UNIT-II

MATRICES

Introduction

In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array numbers.Matrices

consisting of only one column or row are called vrctors,while higher –
dimensional, arrays of numbers are called tensors.Matrix can also keep track
of the coefficients in a system of linear equations.For a square matrix, the
determinant and inverse matrix govern the behavior of solutions to the
corresponding system of linear equations, and eigen values and eigen vectors
provide insight into the geometry of the associated linear transformation.

Applications

1.Physics makes use of them in various domains, for example in geometrical

optics and matrix mechanics.
2.Matrices encoding distances of knot points in a graph, such as cities
connected by roads, are used in graph theory, and computer graphics use
matrices to encode projections of three-dimensional spact onto a two-
dimensional screen.
3. Serialism and dodecaphonism are musical movements of the 20th century
that utilize a square mathematical matrix to determine the pattern of music
intervals.

Characteristic Equation

For a Linear transformation the characteristic equation [Latent equation] can

be defined as |A−λI|=0 where A is the given matrix from the linear equation
and is the eigen constant or characteristic constant and I is the unit matrix
with respect to the order of A.

45
Problems

𝟐 𝟏
 Find the characteristic equation of ( ).
−𝟏 𝟐
Solution:
2 1
Let 𝐴 = ( )
−1 2
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 =sum of the main diagonal elements=2+2=4

2 1
𝑠2 =|A| =| |=4+1=5
−1 2
Hence the required characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 5 = 0

𝟏 𝟐
 Find the characteristic equation of ( )
𝟎 𝟐
Solution:
1 2
Let 𝐴 = ( )
0 2
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 =Sum of the main diagonal elements=1+2=3

1 2
𝑠2 =|A| =| |=2−0=2
0 2
Hence the required characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 3𝜆 + 2 = 0

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
 Find the characteristic equation of (𝟏 𝟐 𝟐).
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Solution:
Given matrix is a 3x3 matrix

46
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 =sum of the main diagonal elements=1+2+3=6

𝑠2 =sum of the minors of main diagonal elements

2 2 1 1 1 1
=| |+| |+| |
2 3 1 3 1 2
= (6 − 4)+(3 − 1) + (2 − 1) = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5

𝑠3 = |𝐴|
1 1 1
= |1 2 2|
1 2 3
= 1(6 − 4) − 1(3 − 2) + 1(2 − 2)

=2−1=1

Hence the required characteristic equation is 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 5𝜆 − 1 = 0

𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
 Find the characteristic equation of [𝟎 𝟐 𝟎].
𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
Solution:
Given matrix is a 3x3 matrix
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 =Sum of the main diagonal elements=2+2+2=6

𝑠2 =Sum of the minors of main diagonal element

2 0 2 1 2 0
=| |+| |+| |
0 2 1 2 0 2
=4+ (4 − 1) +4=4+3+4=11

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

47
 2 0 1
= |0 2 0|
1 0 2
= 2(4 − 0) − 0 + 1(0 − 2)

=8−2 =6

Hence the required characteristic equation is 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 11𝜆 − 6 = 0

EIGEN VALUES : Let A be a square matrix .The characteristic equation of A

is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 .The roots of the characteristic equation are called Eigen
values of A.
EIGEN VECTOR: Let A be a square matrix .If there exists a non –zero
column vector X such that AX=𝜆𝑋, then the vector X is called an Eigen
vector of A corresponding to the Eigen value of 𝜆.
Properties of Eigen values.
Solution:
i)The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is equal to the trace of the matrix
and product of the eigen values is equal to the determinant of the matrix.
ii)A square matrix A and its transpose 𝐴𝑇 have the same eigen values.
Problems
 Prove that a square matrix and its transpose has the same eigen values.
Solution:
Let A be a square matrix of order n.
The characteristic equation of A and 𝐴𝑇 are |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
|𝐴𝑇 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
Since the determinant value is unaltered by the interchange of rows and
columns.

48
 (i.e) |𝐴| = |𝐴𝑇 |
Hence characteristic equation of A and 𝐴𝑇 are identical
Therefore the eigen values of A and 𝐴𝑇 are the same.
𝟒 𝟏
 If 𝑨 = ( ), find the eigen value of 𝑨𝟑 .
𝟑 𝟐
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 = 4 + 2 = 6
4 1
𝑠2 = | |
3 2
=8−3=5

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 + 5 = 0

(𝜆 − 5)(𝜆 − 1) = 0

𝜆 = 1,5

Eigen values of the given matrix A are 1,5

Eigen values of the matrix 𝐴3 are 1,125

𝟏 𝟏
 Find the eigen values of 𝑨 = ( ).
−𝟏 𝟏
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 1 = 2
1 1
𝑠2 = | |
−1 1
=1+1=2

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 2 = 0

49
 2 ± √4 − 8
𝜆=
2
2 ± 2𝑖
𝜆=
2
𝜆=1±𝑖

∴ The eigen values are 1 + 𝑖 and 1 − 𝑖

−𝟏𝟓 𝟒 𝟑
 Find the sum and product of the eigen values of ( 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟐 𝟔)
𝟐𝟎 −𝟒 𝟐
without finding the eigen values.
Solution:
Sum of the eigen values of A = trace of he matrix A
= −15 − 12 + 2
= −25
Product of the Eigen Values of A=|𝐴|
=−15(−24 + 24) − 4(20 − 120) + 3(−40+240)
= −4(−100)+3(200)
=400+600
=1000
−𝟐 𝟐 −𝟑
 Find the sum and product of the eigen values of ( 𝟐 𝟏 −𝟔) without
−𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎
finding the eigen values.
Solution:
Sum of the eigen values of A = trace of he matrix A
= −2 + 1 + 0 = −1
Product of the Eigen Values of A=|𝐴|
= −2(0 − 12) − 2(0 − 6) − 3(−4 + 1)

50
 =24+12+9
=45
 Find the sum and product of the eigen values of
−𝟏𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟓
( 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 )without
−𝟓 𝟑 𝟓
finding the eigen values.
Solution:
Sum of the eigen values of A = trace of the matrix A
= 10+2+5=17
Product of the Eigen Values of A=|𝐴|
= 10(10 − 9) + 2(10 + 15) − 5(6+10)
=10+2(25) − 5(16)
=10 + 50 − 80 = −20
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
 If the matrix 𝑨 = (𝟏 𝟓 𝟏), find the eigen values of 𝑨−𝟏 .
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 5 + 1 = 7
1 1 5 1 1 3
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
1 5 1 1 3 1
=(5 − 1) + (5 − 1) + (1 − 9)

=4+4−8=0
1 1 3
𝑠3 = |1 5 1|
3 1 1
=1(5−1) − 1(1 − 3) + 3(1 − 15)

51
 =4+2−42=−36

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 7𝜆2 + 36 = 0

If 𝜆 = −2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (−2)3 −7(−2)2 + 36 = 0

∴ 𝜆=−2 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

-2 1 -7 0 36

0 -2 18 -36

1 -9 18 0
∴ 𝜆 = −2 and 𝜆2 − 9𝜆 + 18 = 0

( 𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 − 6) = 0

𝜆 = 3,6

Hence, The Eigen values of A are −2,3,6

−1 1 1
The Eigen values of 𝐴−1 are , ,
2 3 6

𝟒 𝟏
 Find the eigen values of 𝟐𝑨𝟐 if 𝑨 = ( ).
𝟑 𝟐
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 = 4 + 2 = 6
4 1
𝑠2 = | |
3 2
=8−3=5

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 + 5 = 0

52
 𝜆 = 1,5

Eigen values of A are 1,5

Eigen values of 𝐴2 are 1,25

Eigen values of 2𝐴2 are 2,50

𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
 Two eigen values of the matrix 𝑨 = (𝟏 𝟑 𝟏) are equal to 1(one)
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
each. Find the eigen values of 𝑨−𝟏 .
Solution:
Let 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 be the Eigen values of A.
Given that 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = 1.
We know that,
Sum of the eigen values of A = trace of the matrix A
Therefore, 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = 2 + 3 + 2
⟹1+ 1+𝜆3 = 7
𝜆3 = 5
∴ 𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 1, 𝜆3 = 5
1
Therefore, Eigen values of 𝐴 −1 are 1,1,
5
𝟖 −𝟔 𝟐
 If 3 and 15 are two eigen values of 𝑨 = (−𝟔 𝟕 −𝟒), find |𝑨|.
𝟐 −𝟒 𝟑
Solution:
Let 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 be the Eigen values of A.
Given 𝜆1 = 3, 𝜆2 = 15, 𝜆3 =?
We know that,
Sum of the eigen values =sum of the main diagonal elements
⟹ 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = 8 + 7 + 3

53
 ⟹ 3+15+𝜆3 =18
⟹ 𝜆3 = 0
∴ The eigen values are 3,15,0.
|𝐴| = Product of the eigen values
=(3)(15)(0)
⟹ |𝐴| = 0
𝟑 𝟎 𝟎
 Find the eigen values of the inverse of the matrix 𝑨 = (𝟖 𝟒 𝟎).
𝟐 𝟐 𝟓
Solution:
Given matrix A is a lower triangular matrix.
The eigen values of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of
the matrix
Hence eigen values of A are 3,4,5
1 1 1
∴ Eigen values of 𝐴−1 are , ,
3 4 5
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
 If 3 and 6 are the eigen values of 𝑨 = (𝟏 𝟓 𝟏). Write down the eigen
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
values of 𝑨−𝟏 and 3A.
Solution:
Let 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 be the Eigen values of A
Given that 𝜆1 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2 = 6
We know that,
Sum of the eigen values =sum of the main diagonal elements
⟹ 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = 1 + 5 + 1
⟹ 3+6+ 𝜆3 =7
⟹ 𝜆3 = 7 − 9
⟹ 𝜆3 = −2
54
 Hence the eigen values of A are −2,3,6

Eigen values of 3A are −6,9,18

−1 1 1
Eigen values of 𝐴−1 are , ,
2 3 6
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
 Find the eigen values of 𝑨 given 𝑨 = (𝟎
𝟑
𝟐 −𝟕).
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑
Solution:
For a Triangular matrix, the diagonal elements are its Eigen
values.

Therefore, The eigen values of A are 1,2,3

The eigen values of 𝐴3 are 1,8,27

𝟔 −𝟐 𝟐
 Two eigen values of 𝑨 = (−𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏) are 2 and 8. Find the
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑
third eigen values.
Solution:
Let 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 be the Eigen values of A
Given 𝜆1 = 2, 𝜆2 = 8, 𝜆3 =?
We know that,
Sum of the eigen values =sum of the main diagonal elements
⟹ 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 + 𝜆3 = 6 + 3 + 3
⟹ 2+8+ 𝜆3 =12
⟹ 𝜆3 = 12 − 10 ⟹ 𝜆3 = 2
𝟔 −𝟐 𝟐
 The product of the two eigen values of 𝑨 = (−𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏)is 16.
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑
Find the third eigen value.
Solution:

55
 Let the eigen values of A be 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3
Given 𝜆1 𝜆2 = 16.
By the property, |𝐴|= product of the eigen values
⟹ |𝐴| = 𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3
6 −2 2
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3 = |−2 3 −1|
2 −1 3
16𝜆3 = 6(9 − 1) + 2(−6 + 2) + 2(2 − 6)

=6(8) + 2(−4) + 2(−4)

=48−8 − 8 = 32
32
⟹ 𝜆3 = ⟹ 𝜆3 = 2
16

𝟑 𝟏 𝟒
 Find the sum of the squares of the eigen values of 𝐀 = (𝟎 𝟐 𝟔).
𝟎 𝟎 𝟓
Solution:

Given matrix A is a upper triangular matrix.

For a Triangular matrix, the diagonal elements are its Eigen values.

∴ Eigen values of A are 3,2,5

Sum of the squares of the eigen values of A=9+4+25=38
 If the sum of two eigen values and trace of the matrix A are equal,
find the value of |A|.
Solution:
Let 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 be the Eigen values of A.
By the property, Sum of the eigen values of A =Trace of the matrix A
(𝑖. 𝑒) 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 +𝜆3 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆2
⟹ 𝜆3 = 0
By the property, |𝐴|= product of the eigen values

56
 (𝑖. 𝑒) |𝐴|= 𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3 = 0

 Prove that the eigen values of −𝟑𝑨−𝟏 are the same as those of
𝟏 𝟐
𝑨=( ).
𝟐 𝟏
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0
𝑠1 = 1 + 1 = 2
1 2
𝑠2 = | |
2 1
=1−4= −3

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 — 2𝜆 − 3 = 0

⇒ (𝜆 + 1)(𝜆 − 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = −1,3

Eigen values of A are −1,3

1
Eigen values of 𝐴−1 are −1,
3

Eigen values of −3𝐴−1 are 3,−1

∴ Eigen values of A =Eigen values of −3𝐴−1

𝟒 𝟔 𝟔
 Two eigen values of 𝑨 = ( 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 ) are equal and they are double
−𝟏 −𝟓 −𝟐
the third. Find the eigen value of A2.
Solution:
Let 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 be the Eigen values of A.
Given 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = 2𝜆3
Sum of the eigen values =sum of the main diagonal elements
⟹ 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 +𝜆3 =4+3−2

57
 𝜆1
⟹ 𝜆1 + 𝜆1 + =5
2
𝜆1 𝜆1
⟹ 2𝜆1 + = 5, where 𝜆3 =
2 2
5𝜆1
⟹ =5
2
𝜆1
⟹ =1
2
𝜆1 = 2 = 𝜆2
2𝜆3 = 2 ⇒ 𝜆3 = 1
Eigen values of A are 2,2,1
Eigen values of 𝐴2 are 4,4,1.

Problems

𝟔 −𝟔 𝟓
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 𝑨 = (𝟏𝟒 −𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟎)
𝟕 −𝟔 𝟒

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 6 − 13 + 4

=10 − 13 = −3

6 −6 −13 10 6 5
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
14 −13 −6 4 7 4

= (−78 + 84) + (−52 + 60) + (24 − 35)

=6+8 − 11 = 3

58
 𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=6(8) + 6(56 − 70) + 5(−84 + 91)

= 48 − 84 + 35 = −1

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 + 3𝜆2 + 3𝜆 + 1 = 0

If 𝜆 = −1, then (−1)3 + 3 − 3 + 1 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = −1 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

-1 1 3 3 1

0 -1 -2 -1

1 2 1 0
∴ 𝜆 = −1 and 𝜆2 + 2𝜆 + 1 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = −1, −1, −1

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

6−𝜆 −6 5 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( 14 −13 − 𝜆 10 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
7 −6 4 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0
Case (i) : When 𝜆 = −1 𝑖𝑛 (1),
6+1 −6 5 𝑥1 0
( 14 −13 + 1 𝑥
10 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
7 −6 4 + 1 𝑥3 0
7 −6 5 𝑥1 0
𝑥
(14 −12 10) ( 2 ) = (0)
7 −6 5 𝑥3 0

59
 ⇒ 7𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 +5𝑥3 = 0
14𝑥1 − 12𝑥2 + 10𝑥3 = 0
7𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 0

The above equations represents the same equation 7𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 +5𝑥3 = 0

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥1 , let 𝑥1 = 0

6𝑥2 = 5𝑥3

𝑥2 𝑥3
=
5 6

0
𝑋1 = (5)
6

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥2 , let 𝑥2 = 0

7𝑥1 = −5𝑥3

𝑥1 𝑥3
=
−5 7

−5
𝑋2 = ( 0 )
7

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥3 , let 𝑥3 = 0

7𝑥1 = 6𝑥2

𝑥1 𝑥2
=
6 7

6
𝑋3 = (7)
0

60
 ∴ Eigen vectors of A are

0 −5 6
𝑋1 = (5) , 𝑋2 = ( 0 ) , 𝑋3 = (7)
6 7 0

𝟔 −𝟐 𝟐
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of 𝑨 = (−𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏)
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 6 + 3 + 3 = 12

6 −2 3 −1 6 2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−2 3 −1 3 2 3

=(18-4)+(9-1)+(18-4)

=14+8+14=36

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=6(9 − 1) + 2(−6 + 2) + 2(2 − 6)

= 48 − 8 − 8 = 32

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 12𝜆2 + 36𝜆 − 32 = 0

If 𝜆 = 2, then (2)3 − 12(2)2 + 36(2) − 32 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 2 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

2 1 -12 36 -32
61
 0 2 -20 32

1 -10 16 0
∴ 𝜆 = 2 and 𝜆2 − 10𝜆 + 16 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 2,2,8

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

6−𝜆 −2 2 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −2 3−𝜆 𝑥
−1 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
2 −1 3 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 2 in (1), we get,

6 − 2 −2 2 𝑥1 0
( −2 3 − 2 −1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
2 −1 3 − 2 𝑥3 0
4 −2 2 𝑥1 0
𝑥 =
(−2 1 −1) ( 2 ) (0)
2 1 1 𝑥3 0
4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 +2𝑥3 = 0
−2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

The above equations represents the same equation 2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥1 , let 𝑥1 = 0

𝑥2 = 𝑥3

0
𝑋1 = (1)
1

62
Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥2 , let 𝑥2 = 0

2𝑥1 = −𝑥3

𝑥1 𝑥3
=
−1 2

−1
𝑋2 = ( 0 )
2

Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 8 in (1),

6 − 8 −2 2 𝑥1 0
𝑥
( −2 3 − 8 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
2 −1 3 − 8 𝑥3 0

−2 −2 2 𝑥1 0
(−2 −5 −1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
2 −1 −5 𝑥3 0

−2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 +2𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 + 10 −4 − 2 10 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
12 −6 6
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 −1 1

2
𝑋3 = (−1)
1

63
∴ Eigen vectors of A are
0 −1 2
𝑋1 = (1) , 𝑋2 = ( 0 ) , 𝑋3 = (−1)
1 2 1

𝟐 −𝟐 𝟐
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A=(𝟏 𝟏 𝟏)
𝟏 𝟑 −𝟏
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 2 + 1 − 1 = 2

2 −2 1 1 2 2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
1 1 3 −1 1 −1

=(2 + 2) + (−1 − 3) + (−2 − 2)

= 4 − 4 − 4 = −4

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 2(−1 − 3) + 2(−1 − 1) + 2(3 − 1)

= −8 − 4 + 4 = −8

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 2𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 8 = 0

If 𝜆 = 2, then (2)3 − 2(2)2 − 4(2) + 8 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 2 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

2 1 -2 -4 8

0 2 0 -8

64
 1 0 -4 0
∴ 𝜆 = 2 and 𝜆2 − 4 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 2,2, −2

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

2−𝜆 −2 2 𝑥1 0
⇒( 1 1−𝜆 𝑥
1 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
1 3 −1 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1).

2 − 2 −2 2 𝑥1 0
( 1 1−2 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 3 −1 − 2 𝑥3 0

0 −2 2 𝑥1 0
(1 −1 𝑥
1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
1 3 −3 𝑥3 0

0𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 +2𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−2 + 2 2 − 0 0 + 2
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 2 2

0
𝑋1 = (1)
1

65
 0
𝑋2 = (1) as an eigen vector corresponding to 𝜆 = 2
1

Case (ii): When 𝜆 = −2 𝑖𝑛 (1)

2+2 −2 2 𝑥1 0
( 1 1+2 𝑥
1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
1 3 −1 + 2 𝑥3 0

4 −2 2 𝑥1 0
(1 3 1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 3 1 𝑥3 0

4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 +2𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−2 − 6 2 − 4 12 + 2
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−8 −2 14
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−4 −1 7

−4
𝑋3 = (−1)
7

∴ Eigen vectors of A are

0 0 −4
𝑋1 = (1) , 𝑋2 = (1) , 𝑋3 = (−1)
1 1 7

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A=(𝟎 𝟑 −𝟏).
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟑

66
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 3 + 3=7

1 0 3 −1 1 0
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
0 3 −1 3 0 3

=3+(9−1)+3=14

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=1(9−1) − 0+0=8

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 7𝜆2 + 14𝜆 − 8 = 0

If 𝜆 = 1, then 1-7+14-8=0

∴ 𝜆 = 1 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

1 1 -7 14 -8

0 1 -6 8

1 -6 8 0
∴ 𝜆 = 1 and 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 + 8 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 1,2,4

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

1−𝜆 0 0 𝑥1 0
⇒( 0 3−𝜆 𝑥
−1 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
0 −1 3 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

67
Case (i): When 𝜆 = 1

1−1 0 0 𝑥1 0
( 0 3−1 𝑥
−1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 3 − 1 𝑥3 0

0 0 0 𝑥1 0
(0 2 𝑥
−1) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 2 𝑥3 0

0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 +0𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0
Solving last two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4−1 0−0 0−0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
3 0 0

1
𝑋1 = (0)
0

Case (ii) : when 𝜆 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1)

1−2 0 0 𝑥1 0
( 0 3−2 −1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −1 3 − 2 𝑥3 0

−1 0 0 𝑥1 0
(0 𝑥
1 −1) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 1 𝑥3 0

−𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 +0𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

68
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 − 0 1 − 0 −1 − 0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −1 −1

0
𝑋2 = (−1)
−1

Case (iii) : when 𝜆 = 4 𝑖𝑛 (1)

1−4 0 0 𝑥1 0
( 0 3−4 𝑥
−1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 3 − 4 𝑥3 0

−3 0 0 𝑥1 0
(0 −1 −1 ) ( 𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −1 −1 𝑥3 0

−3𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 +0𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0−0 3−0 3−0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −3 3
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −1 1

0
𝑋3 = (−1)
1

69
 ∴ Eigen vectors of A are
1 0 0
𝑋1 = (0) , 𝑋2 = (−1) , 𝑋3 = (−1)
0 −1 1

−𝟐 𝟐 −𝟑
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of ( 𝟐 𝟏 −𝟔).
−𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = −2 + 1 + 0 = −1

1 −6 −2 −3 −2 2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−2 0 −1 0 2 1

=−12 − 3 − 6 = −21

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=(−2)(0 − 12) − 2(0 − 6) + (−3)(−4 + 1)

=24+12+9 =45

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 + 𝜆2 − 21𝜆 − 45 = 0

If 𝜆 = −3, then (−3)3 + (−3)2 − 21(−3) − 45 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = −3 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

-3 1 1 -21 -45

0 -3 6 45

1 -2 -15 0
70
 𝜆 = −3, 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 − 15 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = −3, −3,5

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

−2 − 𝜆 2 −3 𝑥1 0
⇒( 2 1−𝜆 𝑥
−6 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
−1 −2 0 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = −3 in (1),

−2 + 3 2 −3 𝑥1 0
( 2 𝑥
1 + 3 −6 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−1 −2 0 + 3 𝑥3 0

1 2 −3 𝑥1 0
(2 4 −6) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−1 −2 3 𝑥3 0

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 −3𝑥3 = 0
2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 = 0
−𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0

The above equations represents the same equation 𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = 0

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥1 , let 𝑥1 = 0

2𝑥2 = 3𝑥3

𝑥2 𝑥3
=
3 2

0
𝑋1 = (3)
2

71
 Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥2 , let 𝑥2 = 0

𝑥1 = 3𝑥3

𝑥1 𝑥3
=
3 1

3
𝑋2 = (0)
1

Case(ii) : When 𝜆 = 5 in (1),

−2 − 5 2 −3 𝑥1 0
( 2 𝑥
1 − 5 −6 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−1 −2 0 − 5 𝑥3 0

−7 2 −3 𝑥1 0
( 2 −4 −6) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−1 −2 −5 𝑥3 0

−7𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 −3𝑥3 = 0

2𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 = 0
−𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−12 − 12 42 + 6 28 − 4

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−24 −48 24
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 2 −1

1
𝑋3 = ( 2 )
−1

72
 ∴ Eigen vectors of A are
0 3 1
𝑋1 = (3) , 𝑋2 = (0) , 𝑋3 = ( 2 )
2 1 −1

𝟕 −𝟐 −𝟐
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of A =(−𝟐 𝟏 𝟒 ).
−𝟐 𝟒 𝟏

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 7 + 1 + 1 = 9

7 −2 1 4 7 −2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−2 1 4 1 −2 1

= (7 − 4) + (1 − 16) + (7 − 4)

= 3 − 15 + 3 = −9

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 7(−15) + 2(−2 + 8) − 2(−8 + 2)

= −105 + 12 + 12 = −81

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 9𝜆2 − 9𝜆 + 81 = 0

If 𝜆 = 3, then (3)3 − 9(3)2 − 9(3) + 81 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 3 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

3 1 -9 -9 81

73
 0 3 -18 -81

1 -6 -27 0
𝜆 = 3, 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 − 27 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 3,9, −3

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

7−𝜆 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −2 1−𝜆 𝑥
4 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
−2 4 1 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 =3 in (1),

7−3 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
( −2 1−3 𝑥
4 ) ( 2 ) = ( 0)
−2 4 1 − 3 𝑥3 0

4 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
(−2 −2 4 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−2 4 −2 𝑥3 0

4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 0
−2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−8 − 4 16 − 4 −8 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−12 −12 −12
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 1 1

74
 1
𝑋1 = (1)
1

Case (ii): When 𝜆 =9 in (1),

7−9 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
( −2 1−9 4 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−2 4 1 − 9 𝑥3 0

−2 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
𝑥
(−2 −8 4 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−2 4 −8 𝑥3 0

−2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 8𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 8𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−8 − 16 −8 − 4 16 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−2 1 1

−2
𝑋2 = ( 1 )
1

Case (iii): When 𝜆 = −3 in (1)

7+3 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
( −2 1+3 4 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−2 4 1 + 3 𝑥3 0

10 −2 −2 𝑥1 0
(−2 4 4 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−2 4 4 𝑥3 0

75
 10𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−8 + 8 40 − 4 40 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −36 36

0
𝑋3 = (−1)
1

∴ Eigen vectors of A are

1 −2 0
𝑋1 = (1) , 𝑋2 = ( 1 ) , 𝑋3 = (−1)
1 1 1

𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
 Find the eigen values and eigen vectors of (𝟏 𝟎 𝟏).
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0

0 1 0 1 0 1
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
1 0 1 0 1 0

= −1 − 1 − 1 = −3

76
 𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 0 − 1(0 − 1) + 1(1) = 2

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 0𝜆2 − 3𝜆 − 2 = 0

If 𝜆 = 2, then (2)3 − 0(2)2 − 3(2) − 2 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 2 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

2 1 0 -3 -2

0 2 4 2

1 2 1 0
𝜆 = 2, 𝜆2 + 2𝜆 + 1 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 2, −1, −1

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

0−𝜆 1 1 𝑥1 0
⇒( 1 0−𝜆 𝑥 =
1 ) ( 2 ) (0) − − − − − −(1)
1 1 0 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 2 in (1)

0−2 1 1 𝑥1 0
( 1 0−2 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 1 0 − 2 𝑥3 0
−2 1 1 𝑥1 0
𝑥
( 1 −2 1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
1 1 −2 𝑥3 0

−2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

77
 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 + 2 −2 − 1 4 − 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
3 3 3
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 1 1

1
𝑋1 = (1)
1
Case (ii): when 𝜆 = −1 𝑖𝑛 (1)
0+1 1 1 𝑥1 0
( 1 0+1 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 1 0 + 1 𝑥3 0
1 1 1 𝑥1 0
(1 𝑥
1 1) ( 2 ) = (0)
1 1 1 𝑥3 0

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

The above equations represents the same equation 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥1 , let 𝑥1 = 0

𝑥2 = −𝑥3

𝑥2 𝑥3
=
1 −1
78
 0
𝑋2 = ( 1 )
−1

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥2 , let 𝑥2 = 0

𝑥1 = −𝑥3

𝑥1 𝑥3
=
−1 1

−1
𝑋3 = ( 0 )
1

∴ Eigen vectors of A are

1 0 −1
𝑋1 = (1) , 𝑋2 = ( 1 ) , 𝑋3 = ( 0 )
1 −1 1

Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Problems
𝟓 𝟑
 Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix 𝑨 = ( ).
𝟏 𝟑
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton theorem, 𝐴 2 − 𝑠1 𝐴 + 𝑠2 𝐼 = 0

Here, 𝑠1 = 5 + 3 = 8
5 3
𝑠2 = | |
1 3
=15−3=12

79
 To prove 𝐴 2 − 8 𝐴 + 12𝐼 = 0
5 3 5 3
𝐴2 =( )( )
1 3 1 3
25 + 3 15 + 9
=( )
5+3 3+9
28 24
=( )
8 12
25 + 3 15 + 9 −40 −24 12 0
𝐴 2 − 8 𝐴 + 12𝐼 = ( )+( )+( )
5+3 3+9 −8 −24 0 12
0 0
=( )
0 0
∴ Cayley Hamilton theorem is verified.

 Use Cayley Hamilton theorem to find A3 of the given matrix

𝟓 𝟑
𝑨= ( )
𝟏 𝟑
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 = 5 + 3
=8
5 3
𝑠2 = | |
1 3
=15−3
=12
By Cayley Hamilton theorem,we have 𝐴 2 − 8 𝐴 + 12𝐼 = 0

Premultiply by A on both sides , we get 𝐴3 − 8𝐴 2 + 12𝐴 = 0

⇒ 𝐴3 = 8𝐴 2 − 12𝐴
5 3 5 3 28 24
𝐴2 =( )( )=( )
1 3 1 3 8 12

80
 28 24 5 3
∴ 𝐴3 = 8 ( ) − 12 ( )
8 12 1 3
224 192 60 36
=( )−( )
64 96 12 36
164 156
=( )
52 60
 Use Cayley Hamilton theorem to find A3 of the given matrix
−𝟏 𝟑
𝑨= ( ).
𝟐 𝟒

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆2 − 𝑠1 𝜆 + 𝑠2 = 0

𝑠1 = −1 + 4
=3
−1 3
𝑠2 = | | = −4 − 6 = −10
2 4
By Cayley Hamilton theorem, we have 𝐴 2 − 3 𝐴 − 10𝐼 = 0

Premultiply by A on both sides , we get 𝐴3 − 3𝐴 2 − 10𝐴 =0

⇒ 𝐴3 = 3𝐴 2 + 10𝐴
−1 3 −1 3
𝐴2 =( )( )
2 4 2 4
1 + 6 −3 + 12
=( )
−2 + 8 6 + 16
7 9
=( )
6 22
7 9 −1 3
∴ 𝐴3 = 3 ( ) + 10 ( )
6 22 2 4
21 27 −10 30
=( )+( )
18 66 20 40

81
 11 57
=( )
38 106
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton therorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
𝟏 𝟎 𝟑
if𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏].
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

1 0 1 −1 1 3
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
2 1 −1 1 1 1

=1+(1−1) + (1 − 3)

=1+0−2 = −1

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 1(1 − 1) − 0(2 + 1) + 3(−2 − 1)

= 0 − 0 + 3(−3) = −9

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 3𝜆2 − 𝜆 + 9 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 9𝐼 = 0 − − − − − − − −(1)

Verification:
1 0 3 1 0 3
2
𝐴 = [2 1 −1] [2 1 −1]
1 −1 1 1 −1 1

82
 1+0+3 0+0−3 3+0+3
=[2 + 2 − 1 0 + 1 + 1 6 − 1 − 1]
1−2+1 0−1−1 3+1+1
4 −3 6
=[3 2 4]
0 −2 5
𝐴3 = 𝐴. 𝐴2
1 0 3 4 −3 6
= [2 1 −1] [3 2 4]
1 −1 1 0 −2 5
4 + 0 + 0 −3 + 0 − 6 6 + 0 + 15
= [8 + 3 + 0 −6 + 2 + 2 12 + 4 − 5]
4 − 3 + 0 −3 − 2 − 2 6 − 4 + 5
4 −9 21
= [11 −2 11]
1 −7 7
𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 9𝐼
4 −9 21 4 −3 6 1 0 3 9 0 0
= [11 −2 11] − 3 [3 2 4] − [2 1 −1] + [0 9 0]
1 −7 7 0 −2 5 1 −1 1 0 0 9
0 0 0
=[0 0 0]
0 0 0
To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

𝐴2 − 3𝐴 − 𝐼 + 9 𝐴−1 = 0
1
⟹ 𝐴−1 = − [𝐴2 − 3𝐴 − 𝐼]
9

−1
−1 4 −3 6 −3 0 −9 −1 0 0
𝐴 = [[3 2 4] + [−6 −3 3 ] + [ 0 −1 0 ]]
9
0 −2 5 −3 3 −3 0 0 −1

83
 0 −3 −3
−1
= [−3 −2 7]
9
−3 1 1
0 3 3
1
= [3 2 −7]
9
3 −1 −1
To Find 𝐴4 :

Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 − 3𝐴3 − 𝐴2 + 9𝐴 = 0

⟹ 𝐴4 = 3𝐴3 + 𝐴2 − 9𝐴
4 −9 21 4 −3 6 1 0 3
= 3 [11 −2 11]+[3 2 4] − 9 [2 1 −1]
1 −7 7 0 −2 5 1 −1 1
12 −27 63 4 −3 6 −9 0 −27
= [33 −6 33] + [3 2 4] + [−18 −9 9 ]
3 −21 21 0 −2 5 −9 9 −9
12 + 4 − 9 −27 − 3 + 0 63 + 6 − 27
= [33 + 3 − 18 −6 + 2 − 9 33 + 4 + 9 ]
3+0−9 −21 − 2 + 9 21 + 5 − 9
7 −30 42
= [ 18 −13 46]
−6 −14 17
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton therorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
𝟏 𝟐 −𝟑
if𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟓 −𝟒 ].
𝟑 𝟕 −𝟓𝟏
Solution:

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 5 − 5 = 1

1 2 5 −4 1 −2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
2 5 7 −5 3 −5
84
 = (5 − 4) + (−25 + 28) + (−5 + 6)

=1+3+1=5

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 1(3) − 2(−10 + 12) − 2(14 − 15)

=3−4+2=1

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝜆2 + 5𝜆 − 1 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 − 𝐴2 + 5𝐴 − 𝐼 = 0 − − − − − −(1)

Verification:
1 2 −2 1 2 −2
2
𝐴 = [2 5 −4] [2 5 −4]
3 7 −5 3 7 −5
−1 −2 0
=[ 0 1 −4]
2 6 −9
𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴
−1 −2 0 1 2 −2
=[ 0 1 −4] [2 5 −4]
2 6 −9 3 7 −5
−5 −12 10
= [−10 −23 16]
−13 −29 17

85
 𝐴3 − 𝐴2 + 5𝐴 − 𝐼
−5 −12 10 −1 −2 0 1 2 −2
= [−10 −23 16] − [ 0 1 −4] + 5 [2 5 −4]
−13 −29 17 2 6 −9 3 7 −5
1 0 0
− [0 1 0]
0 0 1
0 0 0
=[0 0 0]
0 0 0
To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 − 𝐴 + 5𝐼
1 2 −2 1 2 −2
2
𝐴 = [2 5 −4] [2 5 −4]
3 7 −5 3 7 −5
−1 −2 0
=[ 0 1 −4]
2 6 −9
−1 −2 0 1 2 −2 5 0 0
−1
𝐴 =[ 0 1 −4] − [2 5 −4]+[0 5 0]
2 6 −9 3 7 −5 0 0 5
3 −4 2
=[−2 1 0]
−1 −1 1
To Find 𝐴4 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 − 𝐴3 + 5𝐴2 − 𝐴 = 0

𝐴4 = 𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 𝐴
−5 −12 10 −1 −2 0 1 2 −2
4
𝐴 = [−10 −23 16] − 5 [ 0 1 −4] + [2 5 −4]
−13 −29 17 2 6 −9 3 7 −5

86
 −5 −12 10 5 10 0 1 2 −2
= [−10 −23 16] + [ 0 −5 20]+[2 5 −4]
−13 −29 17 −10 −30 45 3 7 −5
1 0 8
= [ −8 −23 32]
−20 −52 57
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton therorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
if𝑨 = [𝟐 −𝟏 𝟒 ].
𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏
Solution:

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 − 1 − 1 = −1

1 2 −1 4 1 3
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
2 −1 1 −1 3 −1

= (−1 − 4) + (1 − 4) + (−1 − 9)

= −5 − 3 − 10 = −18

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 1(−3) − 2(−2 − 12) + 3(2 + 3)

= −3 + 28 + 15 = 40

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 + 𝜆2 − 18𝜆 − 40 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 + 𝐴2 − 18𝐴 − 40𝐼 = 0 − − − − − −(1)

Verification:

87
 1 2 3 1 2 3
2
𝐴 = [2 −1 4 ] [2 −1 4 ]
3 1 −1 3 1 −1
14 3 8
=[12 9 −2]
2 4 14
14 3 8 1 2 3 44 33 46
3
𝐴 = [12 9 −2] [2 −1 4 ] = [24 13 74]
2 4 14 3 1 −1 52 14 8
𝐴3 + 𝐴2 − 18𝐴 − 40𝐼
44 33 46 14 3 8 1 2 3
= [24 13 74] + [12 9 −2] − 18 [2 −1 4 ]
52 14 8 2 4 14 3 1 −1
1 0 0
− 40 [0 1 0]
0 0 1
0 0 0
=[0 0 0]
0 0 0
To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

1 2
𝐴−1 = [𝐴 + 𝐴 − 18𝐼]
40

−1
1 14 3 8 1 2 3 −18 0 0
𝐴 = [[12 9 −2] + [2 −1 4 ]+[ 0 −18 0 ]]
40
2 4 14 3 1 −1 0 0 −18

−3 5 11
1
= [ 14 −10 2 ]
40
5 5 −5
To Find 𝐴4 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 + 𝐴3 − 18𝐴2 − 40𝐴 = 0

𝐴4 = −𝐴3 + 18𝐴2 + 40𝐴

88
 44 33 46 14 3 8 1 2 3
4
𝐴 = − [24 13 74]+18[12 9 −2]+40[2 −1 4 ]
52 −14 8 2 4 14 3 1 −1
−44 −33 −46 252 54 144 40 80 120
= [−24 −13 −74]+[216 162 −36]+[ 80 −40 160 ]
−52 14 −8 36 72 252 120 40 −40
248 101 218
= [272 109 50 ]
104 126 204
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton therorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐
if𝑨 = [−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏].
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐
Solution:

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6

2 −1 2 −1 2 2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−1 2 −1 2 1 2

= (4 − 1) + (4 − 1) + (4 − 2)

=3+3+2=8

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 2(4 − 1) + 1(−2 + 1) + 2(1 − 2)

=6−1−2=3

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 8𝜆 − 3 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 3𝐼 = 0 − − − − − −(1)

89
 Verification:
2 −1 2 2 −1 2
2
𝐴 = [−1 2 −1] [−1 2 −1]
1 −1 2 1 −1 2
7 −6 9
=[−5 6 −6]
5 −5 7
2 −1 2 7 −6 9
3
𝐴 = [−1 2 −1] [−5 6 −6]
1 −1 2 5 −5 7
14 + 5 + 10 −12 − 6 − 10 18 + 6 + 14
=[−7 − 10 − 5 6 + 12 + 5 −9 − 12 − 7]
7 + 5 + 10 −6 − 6 − 10 9 + 6 + 14
29 −28 38
=[−22 23 −28]
22 −22 29
𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 3𝐼
29 −28 38 7 −6 9 2 −1 2
= [−22 23 −28] − 6 [−5 6 −6] + 8 [−1 2 −1]
22 −22 29 5 −5 7 1 −1 2
1 0 0
− 3 [0 1 0]
0 0 1
0 0 0
= (0 0 0)
0 0 0
To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

1
𝐴−1 = [𝐴2 − 6𝐴 + 8𝐼]
3

−1
1 7 −6 9 2 −1 2 1 0 0
𝐴 = [[−5 6 −6] − 6 [−1 2 −1] + 8 [0 1 0]]
3
5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 1

90
 3 0 −3
1
= [1 2 0]
3
−1 1 3
To find 𝐴4 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 − 6𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 3𝐴 = 0

𝐴4 = 6𝐴3 − 8𝐴2 + 3𝐴

= 6 [ 6𝐴2 − 8𝐴 + 3𝐼]-8𝐴2 + 3𝐴

= 36𝐴2 − 48𝐴 + 18𝐼 − 8𝐴2 + 3𝐴

= 28𝐴2 − 45𝐴 + 18𝐼

7 −6 9 2 −1 2 18 0 0
4
𝐴 = 28 [−5 6 −6]-45[−1 2 −1] + [ 0 18 0 ]
5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 18
196 −168 252 90 −45 90 18 0 0
= [−140 168 −168] − [−45 90 −45] + [ 0 18 0 ]
140 −140 196 45 −45 90 0 0 18
124 −123 162
= [−95 96 −123]
95 −95 124
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton therorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟐
if𝑨 = [𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 ].
𝟎 𝟎 𝟐
Solution:

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 2 + 2 = 5

1 0 2 4 1 −2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
2 2 0 2 0 2

91
 =(2-0)+(4-0)+(2-0)

=2+4+2=8

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=1(4-0)+0-2(0-0) =4

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 5𝜆2 + 8𝜆 − 4 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 4𝐼 = 0 − − − − − −(1)

Verification:
1 0 −2 1 0 −2
2
𝐴 = [2 2 4 ] [2 2 4]
0 0 2 0 0 2
1+0+0 0+0+0 −2 + 0 − 4
=[2 + 4 + 0 0 + 4 + 0 −4 + 8 + 8]
0+0+0 0+0+0 0+0+4
1 0 −6
=[6 4 12 ]
0 0 4
𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . 𝐴
1 0 −6 1 0 −2
=[6 4 12 ] [2 2 4]
0 0 4 0 0 2
1+0+0 0+0+0 −2 + 0 − 12
=[6 + 8 + 0 0 + 8 + 0 −12 + 16 + 24]
0+0+0 0+0+0 0+0+8
1 0 −14
=[14 8 28 ]
0 0 8

92
 𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 4𝐼
1 0 −14 1 0 −6 1 0 −2
= [14 8 28 ] − 5 [6 4 12 ] + 8 [2 2 4 ]
0 0 8 0 0 4 0 0 2
1 0 0
− 4 [0 1 0]
0 0 1
0 0 0
=[0 0 0]
0 0 0
To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

1
𝐴−1 = [𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 8𝐴]
4

−1
1 1 0 −14 1 0 −6 1 0 −2
𝐴 = [[14 8 28 ] − 5 [6 4 12 ] + 8 [2 2 4 ]]
4
0 0 8 0 0 4 0 0 2

1 0 −14 −5 0 30 8 0 −16
1
= [[14 8 28 ] + [−30 −20 −60] + [16 16 32 ]]
4
0 0 8 0 0 −20 0 0 16

4 0 0
1
= [0 4 0]
4
0 0 4
=I

To find 𝐴4 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 4𝐴 = 0

𝐴4 = 5𝐴3 − 8𝐴2 + 4𝐴
5 0 −70 −8 0 48 4 0 −8
4
𝐴 = [70 40 140 ] + [−48 −32 −96] + [8 8 16 ]
0 0 40 0 0 −32 0 0 8

93
 1 0 −30
= [30 16 60 ]
0 0 16
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton theorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟑
if𝑨 = [ 𝟖 𝟏 −𝟕].
−𝟑 𝟎 𝟖
Solution:

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = −1 + 1 + 8 = 8

−1 0 1 −7 −1 3
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
8 1 0 8 −3 8

=−1 + 8 + (−8 + 9)

=8 + 1 − 1 = 8

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= −1(8 − 0) + 0 + 3(0 + 3) = 1

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 8𝜆2 + 8𝜆 − 1 = 0

By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 − 8𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 𝐼 = 0 − − − − − −(1)

Verification:
−1 0 3 −1 0 3
2
𝐴 =[ 8 1 −7] [ 8 1 −7]
−3 0 8 −3 0 8
1+0−9 0 + 0 + 0 −3 + 0 + 24
=[−8 + 8 + 21 0 + 1 + 0 24 − 7 − 56 ]
3 + 0 − 24 0 + 0 + 0 −9 + 0 + 64

94
 −8 0 21
=[ 21 1 −39]
−21 0 55
−1 0 3 −8 0 21
3
𝐴 = [ 8 1 −7] [ 21 1 −39]
−3 0 8 −21 0 55
8 + 0 − 63 0 + 0 + 0 −21 + 0 + 165
=[−64 + 21 + 147 0 + 1 + 0 168 − 39 − 385]
24 + 0 − 168 0 + 0 + 0 −63 + 0 + 440
−55 0 144
=[ 104 1 −256]
−144 0 377
−55 0 144 −8 0 21
𝐴3 − 8𝐴2 + 8𝐴 − 𝐼 = [ 104 1 −256]-8[ 21 1 −39] +
−144 0 377 −21 0 55
−1 0 3 1 0 0
8 [ 8 1 −7]-[0 1 0]
−3 0 8 0 0 1
0 0 0
=[0 0 0]
0 0 0

To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

𝐴−1 = 𝐴2 − 8𝐴 + 8𝐼
−8 0 21 8 0 24 8 0 0
−1
𝐴 = [ 21 1 −39] + [−64 −8 56 ] + [0 8 0]
−21 0 55 24 0 −64 0 0 8
8 0 −3
=[−43 10 17 ]
3 0 −1
To find 𝐴4 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 − 8𝐴3 + 8𝐴2 − 𝐴 = 0
95
 𝐴4 = 8𝐴3 − 8𝐴2 + 𝐴

= 8 [8𝐴2 − 8𝐴 + 𝐼]-8𝐴2 + 𝐴

= 56𝐴2 − 63𝐴 + 8𝐼
−8 0 21 −1 0 3 8 0 0
= 56 [ 21 1 −39] − 63 [ 8 1 −7]+[0 8 0]
−21 0 55 −3 0 8 0 0 8
−8 0 21 63 0 −189 8 0 0
= 56 [ 21 1 −39] + [−504 −63 441 ]+[0 8 0]
−21 0 55 189 0 −504 0 0 8
−377 0 987
=[ 672 1 2625]
−987 0 2584
 Verify Cayley –Hamilton therorem . Also find 𝑨−𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝟒 ,
𝟕 𝟐 −𝟐
if𝑨 = [−𝟔 −𝟏 𝟐 ].
𝟔 𝟐 −𝟏
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 7 − 1 − 1 = 5

7 2 −1 2 7 −2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−6 −1 2 −1 6 −1

= (−7 + 12) + (1 − 4) + (−7 + 12)

=5 − 3 + 5 = 7

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=7(−3) − 2(6 − 12) − 2(−12 + 6)

= −21 + 12 + 12 = 3

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 5𝜆2 + 7𝜆 − 3 = 0

96
 By Cayley Hamilton Theorem,

𝐴3 − 5𝐴2 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐼 = 0 − − − − − −(1)

Verification:
7 2 −2 7 2 −2
2
𝐴 = [−6 −1 2 ] [−6 −1 2 ]
6 2 −1 6 2 −1
49 − 12 − 12 14 − 2 − 4 −14 + 4 + 2
=[−42 + 6 + 12 −12 + 1 + 4 12 − 2 − 2 ]
42 − 12 − 6 12 − 2 − 2 −12 + 4 + 1
25 8 −8
=[−24 −7 8 ]
24 8 −7
𝐴3 = 𝐴. 𝐴2
7 2 −2 25 8 −8
=[−6 −1 2 ] [−24 −7 8 ]
6 2 −1 24 8 −7
175 − 48 − 48 56 − 14 − 16 −56 + 16 + 14
=[−150 + 24 + 48 −48 + 7 + 16 48 − 8 − 14 ]
150 − 48 − 24 48 − 14 − 8 −48 + 16 + 7
79 26 −26
=[−78 −25 26 ]
78 26 −25
79 26 −26
3 2
𝐴 − 5𝐴 + 7𝐴 − 3𝐼 = [−78 −25 26 ] −
78 26 −25
25 8 −8 7 2 −2 1 0 0
5 [−24 −7 8 ]+7[−6 −1 2 ]-3[0 1 0]
24 8 −7 6 2 −1 0 0 1
0 0 0
=[0 0 0]
0 0 0
To find 𝐴−1 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 in (1), we get

97
 1
𝐴−1 = [𝐴2 − 5𝐴 + 7𝐼]
3

1 25 8 −8 −35 −10 10 7 0 0
−1
𝐴 = [[−24 −7 8 ] + [ 30 5 −10] + [0 7 0]]
3
24 8 −7 −30 −10 5 0 0 7

−3 −2 2
−1 1
𝐴 = [6 5 −2]
3
−6 −2 5
To Find 𝐴4 : Multiply both sides by 𝐴 in (1), we get

𝐴4 − 5𝐴3 + 7𝐴2 − 3𝐴 = 0

𝐴4 = 5𝐴3 − 7𝐴2 + 3𝐴
79 26 −26 25 8 −8 7 2 −2
4
𝐴 = 5 [−78 −25 26 ] − 7 [−24 −7 8 ] + 3 [−6 −1 2 ]
78 26 −25 24 8 −7 6 2 −1
395 130 −130 −175 −56 56 21 6 −6
= [−390 −125 130 ] + [ 168 49 −56] + [−18 −3 6]
390 130 −125 −168 −56 49 18 6 −3
241 80 −80
=[−240 −79 80 ]
240 80 −79

Orthogonal reduction of a symmetric matrix to Diagonal form.

Orthogonal matrix

A square matrix A is said to be an orthogonal matrix, if 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼

Diagonalisation of a matrix

98
 The process of finding a matrix M such that 𝑀−1 𝐴𝑀 = 𝐷, where D
is the diagonal matrix, is called as Diagonalisation of A.

Problems
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
 Show that A =( ) is orthogonal.
−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Solution:
(𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝐴𝑇 = ( )( )
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

=( 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
1 0
=( )
0 1
=I

Similarly, 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐼

∴ 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝑇 = 𝐼

Hence A is orthogonal matrix.

 Construct a Diagonalised matrix by an orthogonal transformation of

𝟔 −𝟐 𝟐
𝑨 = [−𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏].
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 6 + 3 + 3 = 12

6 −2 3 −1 6 2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−2 3 −1 3 2 3
99
 = (18 − 4) + (9 − 1) + (18 − 4)

=14+8+14=36

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 6(9 − 1) + 2(−6 + 2) + 2(2 − 6)

= 48 − 8 − 8=32

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 12𝜆2 + 36𝜆 − 32 = 0

If 𝜆 = 2 ,then (2)3 − 12(2)2 + 36(2) − 32 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 2 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

2 1 -12 36 -32

0 2 -20 32

1 -10 16 0
𝜆 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2 − 10𝜆 + 16 = 0

𝜆 = 2,2,8

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

6−𝜆 −2 2 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −2 3−𝜆 𝑥 =
−1 ) ( 2 ) (0) − − − − − −(1)
2 −1 3 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 8 in (1),

100
 6 − 8 −2 2 𝑥1 0
( −2 3 − 8 −1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
2 −1 3 − 8 𝑥3 0

−2 −2 2 𝑥1 0
(−2 𝑥
−5 −1) ( 2 ) = (0)
2 −1 −5 𝑥3 0

−2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 +2𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 + 10 −4 − 2 10 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
12 −6 6
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 −1 1

2
𝑋1 = (−1)
1

Case(ii): When 𝜆 = 2 in (1),

6 − 2 −2 2 𝑥1 0
𝑥
( −2 3 − 2 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
2 −1 3 − 2 𝑥3 0
4 −2 2 𝑥1 0
𝑥
(−2 1 −1) ( 2 ) = (0)
2 1 1 𝑥3 0
4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 +2𝑥3 = 0
−2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

The above equations represents the same equation 2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

101
 Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥1 , let 𝑥1 = 0

𝑥2 = 𝑥3

0
𝑋2 = (1)
1

𝑙
Let 𝑋3 = (𝑚)
𝑛

𝑋1 𝑇 𝑋3 = 0 ⟹ 2𝑙 − 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 0 ………………..(1)

𝑋2 𝑇 𝑋3 = 0 ⟹ 0𝑙 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 0 …………………(2)

Solving (1) and (2) we get

𝑙 −𝑚 𝑛
= =
−1 − 1 2 − 0 2 − 0

𝑙 −𝑚 𝑛
= =
−2 2 2

−2 1
𝑋3 = (−2) = ( 1 )
2 −1
Now clearly any two eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋,3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

2 0 1
∴ The Modal Matrix M=(−1 1 1 )
1 1 −1

To Prove : N 𝑇 AN=D(8,2,2)

102
To find Normalised matrix

2 1
0
√6 √3
−1 1 1
𝑁=
√6 √2 √3
1 1 −1
[ √6 √2 √3 ]

2 −1 1
√6 √6 √6
1 1
N𝑇 = 0
√2 √2
1 1 1
[√ 3 √3 √3 ]

To find AN

2 1
0
6 −2 2 √6 √3
−1 1 1
AN=[−2 3 −1] √6 √2 √3
2 −1 3 1 1 −1
[ √6 √2 √3 ]

12+2+2 0−2+2 6−2−2

√6 √2 √3
−4−3−1 0+3−1 −2+3+1
= √6 √2 √3
4+1+3 0−1+3 2−1−3
[ √6 √2 √3 ]

16 2
0
√6 √3
−8 2 2
=
√6 √2 √3
8 2 −2
[ √6 √2 √3 ]

103
Calculate 𝐷 = N 𝑇 AN

2 −1 1 16 2
0
√6 √6 √6 √6 √3
1 1 −8 2 2
D= 0 √2 √2 √6 √2 √3
1 1 1 8 2 −2
[√3 √3 √3] [ √6 √2 √3 ]

32+8+8 0−2+2 4−2−2

6 √12 √18
0−8+8 0+2+2 0+2−2
= √12 2 √6
16−8−8 0+2−2 2+2+2
[ √18 √6 3 ]

8 0 0
=[0 2 0] = D(8,2,2)
0 0 2

 Construct a Diagonalised matrix by an orthogonal transformation of

𝟏𝟎 −𝟐 −𝟓
𝑨 = [−𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 ].
−𝟓 𝟑 𝟓

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 10 + 2 + 5 =17

10 −2 2 3 10 −5
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−2 2 3 5 −5 5

=(20 − 4) + (10 − 9) + (50 −25)

=16+1+25=42

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=10(10 − 9) + 2(−10 + 15) − 5(−6+10)

104
 =10(1)+2(5) − 5(4)

=10+10−20=0

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 17𝜆2 + 42𝜆 = 0

𝜆(𝜆2 − 17 𝜆 + 42) = 0

𝜆(𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 + 14) = 0

𝜆 = 0,3,14

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

10 − 𝜆 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −2 2−𝜆 𝑥
3 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
−5 3 5 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 0 𝑖𝑛 (1),

10 − 0 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
( −2 2−0 𝑥
3 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−5 3 5 − 0 𝑥3 0
10 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
(−2 2 𝑥
3 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−5 3 5 𝑥3 0
10𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0

−5𝑥1 + 3 − 2𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
— 6 + 10 30 − 10 20 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 −20 16

105
 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 −5 4

1
𝑋1 = (−5)
4
Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (1),
10 − 3 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
( −2 2−3 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−5 3 5 − 3 𝑥3 0
7 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
𝑥
(−2 −1 3 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−5 3 2 𝑥3 0
7𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0

−5𝑥1 + 3 + 2𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
— 6 − 5 21 − 10 −7 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−11 −11 −11
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 1 1

1
𝑋2 = (1)
1

Case (iii): When 𝜆 = 14 𝑖𝑛 (1),

10 − 14 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
( −2 2 − 14 𝑥
3 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−5 3 5 − 14 𝑥3 0

106
 −4 −2 −5 𝑥1 0
(−2 −12 3 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−5 3 −9 𝑥3 0
−4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 12𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0

−5𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 9𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
— 6 − 60 −12 − 10 48 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−66 22 44
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−3 1 2

−3
𝑋3 = ( 1 )
2

Now clearly any two eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

1 1 −3
∴ The Modal Matrix M=(−5 1 1)
4 1 2

To Prove : N 𝑇 AN=D(0,3,14)

To find Normalised matrix

107
 1 1 −3
√42 √3 √14
−5 1 1
𝑁=
√42 √3 √14
4 1 2
[√42 √3 √14]

1 −5 4
√42 √42 √42
1 1 1
N𝑇 =
√3 √3 √3
−3 1 2
[√14 √14 √14]

To find AN

1 1 −3

10 −2 −5 √42 √3 √14
−5 1 1
AN=(−2 2 3) √42 √3 √14
−5 3 5 4 1 2
[√42 √3 √14]

10+10−20 10−2−5 −30−2−10 3 −42

0
√42 √3 √14 √3 √14
−2−10+12 −2+2+3 6+2+6 3 14
= √42
=0
√3 √14 √3 √14
−5−15+20 −5+3+5 15+3+10 3 28
[ √42 √3 √14 ] [0 √3 √14 ]

Calculate 𝐷 = N 𝑇 AN

1 −5 4 3 −42
0
√42 √42 √42 √3 √14
1 1 1 3 14
𝐷 = 0
√3 √3 √3 √3 √14
−3 1 2 3 28
0
[√14 √14 √14] [ √3 √14 ]

108
 3−5+12 −42−70+112
0
√126 √588
3+3+3 −42+14+28
=0 3 √42
−9+3+6 126+14+56
[0 √42 14 ]

0 0 0
=[0 3 0 ] = D(0,3,14)
0 0 14

 Construct a Diagonalised matrix by an orthogonal transformation of

𝟖 −𝟔 𝟐
𝑨 = [−𝟔 𝟕 −𝟒].
𝟐 −𝟒 𝟑

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 8 + 7 + 3 =18

8 −6 7 −4 8 2
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−6 7 −4 3 2 3

=(56 − 36) + (21 − 16) + (24 − 4)

=20+5+20=45

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=8(21 − 16) + 6(−18 + 8) + 2(24 − 14)

=8(5) + 6(−10) + 2(10)

=40 − 60 + 20=0

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 18𝜆2 + 45𝜆 = 0

⟹ 𝜆(𝜆2 − 18 𝜆 + 45) = 0

109
 ⟹ 𝜆(𝜆 − 15)(𝜆 − 3) = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 0,3,15

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

8−𝜆 −6 2 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −6 7−𝜆 −4 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
2 −4 3 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 0 𝑖𝑛 (1),

8−0 −6 2 𝑥1 0
( −6 7 − 0 −4 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
2 −4 3 − 0 𝑥3 0
8 −6 2 𝑥1 0
(−6 7 −4) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
2 −4 3 𝑥3 0
8𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0

−6𝑥1 + 7𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 0

2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
24 − 14 −32 + 12 56 − 36
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
10 20 20
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 2 2

1
𝑋1 = (2)
2
Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (1),

110
 8 − 3 −6 2 𝑥1 0
( −6 7 − 3 − 4) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
2 −4 3−3 𝑥3 0
5 −6 2 𝑥1 0
(−6 4 𝑥
−4) ( 2 ) = (0)
2 −4 0 𝑥3 0
5𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0

−6𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 0

2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

Solving last two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
24 − 8 −20 + 12 20 − 36
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
16 8 −16
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 1 −2

2
𝑋2 = ( 1 )
−2

Case (iii): When 𝜆 = 15,

8 − 15 −6 2 𝑥1 0
( −6 7 − 15 − 4) (𝑥 2 ) = (0)
2 −4 3 − 15 𝑥3 0
−7 −6 2 𝑥1 0
(−6 −8 𝑥
− 4) ( 2 ) = (0)
2 −4 −12 𝑥3 0
−7𝑥1 − 6𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0

−6𝑥1 − 8𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 0

2𝑥1 − 4𝑥2 − 12𝑥3 = 0

111
 solve last two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
24 + 16 28 + 12 56 − 36
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
40 −40 20
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 −2 1

2
𝑋3 = (−2)
1

Now clearly any two eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

1 2 2
∴ The Modal Matrix M=(2 1 2)
2 −2 1

To Prove : N 𝑇 AN=D(0,3,15)

To find Normalised matrix

1 2 2
3 3 3 1 2 2
2 1 2 1
𝑁= − = [2 1 −2]
3 3 3 3
2 2 1 2 −2 1
[3 − 3 3 ]

𝑇
1 1 2 2
N = [2 1 −2]
3
2 −2 1

To find AN

8 −6 2 1 2 2
1
AN=(−6 7 −4) [2 1 −2]
3
2 −4 3 2 −2 1
112
 8 − 12 + 4 16 − 6 − 4 16 + 12 + 12
1
= [−6 + 14 − 8 −12 + 7 + 8 −12 − 14 − 4]
3
2−8+6 4−4−6 4+8+3

1 0 6 30
= [0 3 −30]
3
0 −6 15

Calculate 𝐷 = N 𝑇 AN

1 1 2 2 1 0 6 30
𝐷 = [2 1 −2] [0 3 −30]
3 3
2 −2 1 0 −6 15

1 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝐷 = [0 27 0 ] = [0 3 0 ] = D(0,3,15)
9
0 0 135 0 0 15

 Construct a Diagonalised matrix by an orthogonal transformation of

𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
𝑨 = [−𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏].
−𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 1 + 1 =3

1 −1 1 −1 1 −1
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−1 1 −1 1 −1 1

=(1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + (1 − 1)=0

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=1(1 − 1) + 1(−1 − 1) − 1(1 + 1) = −4

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 3𝜆2 + 4 = 0

113
 If 𝜆 = −1, then −1−3+4=0

∴ 𝜆 = −1 is a root.

Using synthetic division,

-1 1 -3 0 4

0 -1 4 -4

1 -4 4 0
𝜆 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 4 = 0

𝜆 = −1, (𝜆 − 2)2 = 0

𝜆 = −1,2,2,

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

2−𝜆 −2 2 𝑥1 0
⇒( 1 1−𝜆 𝑥
1 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
1 3 −1 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = −1 𝑖𝑛 (1),

1+1 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
( −1 𝑥
1 + 1 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−1 −1 1 + 1 𝑥3 0
2 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
(−1 𝑥
2 −1) ( 2 ) = (0)
−1 −1 2 𝑥3 0
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0

114
 Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 + 2 −2 − 1 4 − 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
3 3 3
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 1 1

1
𝑋1 = (1)
1
Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1),
1−2 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
( −1 𝑥
1 − 2 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−1 −1 1 − 2 𝑥3 0
−1 −1 −1 𝑥1 0
(−1 −1 −1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−1 −1 −1 𝑥3 0
−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

The above equations represents the same equation −𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

Choosing arbitrary values for 𝑥1 , let 𝑥1 = 0

𝑥2 = −𝑥3

𝑥2 𝑥3
=
1 −1

0
𝑋2 = ( 1 )
−1

115
To find the third eigen vector orthogonal to 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 ,since the matrix A
is symmetric.

𝑙
Let 𝑋3 = (𝑚)
𝑛

𝑋1 𝑇 𝑋3 = 0 ⟹ 𝑙 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 0 ………………..(1)

𝑋2 𝑇 𝑋3 = 0 ⟹ 0𝑙 + 𝑚 − 𝑛 = 0 …………………(2)

Solving (1) and (2) we get

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 − 1 −1 − 0 1 − 0

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−2 1 1

−2
𝑋3 = ( 1 )
1
Now clearly any two eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

1 0 −2
∴ The Modal Matrix M=(1 1 1)
1 −1 1

To Prove : N 𝑇 AN=D(−1,2,2)

To find Normalised matrix

116
 1 −2
0
√3 √6
1 1 1
N= √3 √2 √6
1 −1 1
[√3 √2 √6 ]

1 1 1
√3 √3 √3
1 −1
N𝑇 = 0
√2 √2
−2 1 1
[ √6 √6 √6 ]

To find AN

1 −2
0
1 −1 −1 √3 √6
1 1 1
AN=[−1 1 −1] √3 √2 √6
−1 −1 1 1 −1 1
[√ 3 √2 √6 ]

−1 −4
0
√3 √6
−1 2 2
= √3 √2 √6
−1 −2 2
[ √3 √2 √6 ]

Calculate 𝐷 = N 𝑇 AN

1 1 1 −1 −4
0
√3 √3 √3 √3 √6
1 −1 −1 2 2
𝐷= 0
√2 √2 √3 √2 √6
−2 1 1 −1 −2 2
[ √6 √6 √6 ] [ √3 √2 √6 ]

117
 −1 0 0
=[ 0 2 0] = D(−1,2,2)
0 0 2

 Construct a Diagonalised matrix by an orthogonal transformation

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
of 𝑨 = [𝟎 𝟑 −𝟏].
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟑
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 1 + 3 + 3 = 7

3 −1 1 0 1 0
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−1 3 0 3 0 3

=9 − 1 + 3+3=14

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

= 1(9 − 1) − 0 + 0 = 8

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 7𝜆2 + 14𝜆 − 8 = 0

If 𝜆 = 1 ,then1-7+14-8=0

∴ 𝜆 = 1 is a root.

Using synthetic division

1 1 -7 14 -8

0 1 -6 8

1 -6 8 0
𝜆 = 1, 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 + 8 = 0

118
 𝜆 = 1, 𝜆 = 2,4

𝜆 = 1,2,4

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

1−𝜆 0 0 𝑥1 0
⇒( 0 3−𝜆 −1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
0 −1 3 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 1 𝑖𝑛 (1),

1−1 0 0 𝑥1 0
( 0 𝑥
3 − 1 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 3 − 1 𝑥3 0
0 0 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥
(0 2 −1) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 2 𝑥3 0
0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0

Solving last two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4−1 0−0 0−0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
3 0 0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 0 0

1
𝑋1 = (0)
0
Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1),

119
 1−2 0 0 𝑥1 0
( 0 3 − 2 −1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −1 3 − 2 𝑥3 0
−1 0 0 𝑥1 0
(0 1 −1 ) (𝑥 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 1 𝑥3 0
−𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 − 0 1 − 0 −1 − 0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −1 −1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 1 1

0
𝑋2 = (1)
1

Case (iii) : When 𝜆 = 4 𝑖𝑛 (1),

1−4 0 0 𝑥1 0
( 0 𝑥
3 − 4 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 3 − 4 𝑥3 0
−3 0 0 𝑥1 0
(0 𝑥
−1 −1) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −1 −1 𝑥3 0
−3𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

120
 Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0−0 3−0 3−0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −3 3
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 −1 1

0
𝑋3 = (−1)
1

Now clearly any two eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

1 0 0
∴ The Modal Matrix M=(0 1 −1)
0 1 1

To Prove : N 𝑇 AN=D(1,2,4)

To find Normalised matrix

1 0 0
1 −1
0
𝑁= √2 √2
1 1
0
[ √2 √2 ]

1 0 0
1 1
0
N𝑇 = √2 √2
−1 1
0
[ √2 √2]

To Find AN

121
 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 −1
0
AN=[0 3 −1] [ √2 √2 ]
1 1
0 −1 3 0
√2 √2

1+0+0 0+0+0 0+0+0

3 1 3 1
0+0+0 0+ − 0− −
=[ √2 √2 √2 √2]
1 3 1 3
0+0+0 0− + 0+ +
√2 √2 √2 √2

1 0 0
=[0 √2 −2√2]
0 √2 2√2

Calculate 𝐷 = N 𝑇 AN

1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 −2√2
𝐷=[ √2 √ ][
2 √2 ]=[0 2 0] = D(1,2,4)
−1 1
0 0 √2 2√2 0 0 4
√2 √2

 Construct a Diagonalised matrix by an orthogonal transformation of

𝟕 −𝟐 𝟎
𝑨 = [−𝟐 𝟔 −𝟐].
𝟎 −𝟐 𝟓
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 7 + 6 + 5 = 18

7 −2 6 −2 7 0
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−2 6 −2 5 0 5

=(42 − 4) + (30 − 4) + (35 − 0)

=38+26+35=99

122
 𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=7(30 − 4) + 2(−10 − 0) + 0

=7(26)+2(−10)=162

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 18𝜆2 + 99𝜆 − 162 = 0

If 𝜆 = 3, then(3)3 − 18(3)2 + 99(3) − 162 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 3 is a root.

Using synthetic division

3 1 -18 99 -162

0 3 -45 162

1 -15 54 0
𝜆 = 3, 𝜆2 − 15𝜆 + 54 = 0

𝜆 = 3, 𝜆 = 9,6

𝜆 = 3,9,6

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

7−𝜆 −2 0 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −2 6−𝜆 𝑥
−2 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
0 −2 5 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (1),

7−3 −2 0 𝑥1 0
( −2 6−3 𝑥
−2 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −2 5 − 3 𝑥3 0

123
 4 −2 0 𝑥1 0
(−2 3 −2) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −2 2 𝑥3 0
4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 2𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 − 0 −8 − 0 12 − 4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 8 8
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 2 2

1
𝑋1 = (2)
2
Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 6 𝑖𝑛 (1),
7−6 −2 0 𝑥1 0
( −2 6 − 6 −2 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −2 5 − 6 𝑥3 0
1 −2 0 𝑥1 0
(−2 0 −2) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −2 −1 𝑥3 0
𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 − 0 −2 − 0 0 − 4
124
 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 2 −4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 2 −4

2
𝑋2 = ( 1 )
−2

Case (iii): When 𝜆 = 9 𝑖𝑛 (1),

7−9 −2 0 𝑥1 0
( −2 6−9 𝑥
−2 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 −2 5 − 9 𝑥3 0
−2 −2 0 𝑥1 0
(−2 −3 −2) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 −2 −4 𝑥3 0
−2𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 − 4𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4−0 4−0 6−4
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
4 −4 2
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 −2 1
2
𝑋3 = (−2)
1

Now clearly any two eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

125
 1 2 2
∴ The Modal Matrix M=(2 1 −2)
2 −2 1

To Prove : N 𝑇 AN=D(3,6,9)

To find Normalised matrix

1 1 2 2
𝑁 = [2 1 −2]
3
2 −2 1

𝑇
1 1 2 2
N = [2 1 −2]
3
2 −2 1

To Find AN

7 −2 0 1 2 2
1
AN=[−2 6 −2] 3 [2 1 −2]
0 −2 5 2 −2 1

7−4+0 14 − 2 + 0 14 + 4 + 0
1
= [−2 + 12 − 4 −4 + 6 + 4 −4 − 12 − 2]
3
0 − 4 + 10 0 − 2 − 10 0+4+5

3 12 18 1 4 6
1
= [6 6 −18]=[2 2 −6]
3
6 −12 9 2 −4 3

Calculate 𝐷 = N 𝑇 AN

1 1 4 6 1 2 2
𝐷 = [2 2 −6] [2 1 −2]
3
2 −4 3 2 −2 1

1 1 + 4 + 4 4 + 4 − 8 6 − 12 + 6
= [2 + 2 − 4 8 + 2 + 8 12 − 6 − 6 ]
3
2 − 4 + 2 8 − 4 − 4 12 + 12 + 3

126
 9 0 0 3 0 0
1
= [0 18 0 ]=[0 6 0] = D(3,6,9)
3
0 0 27 0 0 9

𝟐 𝟎 −𝟏
 Verify that the eigenvectors of the real symmetric matrix A=[ 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 ] are
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
orthogonal in pairs.
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6

2 0 2 −1 2 0
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
0 2 −1 2 0 2

=4 + 3 + 4 = 11

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=2(4 − 0) + 0(1) − 1(0 + 2)

=8 − 2=6

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 11𝜆 − 6 = 0

If 𝜆 = 1, then 1-6+11-6=0

∴ 𝜆 = 1 is a root.

Using synthetic division

1 1 -6 11 -6

0 1 -5 6

1 -5 6 0

127
 𝜆 = 1, 𝜆2 − 5𝜆 + 6 = 0

𝜆 = 1, 𝜆 = 2,3

𝜆 = 1,2,3

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

2−𝜆 0 −1 𝑥1 0
⇒( 0 2−𝜆 𝑥
0 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
−1 0 2 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 1 𝑖𝑛 (1),

2−1 0 −1 𝑥1 0
( 0 2−1 𝑥
0 ) ( 2 ) = ( 0)
−1 0 2 − 1 𝑥3 0
1 0 −1 𝑥1 0
( 0 1 0 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−1 0 1 𝑥3 0
𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

Solve first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0+1 0−0 1−0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 0 1

1
𝑋1 = (0)
1
Case(ii): When 𝜆 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1),

128
 2−2 0 −1 𝑥1 0
( 0 2−2 0 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−1 0 2 − 2 𝑥3 0
0 0 −1 𝑥1 0
( 0 0 0 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
−1 0 0 𝑥3 0

0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

Solving first and last equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0+0 0−1 0+0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0 1 0

0
𝑋2 = (1)
0

Case (iii) : When 𝜆 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (1),

2−3 0 −1 𝑥1 0
( 0 2−3 𝑥
0 ) ( 2 ) = ( 0)
−1 0 2 − 3 𝑥3 0
−1 0 −1 𝑥1 0
𝑥
( 0 −1 0 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
−1 0 −1 𝑥3 0
−𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

129
 Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
0−1 0+0 1−0
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 0 1

−1
𝑋3 = ( 0 )
1

∴ Eigen vectors of A are

1 0 −1
𝑋1 = (0) , 𝑋2 = (1) , 𝑋3 = ( 0 )
1 0 1

To prove the orthogonality condition :

𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 =0, 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 =0, 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 =0

1
𝑇
i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 =(0) (0 1 0)=0
1

0
𝑇
𝑋2 𝑋3 =(1) (−1 0 1)=0
0

−1
𝑇
𝑋3 𝑋1 = ( 0 ) (1 0 1) = 0
1

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

∴ The eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

𝟑 −𝟏 𝟏
 Verify that the eigenvectors of the real symmetric matrix A=[−𝟏 𝟓 −𝟏]
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟑

130
are orthogonal in pairs.

Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

𝑠1 = 3 + 5 + 3=11

5 −1 3 1 3 −1
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
−1 3 1 3 −1 5

=14+8+14=36

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=3(14) + 1(−3 + 1) + 1(1 − 5)

=42 − 2 − 4=36

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 11𝜆2 + 36𝜆 − 36 = 0

If 𝜆 = 2, then(2)3 − 11(2)2 + 36(2) − 36 = 0

∴ 𝜆 = 2 is a root.

Using synthetic division

2 1 -18 36 -36

0 2 -18 36

1 -9 18 0
𝜆 = 2, 𝜆2 − 9𝜆 + 18 = 0

𝜆 = 2, 𝜆 = 3,6

𝜆 = 2,3,6

131
To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

3−𝜆 −1 1 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −1 5−𝜆 𝑥
−1 ) ( 2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
1 −1 3 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 2 𝑖𝑛 (1),

3−2 −1 1 𝑥1 0
( −1 𝑥
5 − 2 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
1 −1 3 − 2 𝑥3 0
1 −1 1 𝑥1 0
(−1 3 −1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 −1 1 𝑥3 0
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 − 3 −1 + 1 3 − 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−2 0 2

−2 1
𝑋1 = ( 0 ) = ( 0 )
2 −1

Case (ii): when 𝜆 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (1),

3−3 −1 1 𝑥1 0
( −1 5 − 3 −1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 −1 3 − 3 𝑥3 0
0 −1 1 𝑥1 0
(−1 2 −1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 −1 0 𝑥3 0

132
 0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1−2 0+1 0−1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 −1 −1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 1 1

1
𝑋2 = (1)
1

Case (iii): When 𝜆 = 6 𝑖𝑛 (1),

3−6 −1 1 𝑥1 0
( −1 𝑥
5 − 6 −1 ) ( 2 ) = (0)
1 −1 3 − 6 𝑥3 0
−3 −1 1 𝑥1 0
(−1 −1 −1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
1 −1 −3 𝑥3 0
−3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 − 𝑥2 − 3𝑥3 = 0
Solving first two equations using cross rule method
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1+1 3+1 3−1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
2 −4 2

133
 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 −2 1
1
𝑋3 = (−2)
1

∴ Eigen vectors of A are

1 1 1
𝑋1 = ( 0 ) , 𝑋2 = (1) , 𝑋3 = (−2)
−1 1 1

To prove the orthogonality condition :

𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 =0, 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 =0, 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 =0

1
𝑇
i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 =( 0 ) (1 1 1)=0
−1

1
𝑇
𝑋2 𝑋3 =(1) (1 −2 1)=0
1

1
𝑇
𝑋3 𝑋1 = (−2) (1 0 −1) = 0
1

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

∴ The eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎
 Verify that the eigenvectors of the real symmetric matrix A=(−𝟏 𝟐 𝟏)
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
are orthogonal in pairs.
Solution:
The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 𝑠1 𝜆2 + 𝑠2 𝜆 − 𝑠3 = 0

134
 𝑠1 = 1 + 2 + 1=4

2 1 1 0 1 −1
𝑠2 = | |+| |+| |
1 1 0 1 −1 2

=(2 − 1) + (1 − 0) + (2 −1)

=1+1+1=3

𝑠3 = |𝐴|

=1(2 − 1) + 1(−1 − 0)+0=0

The characteristic equation of A is 𝜆3 − 4𝜆2 + 3𝜆 − 0 = 0

𝜆(𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 3) = 0

𝜆 = 0, 𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 3=0

𝜆 = 0,1,3

To find eigen vectors solve (A − 𝜆𝐼)𝑋 = 0

1−𝜆 −1 0 𝑥1 0
⇒ ( −1 2−𝜆 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0) − − − − − −(1)
0 1 1 − 𝜆 𝑥3 0

Case (i): When 𝜆 = 0 𝑖𝑛 (1),

1−0 −1 0 𝑥1 0
( −1 2−0 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 1 1 − 0 𝑥3 0
1 −1 0 𝑥1 0
(−1 2 1) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 1 1 𝑥3 0
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

135
 0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 − 0 1 − 0 2 − 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 −1 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 1 −1

1
𝑋1 = ( 1 )
−1
Case (ii): When 𝜆 = 1 𝑖𝑛 (1),
1 − 1 −1 0 𝑥1 0
( −1 2 − 1 𝑥
1 ) ( 2 ) = ( 0)
0 1 1 − 1 𝑥3 0
0 −1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑥
(−1 1 1) ( 2 ) = (0)
0 1 0 𝑥3 0
0𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 − 0 0 − 0 0 − 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 0 −1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
1 0 1

136
 1
𝑋2 = (0)
1

Case (iii): When 𝜆 = 3 𝑖𝑛 (1),

1−3 −1 0 𝑥1 0
( −1 2−3 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 1 1 − 3 𝑥3 0
−2 −1 0 𝑥1 0
(−1 −1 1 ) (𝑥2 ) = (0)
0 1 −2 𝑥3 0
−2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

0𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 0

Solving first two equations using cross rule method

𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 − 0 −2 − 0 2 − 1
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= =
−1 2 1

−1
𝑋3 = ( 2 )
1
∴ Eigen vectors of A are
1 1 −1
𝑋1 = ( 1 ) , 𝑋2 = (0) , 𝑋3 = ( 2 )
−1 1 1

To prove the orthogonality condition :

𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 =0, 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 =0, 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 =0

137
 1
𝑇
i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 =( 1 ) (1 0 1)=0
−1

1
𝑇
𝑋2 𝑋3 =(0) (−1 2 1)=0
1

−1
𝑇
𝑋3 𝑋1 = ( 2 ) (1 1 −1) = 0
1

i.e 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑇 = 𝑋2 𝑋3 𝑇 = 𝑋3 𝑋1 𝑇 = 0

∴ The eigen vectors are pairwise orthogonal.

138