Contents:

1 Abstract: ............................................................................................... 2
2 Introduction: ......................................................................................... 2
3 Theory: ................................................................................................. 3
3.1 Struts: ........................................................................................................ 3
3.2 Euler formula: ............................................................................................ 3

4 Materials required: ............................................................................... 4

5 Procedure:............................................................................................. 4
6 Precautions: .......................................................................................... 5
7 Observation and calculation:................................................................ 5
8 Graphs: ................................................................................................. 7
9 Discussion: ......................................................................................... 11
10 Conclusion: ...................................................................................... 11
11 References: ...................................................................................... 11

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 Experiment # 2

Prediction of the critical load of various struts

1 Abstract:
If a load is applied on the strut along its axis the strut will buckle in some arbitrary
direction. The objective of this experiment is to analyze and compare the behavior of ideal and
real strut. In this experiment the circular strut is used and parametric study of strut is done. The
critical load for the strut is determined without braking the strut by extrapolation of graph
plotted between load vs load per deflection. The following procedure explains how the
theoretical and actual values were determined, as well as suggestions for improving the
experiment and to minimize the error. The errors in experiment may be due to extrapolation of
graph, personal error and mainly instrumental error.

2 Introduction:
Struts or columns are used extensively in every day life. For example, the wheel spokes
or rim of bicycle tire shown in figure below is a good example of struts use in daily life. Struts
can carry both compressive and tensile load while columns can only handle the compressive
load. Struts are slender members used in trusses while the column is used to support the
structure. In this experiment force is applied on the strut by a hand screw and deflection is
measured by digital vernier caliper and measuring assembly installed in apparatus. Then the
graph of p vs p/u is drawn for 11 different struts parameters where p is load in n and the u is
deflection occurred in strut. From this graph the critical load is determined by extrapolation.
Three pcr vs le graphs are plotted to study the effect of change in effective length (end
conditions) and the critical load variation. Then for pinned struts a graph is plotted to depict
the effect of eccentric loading on the strut. This experiment is therefore mainly the
interpretation of graphs.
Figure 1: Bicycle wheel

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 Figure 3: bicycle wheel
Figure 2 struts and coloumn

3 Theory:
When a strut is subjected to compressive stress, buckling may occur. Buckling is
characterized by a sudden sideways deflection of a member. This may occur even though the
stresses that develop in the structure are well below yield stress for that material. Once the
buckling starts the member than continuously buckle or bend even if no more load is added.
In this case when the member is long with length equal to 30 times diameter approximately.
In such case the maximum buckling stress or euler stress should also be taken into account
with the yielding stress of that material.following are some terms which should be clearly
understood to clearly analyze the report.

3.1 Struts:
A strut is a structural component designed to resist the compressive stress along its
longitudinal axes. A strut is a structural member which is subjected to an axial compressive
force. A strut may be horizontal, vertical or inclined with any end fixity condition, e.g.,
connecting rods, piston rods, etc.

3.2 Euler formula:

The theory of the behavior of columns was investigated in 1757 by
mathematician leonhard euler. He derived the formula, the euler formula, that gives the
maximum axial load that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal
column is one that is perfectly straight, made of a homogeneous material, and free from
initial stress.the formula for calculating the critical load is given below:

F = maximum or critical force (vertical load)

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 E = modulus of elasticity,
I = smallest area moment of inertia of the cross section of the column,
L = unsupported length of column,
K = column effective length factor, whose value
depends on the conditions of end support of the
column, as shown in fig 3

Le is the effective length of the column.

Important parameters for struts:

1. End condition (pinned or fixed).

2. Length of the strut.
3. Diameter of the strut. Figure 3 1

4. Eccentricity.

4 Materials required:
i. Struts of different length and diameters.
ii. Strut testing apparatus.

5 Procedure:
i. As required adjust the position of the loading bracket
to accommodate the different strut lengths in such a
way that lateral deflection is always measured at the
centre of the strut.
ii. Remember that the shape of end adopters for pinned
and fixed end conditions is different. A ball is placed
at both end of the strut for the case of pinned end
configuration (which restricts translation and permits
rotation of the loaded ends).
iii. Initially carefully apply a small load by turning the load screw Figure 4: strut testing Apparatus

hand wheel. Carefully observe which way the strut deflects. Then unload the strut and

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 rotate with the adopters so that deflection is away from the calipers and towards the
pulley.
iv. Apply load in increments and measure the corresponding lateral deflection. The lateral
deflection is measure using a digital vernial calliper.
v. A graph is to be plotted during loading of each strut. After application of each new
increment of the load try to predict the buckling load using this graph and always keep
the final load well below the extrapolated buckling load. The apparatus is capable of
applying 1kn load but maximum load should not exceed 800n.

6 Precautions:
1. Don’t apply the critical load on the strut (especially for large struts)
2. Carefuly measure the deflection and apply the load gently.

7 Observation and calculation:

E for mild steel= 200x10^9 Pa
Le for pinned pinned struts =L
Le for fixed fixed struts = 0.5 L
I for dia of 5 mm strut=3.068x10^-11
I for dia of 8.01 mm strut= 2.113x10^-10

Both End Fcr

Sr.
Condition
Lengt Lengt Le Dia Dia e
theoratica Fcr %
no h h (m) . erro
s l grap
(mm) r
h
(m) (mm (m) (m) (N) N
)

1 Fixed 996 0.996 0.498 8.1 0.0081 0 1680.0805 1595 5.064

2 Fixed 996 0.996 0.498 5 0.005 0 243.30556 178.07 26.81
3 Fixed 846 0.846 0.423 5 0.005 0 337.23293 262.2 22.24
4 Fixed 696 0.696 0.348 5 0.005 0 498.25564 443.02 11.08
5 Pinned 996 0.996 0.996 8.1 0.0081 0 420.02013 406.06 3.323
6 Pinned 846 0.846 0.846 8.1 0.0081 0 582.16764 448.36 22.98

7 Pinned 996 0.996 0.996 8.1 0.0081 0.0147 44.187 216.36 389.6
8 Pinned 996 0.996 0.996 8.1 0.0081 0.0272 50.184 23.101 53.96

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 e Load F Deflection u F/u
Both End Length Dia.
Conditions (mm) (mm) (mm) (N) (mm) (N/mm)
sr. no
996 8.1 0 224.9 0.19 1183.68421
1 996 8.1 0 346.9 0.41 846.097561
Fixed
996 8.1 0 477.9 0.56 853.392857
996 8.1 0 551.9 0.79 698.607595

996 5 0 90 0.58 155.172414

996 5 0 110 1.77 62.1468927
2 996 5 0 130 2.77 46.9314079
Fixed
996 5 0 151 3.88 38.9175258
996 5 0 170 5.34 31.835206
996 5 0 190 10.37 18.3220829

846 5 0 17 0.33 51.5151515

846 5 0 37 0.51 72.5490196
3 846 5 0 77 0.62 124.193548
Fixed
846 5 0 97 0.8 121.25
846 5 0 117 1.14 102.631579
846 5 0 137 1.58 86.7088608

696 5 0 100 0.49 204.081633

696 5 0 150 0.77 194.805195
4 Fixed 696 5 0 190 1.18 161.016949
696 5 0 230 1.72 133.72093
696 5 0 260 2.31 112.554113

996 8.1 0 167 0.21 795.238095

996 8.1 0 198 0.32 618.75
5 996 8.1 0 228 0.44 518.181818
Pinned
996 8.1 0 256 0.56 457.142857
996 8.1 0 286 0.75 381.333333
996 8.1 0 316 0.95 332.631579

846 8.1 0 168 0.09 1866.66667

846 8.1 0 188 0.18 1044.44444
6 846 8.1 0 218 0.37 589.189189
Pinned
846 8.1 0 348 0.78 446.153846
846 8.1 0 438 0.99 442.424242
846 8.1 0 488 1.37 356.20438

996 8.1 14.7 33 0.87 37.9310345

996 8.1 14.7 53 1.87 28.342246
7 996 8.1 14.7 73 2.87 25.4355401
Pinned
996 8.1 14.7 93 4.03 23.0769231
996 8.1 14.7 113 5.4 20.9259259
996 8.1 14.7 133 6.96 19.1091954

996 8.1 27.2 23 1.28 17.96875

996 8.1 27.2 43 2.95 14.5762712
8 996 8.1 27.2 63 4.91 12.8309572
Pinned
996 8.1 27.2 83 7.54 11.0079576
996 8.1 27.2 103 10.25 10.0487805
996 8.1 27.2 123 13.05 9.42528736

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8 Graphs:
1
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
F(N)

500
400
300 y = 0.0007x2 - 1.985x + 1595
200 R² = 0.8504
100
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
F/u (N/mm)

2
250

200
F(N)

150

100

50 y = -0.6436x + 178.07
R² = 0.7198
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

F/u (N/mm)

3
300
250
200
F(N)

150
100
50 y = -1.4278x + 262.2
R² = 0.9357
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

F/u (N/mm)
5 Linear (5)

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 4
300
250
200
F(N)

150
100
50 y = -1.594x + 443.02
R² = 0.9599
0
0 50 100 150 200 250

F/u (N/mm)

350 5
300

250

200
F(N)

150
y = -0.3187x + 406.66
100
R² = 0.9502
50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
F/u (N/mm)

6
600

500

400
F(N)

300 y = -0.1775x + 448.36

200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

F/u (N/mm)

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 7
140
120
100 y = -5.1684x + 216.36
R² = 0.8765
F(N)
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

F/u (N/mm)

8
30

25

20
F(N)

15
y = -1.3001x + 23.101
10 R² = 0.8748

0
0 5 10 15 20

F/u (N/mm)

Graphs between Le and Fcr:

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 Fcr vs Le
for pinned struts
800
600 y = 93.47x-10.94
R² = 0.4276
Fcr
400
200
0
0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1 1.02
Le

Fcr vs Le
for fixed thin struts
600

400
Fcr

200 y = 2600.4e-4.779x
R² = 0.9974
0
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55
Le

Graph between e and Fcr for 996 mm pinned struts:

e vs Fcr
450
400
350
300
250
Fcr

200
150 y = 957597x2 - 39644x + 420.02
R² = 1
100
50
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
e

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9 Discussion:
After successful completion of experiment two tables and 11 different graphs are
obtained. Different trends are observed. All the tables and graphs are categorically discussed
below:

i. The first table is mainly a theoratical table in which Pcr is calculated by using the
Euler formula and then by graphical extrapolation which will be discussed below.
ii. From the second table graphs between Fcr and F/u force per unit are drawn the
equations of straight lines are obtained and then to find the extrapolated load from
the graph put x=0 in the equation to obtain the value of y which is the max or
critical load.
iii. The graphs between Fcr and Le are parabolic in shape and depicts that force
carrying capability of strut decreases by increase in effective length.
iv. The last graph which is between eccentricity and Fcr for pinned members that
depict clearly that increase in eccentricity decreases the load carrying capacity of
a strut.

The errors occurred in observation as per table 1 are order of 5.064%, 26.81% , 11.08% ,
3.323% . Three coloumns cannot be performed due to errors occurred in direction of
deflection after the application of load. The instrument is measuring deflection by
electrical contact which is the significant cause of error.

10 Conclusion:
Concluding, The experiment was performed successsfuly the results obtained are satisfactory.
The errors in graphs are due to several reasons which are discussed in above section. The trends
of graph somehow matches the exact one. The ideal and real struts are analyzed and their
parameters are studied.

11 References:
1. Hibbeler, R. C., & Yap, K. B. (2018). Mechanics of materials. Harlow: Pearson.

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