnetic
meridian.
Q. What is the practical utility of the knowledge of variation of magnetic field

along the axis of the coil?
Ans. It shows the existence of two points of inflexion where the rate of change of
magnetic field with distance is constant. We made use of this property in the
construction of galvanometer.
Q. What is Helmholtz galvanometer?

Ans. In Helmholtz galvanometer there are two identical vertical flat circular coils
placed co. axially at a distance equal to the radius of the either coil. Midway
between the two coils magnetic field is very nearly constant where the compass
box is placed.
Q. What is reduction factor?

Ans. We get the current through the coil by multiplying reduction factor with the
angle of deflection. Reduction factor IC= 2rH/p. N where r is radius of the coil, II is
horizontal component of the earth N is number of turns in the coil, pe is
permeability of free space.
Q. What to point of inflexion?

Ans. It is the point on the C.-tan B curve where the curve changes its direction of
curvature.
Q. What is distance between the two points of inflexion?

Ans. It is equal to the radius of the circular coil.
Q. Why is a mirror provided below the pointer in the compass box? Ans. It is
used for measuring the exact deflection of the magnetic needle by removing
parallax between the pointer and its image.
Q. How the error in the measurement of deflection is eliminated if the plane

of coil is not exactly in magnetic meridian?
Ans. By passing current in one direction and then in reverse direction and taking
the mean of these four readings, we get deflection free from error.

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Q. What are the advantages of a Helmholtz galvanometer over a tangent

galvanometer?
Ans. (i) In the case of Helmholtz galvanometer field is almost constant between the
two coils while in tangent galvanometer it is constant at the center.
(ii) Sensitivity of Helmholtz galvanometer is more.
(iii) For the same current Helmholtz galvanometer produces more field and
hence greater deflection.

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5. HALL EFFECT
AIM: To study the Hall Effect in semiconducting samples and determine the type
and density of majority charge carriers.
APPARATUS: Hall Effect set up, Hall probes, electromagnet with power supply,
Semiconductor sample, current supply with meter, voltmeter, digital Gauss meter.
THEORY: The resistivity measurements of semiconductors cannot reveal whether
one or two types of carriers are present also we cannot distinguish between them.
However, this information can be obtained from Hall Coefficienet measurements.
By these measurements the carrier density and mobilities can be determined with
resistivity measurement. The equation for Hall Coefficient of a sample can be
obtained as follows. A rectangular slab of semiconductor with thickness d kept in
XY plane as shown in Fig.1. An electric field is applied in x-direction so that a
current l flows through the sample. If w is width of the sample and d is the
thickness, the current density is given by,
I
jx  ………………..(1)
Wd
Now a magnetic field B is applied along positive z axis. A static magnetic field has
no effect on charges unless they are in motion. When the charges flow, a magnetic
field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a mutually
perpendicular force on the charges (electrons and holes). When this happens,
electrons and holes will be separated by opposite forces. If the majority charge
carriers are positive and are moving with velocity v along positive x-axis then the
direction of force experienced by the charge carriers in presence of magnetic field
is along negative y direction. This results in accumulation of charge carriers
towards bottom edge of the slab. This
sets up a transverse electric field EY in the sample. The potential, thus

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developed, along y-axis is known as Hall voltage VH and this effect is called Hall
Effect.
Assuming Ey to be uniform, the Hall voltage is given by,

VH = Eyw ------------------------------------------ (2)
And the Hall coefficient RH is given by,
Ey
R  V d ------------------(3)
 H
H
JxB IB
 d 
I   VH --------------------- (4)
 RH B 
The majority carrier density n is related to the Hall coefficient by the relation,
I
RH  -------------------- (5)
ne
Where e is the charge of the carrier.

From the equation (5), it is clear that the sign of charge carrier and density can be
estimated from the sign and value of Hall coefficient RH. Eq. (4) it follows that I
varies linearly with VH. Therefore, RH can be obtained experimentally by studying
variation of VH as a function of I for given value of B.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
The experiment assembly for Hall Effect is shown in Fig.2. The Hall Effect Set-up
unit consists of a constant current generator for supplying current to the sample
and a digital milli-voltmeter to measure the Hall voltage. The unit has a digital
display used for both current and Hall voltage measurement. For applying the
magnetic field an electromagnet with a constant current supply is provided. It is
capable of generating a magnetic field of about 7.5 K gauss between its pole pieces.
The magnetic field can be measured by gauss meter.

32
PROCEDURE:
1.Switch on the electromagnet and set suitable magnetic field (about 3 k
gauss) and measure it correctly.
2.Insert the sample between the pole pieces of the electromagnet such that I,
B and V are in mutually perpendicular directions.
3.Keeping the magnitude of magnetic field constant, measure hall voltage
as a function of I, Measure VH for all the possible direction combinations of
I and B viz. (+I, +B), (-I, +B), (+I, -B), (-I, -B).
4.Plot VH as a function of I using the averaged data of VH noted in the table.
Calculate the value of Hall coefficient from the slope of the graph. Hence
determine charge carrier density and type of majority carrier in the given
material.

33
TO DETERMINE THE HALL VOLTAGE
Current VH1 VH2 VH3 VH4 Average

S.No.
I(mA) (+I, +B) (-I, +B) (+I, -B) (-I, -B) VH
Precautions:
Switch on the current through sample and measure the hall voltage without any
magnetic field. There may be some voltage due to misalignment of pressure
contacts on the sample. This error must be subtracted from the readings.
Results:
From the sign of the Hall voltage, write your comments about the properties
of given specimen.
For the given sample, RH =
Free carrier density, n = 1 = m-3

 eRH 
Type of majority carrier =

34
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Hall effect

2. What is Hall voltage?
3. What are the uses of finding the Hall coefficient?
4. For a material, if the Hall coefficient has positive sign, what do you
infer?

37
6.PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
AIM:
1.To understand the phenomenon Photoelectric effect as a whole.

2.To draw kinetic energy of photoelectrons as a function of frequency of
incident radiation.
3.To determine the Planck's constant from kinetic energy versus frequency
graph.
4.To plot a graph connecting photocurrent and applied potential.
5.To determine the stopping potential from the photocurrent versus applied
potential graph.
THEORY:
During his experiments on electromagnetic radiation (to demonstrate light consists

of e-m waves), Hertz noticed a spark between the two metallic balls when a high
frequency radiation incident on it. This is called photoelectric effect. Photoelectric
effect is the emission of electrons when electromagnetic radiations having
sufficient frequency incident on certain metal surfaces. We call the emitted
electrons as photoelectrons and the current they constitute as photocurrent. The
phenomenon was first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1880 and explained by Albert
Einstein in 1905 using Max Planck's quantum theory of light. As the first
experiment which demonstrated the quantum theory of energy levels, photoelectric
effect experiment is of great historical importance.
The important observations on Photoelectric effect which demand

quantum theory for its explanation are:
The Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous phenomenon. There is no time delay

between the incidence of light and emission of photoelectrons.
38
1. The number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to the intensity of

incident light. Also, the energy of emitted photoelectrons is
independent of the intensity of incident light.
2. The energy of emitted photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of incident light.
The basic experimental set up which explains Photoelectric effect is as given

below,
It has been observed that there must be a minimum

energy needed for electrons to escape from a particular
metal surface and is called work function 'W' for that
metal. The work function can be expressed in terms of
frequency as,

39
Where h is the Planck's constant and νo is the threshold frequency (minimum

frequency for photoelectric effect).
According to Einstein the Photoelectric effect should obey the equation,
From the above expression,
Which says the graph connecting the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons 'KEmax' and frequency of incident radiation' 'will be a straight line
with slope and Y-intercept = work function.
GRAPH CONNECTING 'KEMAX' AND FREQUENCY:
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons versus frequency of incident radiation

graph Now, if we increase the reverse potential, the photocurrent gradually
decreases and becomes zero at a particular reverse potential. This minimum
applied reverse potential is called stopping potential V0. Hence the maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons can be written as,

40
Graph connecting photocurrent and applied reverse potential:
For constant intensity and different frequencies
FOR CONSTANT FREQUENCY AND DIFFERENT INTENSITIES

41
6. CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER
AIM
To study the voltage-current characteristics of LASER source
APPARATUS
Millivoltmeter, microammeter, light emitting diode and low intensity laser, power
supply, connecting wires.
THEORY
In LASER, the input supply is electrical energy and the output from these is light
energy. That is, LASER convert the electrical energy into light energy. A laser beam
is highly coherent, monochromatic and intense and hence should not be seen
directly with eye. The volt- ampere characteristics of these two devices are studied
here and comparison is made between these devices.
PROCEDURE
The circuit diagram id connected as shown in the figure. 1.0 to 10 v D.C power
supply is connected to a LASER and a micro ammeter in series as shown in
figure.
A Millivoltmeter is connected across the terminals of the LASER. The power is

switched ON, and varied slowly. The reading in the micro ammeter and the reading
in the miili voltmeter is noted. The procedure is repeated by slowly varying the
power supply and at each step the reading of the micro ammeter

42
and Millivoltmeter are recorded. The readings are tabulated in Table-I and a graph
is drawn between voltage and current.

43
TABLE
Reading in the Milli
Voltage across
ammeter
S.No LASER
For LASER
(in volts)
(in mA)
1 1.4
2 1.6
3 1.8
4 2.0
5 2.2
6 2.4
7 2.6
8 2.8
9 3.0
10 3.2
11 3.4
12 3.6
Result: - I-V Characteristics given LASER were verified and threshold

voltages of were found as
Threshold voltage of given LASER is = V

44
Q. Define LASER?
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. It is a device which produces a powerful, monochromatic collimated
beam of light in which the waves are coherent.
Q. What is meant by active material in laser?

The material in which the population inversion is achieved is called active
material.
Q. What is semiconductor diode laser?

Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn junction diode. It emits
laser light when it is forward biased.
Q. What are the characteristic of laser radiation?

Laser radiations have high intensity, high coherence, monochromatic and high
directionality with less divergence.
Q. What is stimulated emission?

The process of forced emission of photons caused by incident photons is called
stimulated emission.
Q. What do you understand by the term LASER?

A. The term LASER stands for Light Amplification By Stimulated emission of
Radiation.
Q. What is the requirement to produce laser beam?

A. The requirement to produce laser beam is achievement of population
inversion for which existence of metastable state is must in working substance
of laser.
Q. What do you understand by population inversion?

A. The situation in which the number of atoms in the excited state are
considerably greater than the number of atoms in ground state is called
population inversion.
Q. What is Pumping?
A. The process of achieving population inversion is called pumping.
Q. What are the various techniques of pumping?
A. The main pumping schemes are optical pumping, by electric discharge, by
inelastic atom - atom collision and chemical pumping.

45
Q. What are the main properties of laser beam?

A. Laser beam in highly coherent, perfectly monochromatic, unidirectional and
highly intense.
Q. Differentiate between Laser beam and ordinary light beam.

A. Laser beam in highly coherent, perfectly monochromatic, unidirectional and
highly intense while ordinary light beam is incoherent, nearly monochromatic,
emitted in all directions and less intense.
Q. Write some uses of laser?

A. Lasers are used as coherent and monochromatic source, for measuring long
distances ,for hole drilling and in surgical operations.
Q. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emissions?

A. Both are emission transitions in which spontaneous is non-external
triggering radiation, while stimulated is a triggering radiation.

47
8. OPTICAL FIBRE BENDING LOSSES

OF OPTICAL FIBERS
AIM:
To measure the bending losses in the optical fiber cable at different wave
lengths and also as a function of bend radius.
APPARATUS:
Optical fiber cable of different lengths, digital multimeter, D.C power supply,
mandrel, fiber optic module.
PROCEDURE:
The experimental method to determine the linear attenuation characteristics of

a fiber consists of injecting a fixed optical power at a constant wavelength into
fiber with varying lengths and then measuring the transmitted power in each case.
A plot of the relative transmitted power as a function of fiber length is used to
calculate the linear attenuation coefficient of the fiber in dB/m.
P(L)  P0 exp.L

LogP(L)  LogP0 .Log(e)
LogP(L)  LogP0  0.434.L
The white nylon mandrel allows a precise bend radius to be set. Start with one
particular length of optical fiber. Connect the fiber to the source and to the power
meter, make sure that the power meter is set to dB/m and for a particular
wavelength. Try to ensure that there are as few bends as possible in the fiber at
this point. Record the power measured on the power meter as the reference power
level. Now starting with the particular diameter mandrel wrap the fiber once around
the mandrel. Try to keep the fiber in place on the
48
mandrel without too much stress and also within region try to ensure that there is
exactly one turn of fiber on the mandrel. Record the power level in dB and note the
difference in dB with respect to the no bend reference power level. Now move on to
the next smallest mandrel diameter and repeat the measurement. As you approach
the smallest mandrel diameter to careful not to damage the fiber.
TABLE:
Wavelength =
Length of the cable =
S.No
Mandrel mandrel
P0 PL
Diameter radius

49
8.LCR CIRCUIT
AIM
To study the series and parallel resonance circuit find to and frequency and
quality factor.
APPARATUS
Function generator, an inductance coil, three capacitors, a resistance box,
a.c. voltmeters, multimeter, one a.c. milliammeter, connecting wires.
FORMULA
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT:-
Theoretical
1
The resonance frequency is f0 
2 LC
1 L
Quality factor = Q 
 R C
Where f0 is the resonance frequency
L is the inductance
C is the capacitance
R is the resistance and
EXPERIMENTAL (FROM GRAPH)

The resonance frequency of the circuit f 0= Hz
Band width of the resonant circuit   f 2  f1  Hz

f0 f
Quality factor Q   0 
f2  f1 
PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUIT:-
THEORETICAL
2
1 1 R
The resonance frequency is f0   2
2 LC L

50
f0 f
Quality factor = Q   0
f2  f1 


Where f0 is the resonance frequency
L is the inductance
C is the capacitance
R is the resistance and
EXPERIMENTAL (FROM GRAPH)

The resonance frequency of the circuit f 0= kHz
Band width of the resonant circuit   f 2  f1  kHz
f0 f
Quality factor Q   0 
f2  f1 


ff is the band width and f , f can be obtained for graph.
2 1 1 2
THEORY:-
Circuits containing an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R, have special
characteristics useful in many applications. Their frequency characteristics
(impedance, voltage, or current vs. frequency) have a sharp maximum or minimum
at certain frequencies. These circuits can hence be used for selecting or rejecting
specific frequencies and are also called tuning circuits. These circuits are therefore
very important in the operation of television receivers, radio receivers, and
transmitters. In this section, we will present two types of LCR circuits, viz., series
and parallel, and also discuss the formulae applicable for typical resonant circuits.
A series LCR circuit includes a series combination of an inductor, resistor and
capacitor whereas; a parallel LCR circuit contains a parallel combination of inductor
and capacitor with the resistance placed in series with the inductor. Both series
and parallel resonant circuits may be found in radio receivers and transmitters.

51
SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT:-
Circuit having an inductance L, capacitance C and resistance R in series is

as shown in fig.
A parallel resonant circuit is shown in fig. Here an inductance L and a resistance

R are connected in series in one branch and a condenser of capacity C in another
branch. A source of alternating e.m.f is connected to this circuit.
PROCEDURE:-
SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT:-
1.Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2.Apply input signal using signal generator.

52
3.Take the output across the resistor and feed it to Ammeter input sockets.
4.Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records a sharp rise and fall, adjust the
signal such that the Ammeter defection is the maximum possible. This is the
resonant frequency of the connected combination of the circuit.
5.Adjust the signal generator amplitude such that to get full-scale deflection. In
Ammeter now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls considerably. Then
increase the frequency in regular intervals & note down the Ammeter readings.
6. Plot a graph between the meter defection divisions and frequency.
7.Repeat the procedure using different combinations of L, C & R and study how
Q is affected. Also study how Resonant Frequency depends upon different
combinations of L.C.R.
1.Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2.Apply input signal, from a reliable signal generator. The output should
be 10V only.
3.Take the output across the tank circuit and connect to Ammeter input
sockets.
4.Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records sharp fall. Adjust the signal such
that the deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency in
regular intervals and note down the deflection.
5.Adjust the signal generators amplitude such that, to get full-scale deflection.
Now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls down considerably. Then
increase the frequency in regular intervals & note down the deflection.
6.Plot graph between the meter deflection divisions and frequency.
7.Repeat the procedure for different values of R and study how Q is affected.
Also study how resonant frequency depends on different combinations of L.C.R.

53
GRAPH:
For series resonant circuit parallel resonant circuit
OBSERVATIONS:-
L1 = 2.5mH C1 = 0.1 µF R1 = 100Ω
L2 = 5.0mH C2= 0.22µF R2 = 150 Ω
L3 = 7.5mH C3= 0.47 µF R3 = 220 Ω
RESULT:
The resonance frequency of LCR series circuit is =
The quality factor for LCR in series circuit is =
The resonance frequency of LCR parallel circuit is =
The quality factor for LCR in series parallel is =

54
TABLE 1: SERIES RESONANCE

Sl.
No. L1 = C1 = R1 = L2= C2= R2= L3 = C3 = R3 =
2K
1 2K 2K
3K
2 3K 3K
4K
3 4K 4K
5K
4 5K 5K
6K
5 6K 6K
7K
6 7K 7K
7 8K 8K 8K
8 9K 9K 9K
9 10K 10K 10K
10 11K 11K 11K
11 12K 12K 12K
12 13K 13K 13K
13 14K 14K 14K
14 15K 15K 15K
15 16K 16K 16K
16 17K 17K 17K
17 18K 18K 18K
18 19K 19K 19K
19 20K 20K 20K
20 30K

55
TABLE 2: PARALLEL RESONANCE
Sl. No. L1= C1= R1=

L2 = C2= R2= L 3= C3= R3=
1 2K
2K 2K
2 3K
3K 3K
3 4K
4K 4K
4 5K
5K 5K
5 6K
6K 6K
6 7K
7K 7K
7
8K 8K 8K
8
9K 9K 9K
9
10K 10K 10K
10
11K 11K 11K
11
12K 12K 12K
12
13K 13K 13K
13 14K
14K 14K
14
15K 15K 15K
15
16K 16K 16K
16
17K 17K 17K
17
18K 18K 18K
18
19K 19K 19K
19
20K 20K 20K

56
Q. What is meant by natural frequency?

Ans. If the damping is made zero then the response oscillates with natural frequency
without any opposition, such a frequency is called natural frequency of oscillations,
denoted as ώn.
Q. What is the purpose of Capacitors?

Ans : Capacitors are used to store electrical energy.
Q. What the resistor will do?

Ans : It will oppose the current.
Q. What is the purpose of Inductors?

Ans : Inductors are also used to store electrical energy but in capacitors the
energy is stored in electric fields and in inductors the energy is stored in
magnetic fields.
Q. Define resistance, reactance and impedance.
Ans. Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrons (current) through the
material. Reactance is the circuit element to a change in current or voltage.
Impedance is the total opposition that a circuit gives to a current when voltage is
applied.
There are two basic types of reactance: Capacitive reactance and inductive
reactance.The formula for calculating inductive reactance is as follows:
XL = 2*pi*f*L
The formula for capacitive reactance is similar, but there's a twist to it:
1
XC = --------
2*pi*f*C
Impedance is defined as
Z = R + jX and magnitude is given by √𝑅2 + 𝑋2.

57
Q. What will happen if both capacitor and inductor are connected in a

circuit?
A. When a capacitor and an inductor are combined in a single circuit the energy
can be traded back and forth between them at any given time. This leads to
oscillations in the circuit.
Example: radio receiver.
Q. What is quality factor?

A. It is the ratio between resonant frequencies to the band width. i.e., 𝑄 =
𝑓0/Δ𝑓 Where Δ𝑓 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
Q. What is impedance?
A. It is the ratio between maximum voltage values to the current value. Z = Vmax /
I.
Q. What is resonant frequency?
A. The maximum / minimum current occurs at particular frequency in the circuit
is known as resonant frequency.
Q. What is the relation between impedance and current in this series

circuit?
A. Inversely proportional because in LCR series circuit the impedance is minimum
at resonant but we get maximum current at that particular resonant. That means
if the current is less the impedance is high and if the current is more the
impedance is less.
Q. What is he status of a current in series and parallel connections?

A. In series the current will be maximum and in parallel the current will be
minimum.

58
Explain the following terms.

i) Quality factor of a circuit: The quality factor is a measure of the efficiency of
energy stored in an inductor or capacitor when an alternating current is applied.
This is defined as 2𝜋 times the ratio of the energy stored to the average energy
loss per period.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑄 =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
1
𝐿𝑖2 𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝑄 = 2𝜋𝑓 × 12 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑅𝑖 2 𝑅 𝑅
2
Quality factor may also be defined as the ratio of reactance of either inductance
or capacitance at the resonant frequency to the circuit. The sharpness of
resonance is defined as the rapidity with which the current falls from its value
(𝜖0/𝑅) with change in applied frequency.
ii) Band width: The difference of two half power frequencies that is,
(𝑓2 − 𝑓1) is called as band width of the resonance curve. Band width
= 𝑓2 − 𝑓1=
𝑓0/𝑄= 𝑓0𝑅 = 𝑅
𝜔 0𝐿 2𝜋𝐿
iii) Series resonant circuit:

a) Series resonant frequency is given by 𝑓𝑟 = 1
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
b) At resonant frequency, the power factor is unity and impedance is
purely resistor 𝑍𝑟 = 𝑅.
c) At resonance, the current is maximum and the impedance of the
circuit is minimum.
d) At the resonance, the circuit is called as acceptor because it accepts a
particular frequency and rejects all others.
e) At resonance the circuit exhibits the voltage magnification and it is
equal to quality factor.
Parallel resonant circuit:
2
a) Parallel resonance frequency is given by 𝑓 = 1 √ 1 − 𝑅 .
𝑟 𝐿2 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

59
b) Power factor is also unity but the impedance is 𝑍𝑟 = 𝐿

𝐶𝑅
c) At the resonance the current is minimum and the impedance of the

circuit is maximum.
d) The circuit is called as rejecter because it rejects only one frequency.
e) At resonance the circuit exhibits current magnification and it is equal to
quality factor.
The maximum current occurs at a particular frequency called as
resonant frequency. • The peak of the curve depends on the resistance of
the circuit, where R is low; the peak is high and vice versa. The peak is
known as the sharpness of the resonance. If the high of the peak is
more, then sharper is the resonance.
The series resonant circuit is sometimes called as acceptor circuit, the
reason is that impedance of the circuit is minimum at resonance and due
to this fact it readily accepts that current out of the many currents whose
frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.

60
10. TIME CONSTANT OF RC-CIRCUIT
AIM:
To study the exponential decay of current in a circuit containing resistance and a

capacitance and to determine the time constant.
APPARATUS:-
Battery eliminator, resistors, capacitors, galvanometer, stop clock, tap key,

connecting wires.
THEORY:
The circuit diagram for RC circuit is shown in figure.
When a condenser is discharged through a resistance, the charge falls is
t
q  qo e RC
The rate of discharge is

dq 1 t
 I  qo e RC
dt RC
t
I  I o e RC
When t  RC then I  0.368Io

61
The time constant is equal to the time, taken to decrease the charge of ‘e’ part of
the maximum charge. It is equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of 0.368
part of maximum charge.
EXPECTED GRAPHS
A graph is drawn by taking time on x-axis and decay of currents on y-axis. Draw
an intercept to the X-axis as shown in the graph the corresponding t gives the
time constant
RESULT
Time Constant
S.No
R in Ohms C in
microfarads Theoretical Experimental
τ =RC (from graph)
1 56 X 103 4700 X 10-6
2 68X 103 2200 X 10-6
3 80 X 103 1000 X 10-6

62
TABLE:
Curre
nt ( 
A)
S.No Time (Sec)
SET-1 SET-2 SET-3
R1= 56 k R2 = 68 k R3 = 80 k
ohms ohms ohms
C1=4700 µF C2 = 2200 µF C3 =1000
µF
1 0
2 20
3 40
4 60
5 80
6 100
7 120
8 140
9 160
10 180
11 200
12 220
13 240
14 260
15 280
16 300
17 320
18 340
19 360
20 380
21 400
22 420
23 440
24 460

63
Q. What is charge?
Ans. The charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists. The unit of charge is the coulomb.
Q. Define current?
Ans. The flow of free electrons in a metal is called electric current. The unit of current is
the ampere. Current (I) = Q/t, Where Q is total charge transferred & T is time required for
transfer of charge.
Q. What is voltage?
Ans. The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit called voltage. The
unit of voltage is volt. It is represented by V OR v. Voltage = W/Q = work done/Charge
Q. Define power.
Ans. The rate of doing work of electrical energy or energy supplied per unit time is
called the power. The power denoted by either P of p. It is measured in Watts. (W).
Power = work done in electric circuit/Time
P = dw/dt = dw/dq.dq/dt or P = VI
Q. Define unilateral and bilateral elements.

Ans. In unilateral element, voltage – current relation is not same for both the
direction. Example: Diode, Transistors.In bilateral element, voltage – current
relation is same for both the direction. Example: Resistor
Q. Define linear and non-linear elements.

Ans. If the element obeys superposition principle, then it is said to be linear elements.
Example: Resistor.
If the given network is not obeying superposition principle then it is said to be non
linear elements. Example: Transistor, Diode.
Q. Define time constant of RC Circuit.

Ans. The time taken to reach (𝑒−1)36.78% of initial current in an RC circuit is called
the time constant of
RC circuit.Time constant (t) = RC.

64
VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

Deshmukhi(V),Pochampally(M),
HYDERABAD, TELANGANA – 508 218
VISION OF THE INSTITUTE:
To evolve into a center of excellence in Science & Technology through creative

and innovative practices in teaching learning promoting academic achievement &
research excellence to produce internationally accepted competitive and world
class professionals who are psychologically strong and emotionally balanced
imbued with social consciousness and ethical values.
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE:
To provide high quality academic programmes, training activities, research

facilities and opportunities supported by continuous industry institute interaction
aimed at employability, entrepreneurship, and research aptitude among students
and contribute to the economic and technological development of the region, state
and nation.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
SNO COURSE COUTCOMES
Ability to find the Iron, Copper, Manganese and chloride ions

CO-1 present in unknown substances / ores using titrimetric and
instrumental methods.
Students are able to determine the hardness present in the

CO-2 different water samples and also ability to prepare advanced
polymeric materials.
Handling different types of instruments for analysis of materials

using small quantities of materials involved for quick and
CO-3
accurate results and also ability to select lubricants for various
purposes.
The students will be able to analyze the physical principle

CO-4 involved in the various instruments, also relate the principle to
new application.

65
CO-PO-MAPPING
CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO-1 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2
CO-2 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2
CO-3 3 2 3 2 3 - 2 1 1 1 2 2
CO-4 3 3 2 - 3 2 2 - 1 1 - 2
Average 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 2
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1.Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution
of complex engineering problems.
2.Problem analysis: Identify, formulate review research literature and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using
first principle of mathematics, natural science and engineering science.
3.Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4.Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge

and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
5.Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,

resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual

knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and
the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
7.Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental

66
contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8.Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and

responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9.Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a

member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering

activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as,
being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
11.Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and

understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these
to one's own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and
in multidisciplinary environments.
12.Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and
ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context
of technological change.

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1

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

I B.TECH II SEM - 2018 - 2019

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Name of the student:……………………………………….

Roll Number: ………………………………….....

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

1. A prior study about the experiment is essential for good performance in

2. Attend the Lab sessions in time.

4. Switch-off your mobile phones when you are in the lab.

responsible for your apparatus in your lab session.

9. At least one set of observation should be signed by the instructor.

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB

(Any Eight experiments compulsory)

S.No Name of the experiment Page. No

1) Energy gap of a material of p-n junction. 5

2) V-I characteristics of a solar cell. 11

3) Light emitting diode: Plot V-I characteristics of light emitting

5) Hall Co-efficient of a given Semiconductor - Hall Effect 31

6) Work function of a given material – Photoelectric Effect 37

7) Characteristics of LASER Sources 41

8) Bending losses of Optical fibres - Optical fibre. 47

9) L-C-R circuit – Resonance & Q-factor. 49

10)Charging, discharging and time constant of an R-C circuit. 59

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED

S.No Date Name of the Experiment Signature

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

1.ENERGY GAP OF A SEMI CONDUCTOR

AIM: To determine the energy gap of a given semiconductor diode.

Germanium diode, Thermometer, Copper Vessel, Regulated DC power supply,

Micro ammeter, Heater & Bakelite lid, 2T oil.

vessel till temperature reaches up to 800 C , note the thermometer reading

temperature reaches the room temperature.

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

A graph is plotted between ( log10 Is ) and l/T(k) is a straight line. Slope is

on the straight line as shown in the fig.

2.303 X Slope X Boltz man ' sconstnt

Boltz’s man’s constant = 1.38 X 10-23 J/K ( 1 eV = 1.6 X10-19 Jouls)

Eg = 1.9863 X 10-4 X slope

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

RESULT: The energy gap of the p-n junction material is ............... eV

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. What do you mean by energy band gap?

Q. How does it depend on the metals?

Q. What type of oil you are using?

Q. Water cannot be used in place of oil, why?

Q. How are the conductor, insulator and semi-conductor differentiated

Q. What is meant by valence band, conduction band and forbidden band?

Q. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors?

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

Q. What la a n-type semi-conductor?

Q. What is a p-type semi-conductor?

Q. Why does a semi-conductor behave like an insulator at absolute zero

Q. What is order of thick ness of a depletion layer?

Q. What is meant by forward and reverse biasing of a junction diode?

Q. What is meant by potential barrier in semi-conductors?

VIGNAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE-HYD

AIM: To plot the V-I characteristics of solar cell.

APPARATUS: Micro board consists of

1. Solar cell/ Photo voltaic cell mounted on the wooden base.