Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98

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Journal of Cereal Science

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Extrusion processing characteristics of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa

Willd.) var. Cherry Vanilla
Ryan J. Kowalski a, Ilce Gabriela Medina-Meza a, Bhim B. Thapa a, Kevin M. Murphy b,
Girish M. Ganjyal a, *
a
School of Food Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
b
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Extrusion processing characteristics of Cherry Vanilla quinoa flour (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) were
Received 24 August 2015 investigated using a three factor response surface design to assess the impact of feed moisture, tem-
Received in revised form perature, and screw speed on the physicochemical properties of quinoa extrudates. Specific mechanical
14 May 2016
energy (SME) required to extrude this quinoa variety was higher (250e500 kJ/kg) than previously re-
Accepted 19 May 2016
Available online 20 May 2016
ported for quinoa. The following characteristics of the extrudates were observed: expansion ratio (1.17
e1.55 g/cm3), unit density (0.45e1.02 g/cm3), water absorption index (WAI) (2.33e3.05 g/g), and water
solubility index (WSI) (14.5e15.87%). This quinoa flour had relatively low direct expansion compared to
Keywords:
Quinoa
cereal grains such as corn or wheat, suggesting that it is not well suited for the making of direct
Extrusion processing expanded products. The study further suggests that there is a need to understand the processing
Expansion characteristics of new quinoa varieties for cultivation. Understanding extrusion and other quality traits in
Saponins advance will help to select the appropriate varieties that would allow food processors to meet consumer
needs.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Processing of cereal grains and pseudo-cereals into products

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudo-cereal that has
been cultivated in the Andean region of South America for more
than 7000 years (Pearsall, 2008). Quinoa is composed mainly of
carbohydrates (60e75%), of which 10e13% is dietary fiber. Quinoa
also has a slightly higher protein content (12e16%) compared with
cereal grains and fat content (5e9%) that is rich in unsaturated fatty
acids. Quinoa seeds contain similar or slightly higher amounts of
bioactive compounds such as polyphenols (2.7e3.8 g/kg) (Vega-
Ga
lvez et al., 2010). Moreover, quinoa is gluten-free, thus
providing the ability to enhance the selection of gluten-free prod-
ucts for consumers with celiac disease. The external layers of
quinoa seeds also contain a class of compounds known as saponins
(5.6e7.5%), which have an intensely bitter flavor that is not desir-
able by consumers. Saponins are traditionally removed by washing
the grains in running water or alkaline water, although other pro-
cessing methods have been explored (Ridout et al., 1991).
* Corresponding author. FSHN 110, Pullman WA 99164, USA, 99164.
E-mail address: girish.ganjyal@wsu.edu (G.M. Ganjyal).
that deliver a nutritive value to consumers represents a consider-
able opportunity for large scale food processing. There have been
some reported studies on roasting, extrusion, steam pre-
conditioning and pearling of quinoa for further uses (Brady et al.,
2007; Gomez-Caravaca et al., 2014). A majority of this research
provides preliminary information specific to a few quinoa varieties.
Some of these studies do not report the varieties studied, however,
many varieties of quinoa can differ greatly in the chemical
composition and carbohydrate characteristics (Lindeboom et al.,
2005). Developing a better understanding of these new varieties
before they are released for broad cultivation will help to determine
and find appropriate end-uses. A critical component of this is un-
derstanding the processing characteristics of different lines of
quinoa, as well as the effects of processing on the levels of the
bioactive compounds, such as total phenolics.
Extrusion is a versatile food manufacturing technique that offers
flexible processing of food with diverse textures and shapes. The
process involves subjecting the food to heat, mechanical energy,
and pressure as it is passed through a single screw, or set of screws,
enclosed in a barrel, and finally forcing the food through a die
where the shaping of the final product takes place (Akdogan, 1996;

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2016.05.024
0733-5210/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
92 R.J. Kowalski et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98
Ganjyal and Hanna, 2002). Extrusion cooking can be advantageous
compared to other food-processing techniques due to the short
processing time and its continuous nature. Extrusion system
operating parameters can be altered in many ways including: screw
speed, barrel temperature, screw configuration, and die geometry.
These variables can alter important system response parameters
such as mechanical and thermal energy input (Godavarti and
Karwe, 1997). The final product characteristics are dependent
upon both the independent parameters along with the system
parameters described above. Extensive studies on extrusion pro-
cessing of cereals, either alone or in combination, such as corn
(Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1988), wheat (Kowalski et al., 2015), and
rice (Hagenimana et al., 2006) to produce ready-to-eat snacks and
breakfast cereals have been reported, but few studies are reported
for quinoa.
The few studies that have evaluated the effect of specific pro-
cessing conditions on physical characteristics of the quinoa extru-
dates (Dogan and Karwe, 2003) or compositional properties of
quinoa such as terpenoid content (Brady et al., 2007). The study by
Dogan and Karwe (2003) is one of the few on quinoa extrusion.The
study utilized a co-rotating twin screw extruder with a screw
diameter of 30.7 mm, along with feed moistures ranging from 16 to
24% w.b., die temperatures ranging from 130 to 170
C, and screw
speeds ranging from 250 to 500 rpm. Within literature, there re-
mains a lack of information of how physical characteristics of
extruded quinoa would be affected by the variety used, growing
and harvest conditions, milling type or procedure, or the use of
pretreatment of the seeds, such as soaking, prior to extrusion.
The aim of this study is to understand the extrusion cooking
characteristics of quinoa flour (var. Cherry Vanilla) using response
surface methodology and provide information on a single variety of
quinoa so that specific varieties can begin to be compared and
identified. The quinoa was extruded in a co-rotating twin screw
extruder under a wide range of conditions. Extrudate properties
including physical and mechanical properties were evaluated.
Further, the chemical stability of bioactive compounds (phenols
and saponins) at different extrusion processing conditions was
determined.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw materials
Quinoa (var. Cherry Vanilla) was grown in Albion, WA (46.7925

N, 117.2506
W). Quinoa was planted on 25th April 2013 at a seeding
rate of 5.6 kg/ha. The quinoa was fertilized at a rate of 89.6 kg/ha
nitrogen, 22.4 kg/ha phosphorus, and 22.4 kg/ha sulfur. There was
44.8 kg/ha of residual nitrogen in the soil prior to planting and
fertilization. The quinoa was harvested on 13th September 2013
and stored in a dry environment at room temperature until milling.
2.1.1. Proximate analysis
Quinoa flour was prepared using a roller mill (Bühler Inc.,
Minneapolis, MN, USA) equipped with a 355 mm mesh size. Frac-
tions obtained from the bran stream were removed from the quinoa
flour being used. Ash and moisture content of quinoa flour were
tested according to the Approved Method 08e01.01 and 44e15.02,
respectively (AACCI, 2012). Protein content was determined by a
nitrogen analyzer coupled with a thermoconductivity detector
(LECO Corp., St. Joseph, MI, U.S.A.). A factor of 6.25 was used to
calculate the protein content from the nitrogen content (Approved
Method 46e30.01; AACCI, 2012). Fat and starch content were found
according to AACCI approved method 30e10.01 and 76e13.01
respectively and fiber content was calculated by difference.
Apparent amylose content was found according to Mestres et al.
(1996). All tests were done in triplicate and values were calcu-
lated on a dry weight basis.
2.2. Extruder and processing conditions
Extrusion was performed using an 18 mm co-rotating twin
screw extruder (ZSE 18 HP, American Leistritz Extruder Corp,
Somerville, NJ, USA). The extruder consisted of four independent
temperature zones plus a feed zone. The overall length of the
extruder barrel was 504 mm giving a length to diameter (L/D) ratio
of 28:1. The screws used had a modulated screw profile that was
varied during preliminary trials for optimization. All final experi-
mental trials were conducted using the profile shown in Fig. 1. A
cylindrical die with a diameter of 3 mm was used for all extrusion
trials. The temperature profile of the extruder had the feed zone set
at 22
C with the following zones set at 45, 70, 100
C, and the last
zone was varied at 120, 140 and 160
C, respectively. The feed rate of
the flour was fixed at 3.0 kg/hr using a twin screw gravimetric
feeder (K-Tron Soder, Coperion K-Tron, Pitman, NJ, USA). The screw
speed of the extruder was varied from 300 to 500 rpm. Continuous
process data was collected from the extruder including zone tem-
peratures, die back pressure, and motor torque using TSCS software
(The Macromatex Twin Screw Control System, LTD Design Services,
NJ, USA). An average of 50 data points taken at 1 s time intervals
during steady state conditions was then used to calculate average
die pressure, and average motor torque. The average values were
then used to calculate Specific Mechanical Energy (SME) as
described in the section below. Extrudates were collected under
steady state conditions of pressure, torque, and temperature (after
5 min of steady state processing) and dried in a convection oven
(Model # 414004-568, VWR International, LLC, PA, USA) at 45
C for
18 h yielding an average moisture content of 4e6% (w.b.). The dried
extrudates were then stored in air tight plastic bags at 4
C for
further analysis.
2.3. Experimental design
A three factor, full factorial response surface design was used
with replicates being done on 18 D-optimized selected points.
Preliminary extrusion tests were done to determine the levels and
ranges of the factors being used. The factors analyzed included the
effect of feed moisture (X1) at levels of 15, 20 and 25% w.b., tem-
perature (X2) at levels of 120, 140 and 160
C, and screw speed (X3)
at levels of 300, 400 and 500 rpm. The experimental range for
moisture was selected because in preliminary trials, values below
15% w.b. resulted in pressures close to the extruder’s physical limits
while values above 25% resulted in poor direct expansion. The
experimental range for temperature was selected because in pre-
liminary trials, values below 120
C resulted in pressures close to
the extruder’s physical limits while temperatures above 160
C
resulted in material burning. The experimental range for screw
speed was selected because in preliminary trials, values below
300 rpm resulted in torque close to the extruder’s physical limits
and values above 500 approach the maximum screw speed of the
extruder. Regression analysis was modeled using Origin software
(version 9.1, OriginLab Corp., Northampton, MA, USA) using a sec-
ond order polynomial regression model:
X
3 X
3 X
3
Y ¼ b0 þ bi Xi þ bij Xi Xj
i¼1 i¼1 j¼i
The terms bo, bi, bij where i ¼ j, and bij where isj are the co-
efficients for intercept, linear, quadratic, and interactive effects
respectively. The terms Xi and Xj are the independent factors and Y
 R.J. Kowalski et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98
Fig. 1. Screw profile used for all Cherry Vanilla quinoa extrusion trials.
is the response condition being observed (expansion, density, SME,
etc.). Significant coefficients were then defined as p < 0.10.
2.4. Evaluation of mechanical parameters
2.4.1. Specific mechanical energy (SME)
SME is the mechanical energy input per unit mass of extrudate.
It was calculated according (Godavarti and Karwe, 1997).
ðTotal torque  Friction torqueÞ  N  ð4:7Þ
SME ¼
ð71Þ  ð600Þ  mf
Where N is the screw speed (rpm), mf is the total mass flow rate (kg/
s) through the extruder barrel. The maximum power consumption
of the drive motor is 4.7 KW with a maximum screw speed rating of
600 rpm and torque of 71 Nm.
2.5. Evaluation of the physical extrudate parameters
2.5.1. Expansion ratio
Expansion ratio was determined by measuring the mean
diameter of 10 randomly chosen locations on the extrudates with
calipers (Mitutoyo America Corp., Aurora, IL, USA) for a single
process condition and then dividing by the final die diameter of
3 mm.
Mean diameter of the extrudate ðmmÞ
Expansion ratio ¼
Die diameterðmmÞ
2.5.2. Unit density
Unit density of the extrudates was determined in triplicate by a
displacement method using 1.0 mm diameter glass beads (General
Laboratory Supply, Pasadena, TX, USA) according to Ali et al. (1996).
2.5.3. Water solubility index (WSI) and water absorption index
(WAI)
WAI and WSI were determined according to Anderson et al.
(1969). Extrudates were milled using an Udy Mill (Model# 3010-
060, UDY Corporation, Fort Collins, CO, USA) and passed through a
60 mesh screen. A portion of the ground extrudates (2.5 g) was then
placed in 30 mL of 30
C water and mixed intermittently for 30 min.
Samples were then centrifuged for 10 min at 3000  g. WAI was
calculated as the ratio of the mass of the precipitate to the mass of
the original dry weight. WSI was found by removing the superna-
tant and drying overnight. The remaining solids were then
expressed as a percentage of the original sample weight. The ex-
periments were performed in triplicate and the mean values are
reported. The equations used for the calculation of WAI and WSI are
as shown below.
93
ðgÞ Sample Mass with Absorbed Water ðgÞ
WAI ¼
ðgÞ Sample Mass ðgÞ
Sample Mass in Supernatant ðgÞ
WSI ð%Þ ¼  100
Sample Mass ðgÞ
2.5.4. Color
Color of ground quinoa extrudates was measured using Minolta
Chroma Meter (CR-210, Ramsey, NJ, USA) in terms of Hunter Lab
values (L, a, b). Total color change (DE) was calculated using the
following equation:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DE ¼ ðDLÞ2 þ ðDaÞ2 þ ðDbÞ2
Where DL ¼ LL0, Da ¼ a  a0, and Db ¼ b  b0. L0, a0, and b0
represent the color of the original flour before extrusion at the
corresponding moisture levels.
2.6. Evaluation of chemical parameters of the extrudates
2.6.1. Saponin concentration
Saponins from quinoa sample were extracted using ultrasound-
assisted extraction according to the method described by Wu et al.
(2001) with minor modifications. Briefly, 0.4 g of sample was
placed into 50 mL tube and 30 mL of methanol was added. The
sample tubes were immersed in a 2 L sonicator (VWR Symphony
model 97043; 35 kHz of frequency and a maximum peak power of
240 W) and sonicated for 2 h at 25
C. After extraction, sample
tubes were centrifuged at 750  g for 5 min at room temperature.
The supernatant was collected and evaporated to dryness using a
rotary evaporator. The remaining sample was combined with 0.5 ml
of acetonitrile for further analysis. Quantification of saponins was
done according to Brady et al. (2007) with slight modification.
Briefly, an HPLC Waters® system comprised of a 515 pump and
Resolve ™C-18 column (3.9  150 mm X 5 mm). Acetonitrile:Water
(30:70 v/v) was used as mobile phase in isocratic elution (0.75 ml/
min flow rate). Injections of 10 mL were used for each sample. The
saponin peaks were defined as all peaks between an elution time of
4 and 30 min, consisting of numerous peaks, and detected with a
UV detector using a wavelength of 254 nm and quantified based
upon calibration peaks using an external olealonic acid standard
(Analytical Standard, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). All sam-
ples were run in duplicate.
2.6.2. Total phenolic content
Total phenolic content was determined using the Folin-
Ciocalteu method. Ground extrudates (100 g) were extracted with
methanol (500 mL) by stirring for 2 h at room temperature. One
milliliter of the supernatant was diluted 1:4 in reagent grade
Methanol to which 0.5 mL of Folin-Ciocalteu phenol reagent (2.0 N)
and 3.0 mL of Na2CO3 (200 g L1) were added in the given order.
94 R.J. Kowalski et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98

Table 1 from drive motor into the extruded raw material. SME is an
Proximate composition and physicochemical properties of Cherry Vanilla quinoa important factor as it indirectly affects the final product quality. In
flour.
general, the extent of flour breakdown increases with increased
Proximate composition Mean ± SD (n ¼ 3) SME input, which further affects the extrudate properties
Moisture 8.39 ± 0.16 (Godavarti and Karwe, 1997). The SME value varied from 234 to
Protein 12.39 ± 0.03 536 kJ/kg Fig. 2A shows that SME was higher at high screw speeds
Starch 51.40 ± 0.74 and high temperatures, which can be attributed to the fact that the
Fat 6.96 ± 0.13
extrusion melt had to be pushed through the extruder at a faster
Crude fiber 18.98 ± 0.70
Ash 1.88 ± 0.14 rate. Regression analysis (Table 2) shows that feed moisture (M)
Amylose content (%) 9.99 ± 0.71 and temperature (T) had significant linear effects (p < 0.01) on SME
Total phenolic (mg/100 g gac d.b.) 20.61 ± 0.48 followed by screw speed (S) (p < 0.05). Temperature also displayed
All values are on a dry basis (%) and are the mean ± SD of three separate a significant quadratic effect and interactive effects were significant
measurements. between temperature and moisture and moisture and screw speed.
In general, most values observed for specific conditions were
higher compared to similar conditions in previous work by Dogan
The suspension was vortexed and then incubated for 15 min at and Karwe (2003). This may be attributed to the differences in
room temperature. The suspension was then diluted with 10 mL of the physical properties of the quinoa tested and differences in
deionized water and centrifuged for 5 min at 3000  g. The chemical composition, as well as the size and type of extruder. The
absorbance at 725 nm was measured in an Ultrospec 4000 UVevis extruder used by Dogan and Karwe (2003) was also a co-rotating
spectrophotometer (Pharmacia, New York, NY, USA). Methanol was twin screw extruder, but was larger in size with a screw diameter
used as a blank. Phenol content was determined from a standard of 30.7 mm and length of 878 mm, as opposed to the one utilized in
curve of gallic acid and results expressed as mg gallic acid equiv- this study with a diameter 18 mm of and a length of 504 mm. The
alents (GAE) g1 dry basis. All samples were tested in triplicate. values obtained for the specific mechanical energy were lower than
that reported for cereal grains, such as wheat and corn
3. Results and discussion (Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1988; Kowalski et al., 2015).

3.1. Raw material analysis
Experimental results of the proximate analysis of quinoa flour
(Cherry Vanilla variety) (n ¼ 3) are shown in Table 1. The protein
content (%N  6.25) was 12.39 ± 0.03 (% db), fat content was
6.96 ± 0.13 (% db) and the crude fiber was 18.98 ± 0.70 (% db). In one
of the reported studies on characterization of whole seeds of
different quinoa varieties, Cherry Vanilla variety (whole seed) had a
higher protein (16%) and ash (2.39%) content compared to the
experimental results found. The differences in the composition
could be the result of roller milling removing some of the outer
pericarp in preparation of the quinoa flour compared to the whole
seeds analyzed used by Wu et al. (2014).
3.2. Evaluation of process parameters
3.2.1. Specific mechanical energy (SME)
Specific mechanical energy (SME) is the amount of work input
3.2.2. Die back pressure (BP) and motor torque (MT)
Die back pressure and motor torque are important system pa-
rameters that affect the extrudate quality and understanding of
how it is being processed (Akdogan, 1996). Die back pressure (BP)
and motor torque (MT) ranged from 559 to 1700 psi and 17.5 to
29.5 Nm respectively. BP dropped from approximately 1370 to 570
psi with change in moisture from 15 to 25%, respectively across
multiple screw speeds, as seen in Fig. 2B. High moisture and high
temperature promote a decrease in the melt viscosity, resulting in a
decrease in BP. Consequently, moisture and temperature both had
significant linear effects (Table 2) with a significant interactive ef-
fect between the two.
Torque values exhibited significant linear effects from all three
extrusion parameters tested: moisture, temperature, and screw
speed. The largest changes occurred with change in screw speed.
Overall, the torque values ranged from 18.1 to 26.1 Nm. A slight
decrease in torque values was also noticed with low moisture and
high screw speed, with the trend similar to that observed for SME.

Fig. 2. Responses for the extrusion conditions of Cherry Vanilla quinoa for (A) specific mechanical energy (SME) as a response of temperature and screw speed and (B) die back
pressure as a response of moisture content and screw speed.
 R.J. Kowalski et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98 95

Table 2
Coefficients determined for response variables through coded regression analysis of extrusion factors.

Level SME (kJ/ Pressure Motor Radial Density (g/ WAI (g/g) WSI (%) Color Color Color Color Total Saponins (mg/
kg) (psi) torque (%) expansion ratio cm3) (DE) (L) (a) (b) phenolics 100 g)
(mg/100 g
gac)

C 310.29*** 847.76*** 21.55*** 1.49*** 0.656*** 2.82*** 14.87*** 11.09*** 88.31*** 0.571*** 21.84*** 12.62*** 3.27
M 46.36*** 376.67*** 0.768** 0.00520 0.0551** 0.0646 0.236*** 3.34*** 0.508*** 0.334*** 0.653*** 0.759* 3.434**
T 48.17*** 120.88*** 0.856** 0.0594*** 0.0993*** 0.114*** 0.181*** 0.344*** 0.654*** 0.359*** 0.660*** 0.901** 4.33***
S 38.52** 5.22 2.09*** 0.055** 0.0570** 0.0221 0.0111 0.0459 0.165 0.0133 0.148 0.207 5.26***
M  M 29.03 146.40** 0.459 0.165*** 0.141*** 0.133* 0.389*** 1.24*** 0.475* 0.210 0.0396 0.522 5.03*
TT 72.87** 33.05 1.364** 0.00179 0.0141 0.0996 0.0600 0.115 0.175 0.0769 0.0793 0.514 1.13
SS 13.18 21.62 0.544 0.0206 0.0231 0.0006 0.0609 0.160 0.217 0.0178 0.0998 0.0767 5.48**
MT 87.90*** 100.17** 1.869*** 0.0858*** 0.0542* 0.0154 0.140** 0.153 0.0458 0.154 0.0569 0.743 2.71
MS 42.36** 21.04 0.643 0.0135 0.00697 0.0293 0.0866 0.0394 0.126 0.0818 0.234 0.668 1.91
TS 27.73 65.63 0.321 0.0314 0.0372 0.0820* 0.0163 0.0811 0.257 0.118 0.236 0.005 1.60

C: model constant; M, T and S: linear effects of moisture content, die temperature and screw speed, respectively. M  M, T  T and S  S: quadratic effects of moisture content,
die temperature and screw speed, respectively . M  T, M  S and T  S: interaction effects of moisture content and die temperature, moisture content and screw speed, and
die temperature and screw speed, respectively; ***significant at p < 0.01, **significant at p < 0.05, *significant at p < 0.10.

3.3. Evaluation of physical properties of extrudates
3.3.1. Expansion ratio (ER) & unit density (UD)
Expansion ratio (ER) and unit density (UD) are commonly used
to quantify direct expanded extrudate properties. Commonly,
extruded snack products are expected to have a well expanded,
puffed structure in order to be desirable to consumers. More
expansion also helps to reduce the density of the extrudates. High
expansion and low density are the most desired characteristics for
direct expanded products (Luyten et al., 2004). The understanding
of the effects of process parameters on extrudate expansion be-
comes crucial during the extrusion cooking process. The ER of the
extrudates ranged from 1.19 to 1.67. These values are low compared
to many other commonly used flours in extrusion processing, such
as 4.0 for commercial corn starch (Chinnaswamy and Hanna, 1988).
The lower ER values observed for the quinoa may be attributed to
the fact that the quinoa flour had higher amounts of protein, fiber
and fat as compared to cereal grains. High fiber is known to lead to
decreased expansion (Andersson et al., 1981) as well as high protein
(Faubion and Hoseney, 1982). The expansion reduction by fiber may
be because insoluble fiber enriched extrudates tend to retain water
in the fiber matrix during extrusion cooking, thereby reducing the
steam created. Further, the inert fibers tend to be rigid compared to
starch-based polymers, and this may inhibit expansion (Ganjyal
et al., 2004).
ER increased with higher screw speed and exhibited a negative
parabolic trend with moisture content (Fig. 3A). From the SME data
(Fig. 2A), we see that the increase in screw speed led to the increase
in SME. This suggests that higher mechanical energy led to higher
mechanical breakdown of the starch polymers leading to increase
in expansion ratio. This mechanical breakdown has been previously
witnessed and explained by Gomez and Aguilera (1984). From the
results obtained, the calculated optimum moisture content to
obtain the maximum expansion for Cherry Vanilla quinoa flour was
20.3% (wb).
Further, regression analysis showed that temperature (T) had
significant effect on the ER of quinoa extrudates (p < 0.01) along
with a quadratic effect on moisture (M  M) (Table 2). The
maximum ER obtained was 1.67, which is lower in comparison with
a previous studies of quinoa which reported a value of 3.8 (Dogan
and Karwe, 2003). This difference can possibly be attributed to
the composition of the quinoa used in these studies as well as the
type of extruder. The carbohydrate content in the Cherry Vanilla
quinoa was 67.5% as compared to 70.5% in the quinoa utilized by
Dogan and Karwe (2003). Another critical factor could be crude
fiber content was 18.9% fiber in the quinoa variety studied. This
level of fiber is high compared to findings for other quinoa com-
positions (Repo-Carrasco-Valencia and Serna, 2011) and can reduce
the expansion significantly. Overall, due to the low expansion of
Cherry Vanilla quinoa, it may be better suited to food applications
where this low expansion is desired, such as noodles or as a func-
tional flour in confectionary items.
The unit density (UD) of extrudates is another important quality
parameter of expanded extruded products. UD is often inversely
related with the ER, in illustrating the degree of expansion in
extrudates. The observed value for UD varied from 0.45 to 1.02 g/
cm3. Feed moisture has been recognized as a primary factor
affecting extrudate expansion and density (Akdogan, 1999). Screw
speed, feed moisture, and temperature all exhibited a significant
linear effect on the UD with moisture also exhibiting a significant
quadratic effect and interactive effect with temperature (Table 2).
Dogan and Karwe (2003) reported lower density of the quinoa
extrudates (0.117 g/cm3) with 17.1% feed moisture, 161
C die
temperature, and 392 rpm screw speed while the results obtained
in the current study show that Cherry Vanilla quinoa demonstrated
its lowest density of 0.45 g/cm3 at 20.1% feed moisture and the
maximum temperature and screw speed of the range tested
(500 rpm and 160
C).
3.3.2. Water absorption index (WAI) & water solubility index (WSI)
WAI has been generally attributed to the dispersion of starch in
excess water, which can be increased by the degree of starch
damage due to gelatinization and extrusion. On the other hand,
water solubility index (WSI) is linked to the quantity of soluble
solids along with starch dextrinization (Gomez and Aguilera, 1984)
and is often used as an indicator of degradation of molecular
components.
WAI and WSI values for all the extrudates ranged from 2.33 to
3.05 (g/g) and from 14.5 to 15.87 (%) respectively. WAI increased
with increasing temperature and screw speed through most of the
experimental range studied and exhibited a maximum within the
moisture range tested (Fig. 3B). This may indicate complete gela-
tinization and the subsequent decrease due to further macromo-
lecular degradation, which increased the solubility of the starch
(Gomez and Aguilera, 1984). Likewise, WSI increased with
increased temperature and screw speed and decreased with
reduced feed moisture. Table 2 shows that temperature (T) had
significant effect (p < 0.01) on WAI, although, temperature and feed
moisture had linear effect (p < 0.01), and quadratic effects (M  M)
on WSI.
The values obtained are lower compared to those reported
previously by Dogan and Karwe (2003) of approximately 4.5 g/g
96 R.J. Kowalski et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98
Fig. 3. Cherry Vanilla quinoa extrudate product responses for (A) radial expansion ratio as a response of moisture content and screw speed, (B) Water Absorption Index (WAI) as a
response of moisture content and temperature, (C) change in color as a response of screw speed and moisture content, and (D) color L value as a response of moisture content and
temperature.
and 28% for WAI and WSI respectively. This can be due to numerous
factors which may include, but are not limited to extrusion process
conditions, gelatinization degree and flour composition, specifically
a lower carbohydrate content.
3.3.3. Color
The color development and change within food products is a
complex phenomenon. Color is a very important factor that relates
to consumer acceptance of food and, therefore, it is important to
understand how it may change through extrusion processing. Dif-
ferences in L value for color ranged from 86.5 to 88.9 (Fig. 3D) and
total color change (DE) in the extrudates ranged from 8.4 to 16.0
(Fig. 3C). DE represents the total color difference compared to the
color of unprocessed quinoa flour. For the extruded Cherry Vanilla
quinoa, the largest changes in color were often associated with a
decrease in L, meaning an increase in the sample darkness. This was
more prevalent at higher moisture contents, as is exemplified by
high DE values and lower L values at high moisture content. It is
known that at lower moisture contents, more energy and higher
temperatures are needed to completely gelatinize starch (Wang
et al., 1992). This suggests that at high moisture contents, the
starch granules may become more gelatinized, which may cause
the reducing ends become more available to chemically react
through various browning reactions. However, browning may also
occur through a variety of other means and more research needs to
be done to confirm or deny this. This could explain why moisture
(M) and temperature (T) had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the
color change and all Hunter color values (Table 2). Further, with (M)
there was a quadratic effect (M X M) with statistical significance
(p < 0.05). However, more insight is needed to fully explain why the
color shifted to a darker region of the spectrum.
3.4. Evaluation of chemical parameters
3.4.1. Saponin content
The quantity of saponins is highly variable among different
quinoa varieties (Wright et al., 2002). Within the Cherry Vanilla
quinoa extrudates, moisture, temperature, and screw speed all
demonstrated significant linear effects while moisture and screw
speed further had significant quadratic effects as seen in Table 2.
The significant linear effect of temperature is of interest, as the
negative correlation demonstrates that the saponin amount can be
lowered with increased heat. The positive linear correlation with
moisture also means that as the moisture decreases, the saponin
content will also decrease. This can be beneficial with direct
expanded products as a lower moisture is generally favored for
increased expansion. Concentrations of saponins for selected
extrusion trials can be seen in Table 3. Similar temperatures to
 R.J. Kowalski et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 70 (2016) 91e98 97

Table 3 of the quinoa that are being tested for cultivation in the US. Un-
Total phenolic content and saponin content of selected quinoa extrudates. derstanding these qualities in advance may help the industry to
Independent Dependent variables select the varieties that would meet the needs of the consumers for
variable nutritious, desirable foods from quinoa.
X1 X2 X3 Total phenolic (mg/g gac) Saponin content (mg/g)

Raw Flour 20.61 ± 0.48b

61.81 ± 12.38g Acknowledgements
25 160 300 14.66 ± 3.67a 1.73 ± 0.20b
25 160 500 11.93 ± 0.10a 9.56 ± 1.40e We would like to thank Craig Morris, USDA ARS, for assistance in
25 120 300 12.40 ± 0.88a 20.44 ± 7.14f
milling of the quinoa seeds into flour as well as Armando McDo-
25 120 500 12.86 ± 0.26a 39.59 ± 18.95fg
20 140 400 12.13 ± 1.48a 3.65 ± 1.72bc nald, University of Idaho, for assistance in using the extruder. We
15 160 300 14.44 ± 2.37a 1.23 ± 0.08a also thank the USDA-FSMIP program (#14FSMIPWA0016) for
15 160 500 20.22 ± 6.19ab 9.34 ± 2.56e providing funding in part, for this research work.
15 120 300 11.81 ± 1.41a 4.53 ± 1.61cd
15 120 500 13.63 ± 1.22a 17.07 ± 2.69f
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