MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY, NUTRITION AND BIO-

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS

ENGINEERING

AEN 4105: Irrigation and Drainage Engineering II

KANYESIGYE ANDREW

13/U/340

213000507

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 1. Write comprehensive notes on the main components and accessories of

A. sprinkler irrigation system

B. Drip irrigation system, giving their functions, drawings and connections

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

Introduction

In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water
under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping.
With careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of
irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniform at the rate to
suit the infiltration rate of soil.

Fig.1 Layout of sprinkler irrigation system

Advantages of sprinkler irrigation

A. Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss

B. Suitable to all types of soil except heavy clay
C. Suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is very high. It is
most suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and vegetable crops

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 D. Water saving
E. Closer control of water application convenient for giving light and frequent irrigation
and higher water application efficiency
F. Increase in yield
G. Mobility of system
H. May also be used for undulating area
I. Saves land as no bunds etc. are required
J. Influences greater conducive micro-climate
K. Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated
L. Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals
M. Less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment laden water.

Disadvantages of sprinkler irrigation system

Constraints in application of sprinkler irrigation

I. Uneven water distribution due to high winds

II. Evaporation loss when operating under high temperatures
III. Highly impermeable soils are not suitable
IV. Initial cost is high
V. Proper design
VI. Lack of Package of practices
VII. Lack of awareness
VIII. Lack of social concern to save natural resources
IX. High water pressure required in sprinkler (>2.5kg/cm2)
X. Difficulty in irrigation during wind in sprinkler

General classification of different types of sprinkler systems

Sprinkler systems are classified into the following two major types on the basis of the
arrangement for spraying irrigation water.

1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system.

2. Perforated pipe system.

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 1. Rotating head:

Small size nozzles are placed on riser pipes fixed at uniform intervals along the length of the
lateral pipe and the lateral pipes are usually laid on the ground surface. They may also be
mounted on posts above the crop height and rotated through 90 0, to irrigate a rectangular strip.
In rotating type sprinklers, the most common device to rotate the sprinkler heads is with a small
hammer activated by the thrust of water striking against a vane connected to it.

Fig .2 Example of a few rotating type sprinkler irrigation systems

2. Perforated pipe system:

This method consists of drilled holes or nozzles along their length through which water is
sprayed under pressure. This system is usually designed for relatively low pressure (1 kg/cm2).
The application rate ranges from 1.25 to 5 cm per hour for various pressure and spacing.

Based on the portability, sprinkler systems are classified into the following types:

I. Portable system : A portable system has portable main lines, laterals and pumping
plant

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 Fig .3 Fully portable sprinkler irrigation system
II. Semi portable system: A semi portable system is similar to a portable system except
that the location of water source and pumping plant is fixed.

III. Semi-permanent system: A semi-permanent system has portable lateral lines,

permanent main lines and sub mains and a stationery water source and pumping plant.

IV. Solid set system: A solid set system has enough laterals to eliminate their movement.
The laterals are positions in the field early in the crop season and remain for the season.

V. Permanent system: A fully permanent system consists of permanently laid mains, sub
mains and laterals and a stationery water source and pumping plant.

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Components of sprinkler irrigation system

The components of portable sprinkler system are shown through fig .4. A sprinkler system
usually consists of the following components

(i) A pump unit

(ii) Tubings- main/sub mains and laterals
(iii) Couplers
(iv) Sprinkler head
(v) Other accessories such as valves, bends, plugs and risers

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Fig .4 Component of a portable sprinkler irrigation system

1. Pumping Unit:
Sprinkler irrigation systems distribute water by spraying it over the fields. The water is pumped
under pressure to the fields. The pressure forces the water through sprinklers or through
perforations or nozzles in pipelines and then forms a spray.
A high speed centrifugal or turbine pump can be used for operating sprinkler irrigation for
individual fields. Centrifugal pump is used when the distance from the pump inlet to the water
surface is less than eight meters. For pumping water from deep wells or more than eight meters,
a turbine pump is suggested. The driving unit may be either an electric motor or an internal
combustion engine.

The driving unit which is the pump mainly plays the following functions

To overcome the elevation difference between the water source and the sprinkler head.

To overcome the frictional head loss along the pipe

To boost the pressure in the tubings such that the water at the sprinkler is supplied at the
required pressure

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 2. Tubings: Mains/sub mains and laterals:

The tubings consist of

-Main line,

-Sub-mains and

-Laterals

Main line conveys water from the source and distributes it to the sub-mains.

The sub-mains convey water to the laterals which in turn supply water to the sprinklers.
Aluminium or PVC pipes are generally used for portable systems, while steel pipes are usually
used for center-pivot laterals. Asbestos, cement, PVC and wrapped steel are usually used for
buried laterals and main lines.

Main line

The main line is a pipe which delivers water from the pump to either sub-mains or the laterals.
They are normally laid below ground (i.e. permanent) or laid above ground (i.e. portable) and
have the largest diameter of the pipes in the system.

Hydrant

Fig. hydrant components

A main line (supply line) is coupled to a lateral by means of a hydrant. A stopcock and pressure
gauge are provided on the hydrant so that water can be delivered to the lateral at the correct

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pressure. Quick couplings are provided at the hydrant valves so the water can be turned off
from the lateral, which can be disconnected and reconnected at a new location without stopping
the pump. With permanent underground laterals, hydromatic valves are located at each
sprinkler position.

The sprinkler pipe is usually coupled to the nearest hydrant, to avoid unnecessarily long
connection pipes between the hydrant and sprinkler pipe. It is essential to determine whether
at any stage two laterals are operating simultaneously from one specific hydrant. If this is the
case, a T-Piece instead of an elbow joint must be used

3. Couplers:

Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling quickly and easily. Essentially a
coupler should provide

(a) a reuse and flexible connection

(b) not leak at the joint
(c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple
(d) be light, non-corrosive, and durable.

4. Sprinkler Head:

Sprinkler head distribute water uniformly over the field without runoff or excessive loss due to
deep percolation. Different types of sprinklers are available. They are either rotating or fixed
type. The rotating type can be adapted for a wide range of application rates and spacing. They
are effective with pressure of about 10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from
16 to 40 m head are considered the most practical for most farmers.

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Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate small lawns and gardens. Perforated lateral
lines are sometimes used as sprinklers. They require less pressure than rotating sprinklers. They
release more water per unit area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed head sprinklers are
adaptable for soils with high intake rate.

Maintenance of sprinkler heads

The sprinkler heads should be given the following attention:

(a) When moving the sprinkler lines, make sure that the sprinklers are not damaged or pushed
into the soil.

(b) Do not apply oil, grease or any lubricant to the sprinklers. They are water lubricated and
using oil, grease or any other lubricant may stop them from working.

(c) Sprinklers usually have a sealed bearing and at the bottom of the bearing there are washers.
Usually it is the washers that wear and not the more expensive metal parts.

5. Fittings and accessories:

The following are some of the important fittings and accessories used in sprinkler system.

Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered. This is necessary to operate
the system to give the required quantity of water.

Flange, couplings and nipple; used for proper connection to the pump, suction and delivery.

Pressure gauge: It is necessary to know whether the sprinkler system is working with desired
pressure to ensure application uniformity.

Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs.

Fertilizer applicator: Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected into the sprinkler system
and applied to the crop. The equipment for fertiliser application is relatively cheap and simple
and can be fabricated locally. The fertilizer applicator consists of a sealed fertilizer tank with
necessary tubings and connections. A venturi injector can be arranged in the main line, which
creates the differential pressure suction and allows the fertilizer solution to flow in the main
water line.

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Filters: When using irrigation water that can block sprinklers, a filter with a mesh size of 1/3
of the smallest sprayer size must be installed. With the correct type of pre-filtering, filters are
usually not necessary.

Maintenance of pipes and fittings

The pipes and fittings require virtually no maintenance but attention must be given to the
following procedures:

 Occasionally clean any dirt or sand out of the groove in the coupler in which the rubber
sealing ring fits. Any accumulation of dirt or sand will affect the performance of the
rubber sealing ring.
 Keep all nuts and bolts tight.
 Do not lay pipes on new damp concrete or on piles of fertilizer. Do not lay fertilizer
sacks on the pipe.

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Operation and Maintenance of Sprinkler Systems

Proper design of a sprinkler system does not in itself ensure success. It should be ensured that
the prime mover and the pump are in alignment, particularly in the case of tractor-driven
pumps. For these the drive shaft as well as the pump shaft should lie at nearly the same height
to prevent too great an angle on the universal shaft.

While laying the main and lateral pipes, always begin laying at the pump. This necessarily
gives the correct connection of all quick coupling pipes. While joining couplings, it is ensured
that both the couplings and the rubber seal rings are clean.

In starting the sprinkler system, the motor or engine is started with the valves closed. The pump
must attain the pressure stated on type-plate or otherwise there is a fault in the suction line.

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After the pump reaches the regulation pressure, the delivery valve is opened slowly. Similarly,
the delivery valve is closed after stopping the power unit.

The pipes and sprinkler-lines are shifted as required after stopping. Dismantling of the
installation takes place in the reverse order to the assembly described above.

DRIP IRRIGATION

Drip irrigation is a form of irrigation that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip
slowly to the roots of many different plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root
zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done through narrow tubes
that deliver water directly to the base of the plant. It is chosen instead of surface irrigation for
various reasons, often including concern about minimizing evaporation.

Drip irrigation also known as low-flow, micro, and trickle irrigation (is the slow, measured
application of water through devices called emitters. Drip irrigation was invented in the early
1960’s as an efficient way to water agricultural crops. Now, a wide variety of quality products
has been developed to make drip irrigation reliable and easy to use for almost any landscape
situation.

Advantages of micro irrigation systems

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Micro irrigation can be one of the most efficient methods of irrigation. Little if any runoff and
little evaporation occur, and deep percolation can be controlled with good water management.
Water is applied at the point of use (plant transpiration). Other advantages of micro irrigation
systems are:

 Systems are easily automated with soil moisture sensors and computer controlled for
low labour requirements.
 Soil moisture levels can be maintained at predetermined levels for start-stop operation.
 Fertilizer can be efficiently added to irrigation water. With proper water management,
there is minimum waste caused by deep percolation, and less opportunity for ground water
pollution.
 Much of the soil surface remains dry, reducing weed growth and soil surface
evaporation.
 The soil surface remains firm for use by farm workers and equipment.
 Frequent irrigations can be used to keep salts in the soil water more diluted and moved
away from plant roots. Irrigation with water of higher salinity is possible (requires a high level
of management). Where salts are present, soil-water movement must always be toward the
edges of the wetted bulb (away from roots). A common mistake is to shut the system down
when precipitation occurs, often creating soil-water movement into the plant root zone.
 Micro irrigation can be used on all terrain and most agricultural crops and soils and is
often used on steep, rocky ground that is unsuitable for other forms of irrigation.
 Low tension water availability to plants enhances growth and improves crop yield and
quality.

Limitations of micro-irrigation systems

Micro irrigation is considered expensive to install and maintain. In general, the cost of micro
systems is greater than that for sprinkle or surface systems. Frequent maintenance is essential,
and a high level of management is required to obtain optimum application efficiencies. Other
limitations include:

 Clogging is a major problem in all micro systems. Emitter outlets are very small,
and can be easily clogged with chemical precipitates, soil particles, or organic materials.
Clogging can reduce or stop water emission. Chemical treatment of the water is often
necessary, and filters are almost always required. Filtration and treatment can be costly,
especially where water is taken from surface sources containing sediment and debris.

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During installation, care should be taken to clean all construction debris from the inside of
pipelines as this material can cause plugging.
 Animals, especially rodents, can damage surface (and shallow subsurface)
installed plastic pipe less than 4 inches in diameter.
 With low operating pressures, poor distribution uniformity can result because
of elevation differences on undulating ground. Pressure regulators or pressure
compensated emitters are then necessary. However, they require about 2 pounds per square
inch for operation.
 On steep terrain, automatic gravity draining of laterals to a low point within the
field can cause low distribution uniformity, especially in low pressure, high volume
systems. This problem is aggravated by frequent on-off cycles, but can be overcome by
installing air-vacuum valves in a raised pipe arch (i.e., dog leg) at one or more locations in
the lateral. Drains are installed just upstream of each pipe arch. This increases the number
of sites affected by lateral pipe drainage, thus decreasing effects on distribution uniformity
because each drain discharges less water.
 When soil water is reduced in the plant root zone, light rains can move salts in
surrounding soil into the plant root zone, which can constitute a potential hazard. Salts also
concentrate below the soil surface at the perimeter of the soil volume wetted by each
emitter. If the soil dries between irrigations, reverse movement of soil water can carry salts
from the perimeter back into the root zone. To avoid salt damage to roots, water movement
must always be away from the emitter and from the plant root zone. As strange as it may
seem, in high soil salinity areas or when using high saline or sodic water for irrigation, one
may need to irrigate when it rains.
 A smaller volume of soil is wetted at each plant. Plants can be quickly stressed
if the system fails (i.e., pump failure, water source cut off, pipeline or valve failure). Daily
checking of the system is necessary even when all or part is automated.
 Storing a 3-day plant-water supply in the soil is recommended along with daily
replacement of water used.
 Multiple emitters at each plant are recommended to decrease effects of
manufacturer variability, to increase area of root development, and to reduce risk of plant
damage should an emitter become plugged.

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Layout of a drip irrigation system

Drip irrigation components

Components of drip irrigation system

Components used in drip irrigation (listed in order from water source) include:

 Pump or pressurized water source

 Water filter(s) or filtration systems: sand separator, Fertigation systems (Venturi
injector) and chemigation equipment (optional)
 Backwash controller (Backflow prevention device)
 Pressure Control Valve (pressure regulator)
 Distribution lines (main larger diameter pipe (main pipe), sub-main, pipe fittings)

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  Hand-operated, electronic, or hydraulic control valves and safety valves
 Smaller diameter polytube (laterals”)
 Poly fittings and accessories (to make connections)
 Emitting devices at plants (emitter or dripper, micro spray head, inline dripper or inline
drip tube)

Note: In drip irrigation systems, pump and valves may be manually or automatically operated
by a controller.

I. Pump. This has many functions as it’s the prime mover and other functions are;

To overcome the elevation difference between the water source and the emitters.

To overcome the frictional head loss along the pipe

II. Distribution lines (Suction, main, sub-main, manifold and drip lines/laterals)

• Laterals are usually polyethylene (PE) but may be poly-butylene (PB) or PVC if buried

• Metal pipes are not used because of corrosion from injected chemicals

• Non-buried lateral tubing should be black to discourage growth of algae and other organic
contaminants

III. Drip emitters (on-line or in-line (inserted into tubing by tubing manufacturer) or
integral

Some have pressure compensating features to provide constant flow over a range of operating
pressures.

Emitter in action Open pressure compensated emitter

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The discharge (emitter) device is unique to a micro irrigation system. Many types, shapes, and
discharge ranges are commercially available. They can be either pressure compensating or non-
compensating.

Discharge devices can be divided into two general categories based on field application: line-
source and point-source.

1. Line-source emitters are used for closely spaced row crops, such as vegetables, cotton,
sugarcane, grapes, strawberries, melons, and some small fruit. These emitters are either a series
of equally spaced orifices along a single or double chamber tube, or they are small openings in
porous tubing.
2. Point-source emitters are used for windbreaks, fruit, citrus and nut orchards, grapes,
cane berries, blueberries, bananas, ornamental and landscape shrubs, nursery stock, and
greenhouse crops. The point-source emitter is an individual emitter typically attached to 1/4-
to 3/4-inch-diameter PE flexible tubing.

IV. Control Head

A control head serving one or more plots includes the following elements:

V. Non-return valves

To avoid corrosion of pump elements the water has and other dirt has to be prevented from
being sucked back into the pump.

VI. An air- release valve

This is located at a high point and is used to free air accumulating in the pipe system

VII. Metering valve (Automatic).

Some valves also function as water meters.

VIII. A fertiliser tank

The application of plant nutrients through a micro irrigation system is convenient and
efficient. The fertilizer to be applied is usually kept in the fertilizer tank

IX. Filters.
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A variety of filters are available. Screen filter (80-150 mesh i.e. no of wires per square inch),
used mainly for suspended solid material can also be installed at the inlets to laterals. Disc
filters, centrifugal/hydro-cyclone filters and gravel filters used in drip irrigation systems.

Note: Filters do not overcome the problem of precipitation of calcium-carbonate or organic

material (algae).

 To remove calcium-carbonate, the system must be flushed with a solution of

hydrochloric acid.
 Organic matter is removed by flushing the system with water for about 15 minutes, and
then with compressed air under high pressure.

X. Pressure or flow regulators.

Most drip systems operate at low pressure, usually less than 20 PSI. Pressure regulators reduce
incoming water pressure to the ideal pressure for the drip system.

XI. Gate valves provide on-off control.

They can be operated manually or with timed or automatic solenoid valves.

Maintenance

Frequent maintenance is essential to keep emitters functioning at design flow. Maintenance

items include:

 Clean or backflush filters when needed.

 Flush lateral lines regularly.
 Check emitter discharge often; replace as necessary.
 Check operating pressures often; a pressure drop (or rise) may indicate problems.
 Inject chemicals as required to prevent precipitate build up and algae growth.
 Inject liquid fertilizers when needed.
 Service pumps regularly.

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2.0 A level manifold placed along the centre of a rectangular field feeds plastic laterals
laid to both sides. Laterals to the left slope downward with an elevation difference of 0.2m
Laterals to the right slope upward with the same elevation difference. On each lateral 8
low-rate flow sprinklers are installed every 6 meters. The selected sprinkler applies qs =
120l/h at a pressure head hs = 25 m. Consider that no pressure regulation is provided at
the junction. What are the appropriate lateral diameters and class?

Solution

The pressure head (Hn) at the entry into each lateral of a given system should be as close to
each other as possible as this ensures uniform distribution of water through each sprinkler and
also ensures that the end pressure (Ho) is also close to the designed Hn as to reduce the head
loss along the given laterals

The maximum head loss ∆hmax between sprinklers in the field

∆hmax = 20/100*25 =5 m.

Number of sprinkler n=8

Spacing between sprinklers S L =6m

Assuming the first sprinkler is at SL/2

This means that SL/2= 6/2 =3

Length of the lateral L = n SL –SL/2

= 8*6 – 3

= 45m

Lateral discharge Q = n x qs = 8*120/1000 = 0.96 m3/hr

Reading the value of F (frictional coefficient) from table;

Where n=8, choosing plastic material and lateral inlet to 1st outlet as SL/2

By interpolation

n 5 8 10

F-value 0.410 F 0.384

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F = 0.394,

Therefore, hf =JLF/100

J is read from the nomograph

Taking 20mm for both pipe diameters; J =13.2 from the nomograph

hf =13.2*45/100*0.394 =2.3m (for both pipes)

Checking for Hn values for both pipes; Hn = Ha+ 0.75Hf ± 0.5 He

Left

Hn =25+0.75*2.3-0.5*0.2 = 26.63m

Pressure at the last sprinkler

Ho = Hn –Hf + He

Ho = 26.63-2.3+0.2 =24.53m

Maximum head loss ∆h

h = 26.63-24.53= 2.10m

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Right

Hn = 25+0.75*2.3+0.5*0.2 = 26.83m

Pressure at the last sprinkler

Ho = Hn –Hf – He

Ho = 26.83 –2.3-0.2 =24.33m

Maximum head loss ∆h

h = 26.83 – 24.33= 2.50m.

Since the values of Hn for both the right and the left pipes are close to each other and not far
away from 25m and also the values of maximum head loss ∆h are close to each other and far
less than 5m. then the solution is preferred.

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