Basic Principals/Laws of Geology

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
Basic Principals of Geology:

1. Neptunism: Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1817)

2. Plutonism: James Hutton (1726-1797)
3. Catastrophism: James Ussher (1581-1656)
4. Uniformitarianism: James Hutton (1726-1797)
5. Law of Superposition: Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687)

6. Law of Original Lateral Continuity: Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687)

7. Law of Original Horizontality: Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687)
8. Law of Cross-cutting Relationships: Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
9. Principle of Inclusions: Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
10. Principle of Faunal Succession: William Smith (1769-1839)

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Nicolaus Steno James Hutton William Smith
Father of modern Geology Charls Lyell
Father of Geology Father of Historical Geology

Werner James Usher

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
 Principles of Historical Geology
Neptunism vs. Plutonism
Neptunism: Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749-1817): The theory states that the rocks of the Earth's crust
consists of materials deposited from, or crystallized out of the ocean.

Plutonism: James Hutton (1726-1797): The concept of the formation of crystalline rocks by
solidification from a melt or magma.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Principles of Historical Geology
Catastrophism vs. Uniformitarianism

Catastrophism: James Ussher (1581-1656): The doctrine that sudden violent, short-lived, more or
less worldwide events outside our present experience or knowledge have greatly modified the Earth's
crust accounting for its present configuration as well as for the observed distribution of life forms.

Uniformitarianism: James Hutton (1726-1797): The fundamental principle that geological processes
and natural laws now operating to modify the Earth's crust have acted in much the same manner
(gradual) and with essentially the same intensity throughout geologic time, and that past geologic events
can be explained by forces observable today. "The present is the key to the past"

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Catastrophism Uniformitarianism

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Law of Superposition
Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687)
 In a series of undeformed sedimentary rocks: Oldest rocks are at the bottom (D) - deposited first;
Youngest rocks are on the top (A) - deposited last.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Law of Original Lateral Continuity
Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687)

• When they form, horizontal strata

continue in all directions until they:
• Thin to nothing,
• Change into something else,
• Abut against a barrier.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
 Law of Original Horizontality
Nicolaus Steno (1638-1687)

• Sedimentary rocks are formed in layers (strata) which were originally horizontal.
• Flat strata are probably undisturbed
• Tilted strata have been affected by tectonics.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

• Crosscutting igneous rocks are younger than what they intrude.

• Faults are younger than what they cut.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Principle of Inclusions
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)
• Erosion surfaces exist in the rock record.
• Fragments within strata above are derived from the older strata below  they are older than the strata
containing them.
• The strata containing the fragments are younger than the strata the fragments came from.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Principle of Faunal Succession
William Smith (1769-1839)

 Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite,

determinable order.

• Plants and animals evolve through time and specific

fossils are often diagnostic of geologic periods.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Principle of Faunal Succession
William Smith (1769-1839)

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Geologic Time

Time – a manmade concept; based on recurrent natural

phenomenon

Why is time important? - To place events into context, i.e.

when and for how long did an event take place

Geologic Time – Geological events arranged in relation to

time

Relative Dating - The age of a rock, fossil, or other feature

measured relative to another.
Absolute Dating (numerical dating) - The age of a rock in
years.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Basis of Relative Dating

• Superposition
• Lateral Continuity
• Original Horizontality
• Inclusions
• Cross-cutting Relationships
• Fossil Records:
• Based on evolution
• Also relics of superposition
• When a species becomes extinct, it does not reappear.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Radioactive Dating
• Radioactive decay - spontaneous transformation of an element to another isotope of the
same element or another element.

Alpha Decay – loss of a positively charged He ion

Beta Decay – neutron splits into zproton and electron

• Isotope - element with different number of neutrons in the nucleus.

• Half life - The fixed period of time during which half the parent atoms present in a closed
system decay to form daughter atoms.

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

 Radioactive isotope Stable isotope of other element

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)

Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)
Md. Yousuf Gazi, Lecturer, Department of Geology, University of Dhaka (yousuf.geo@du.ac.bd)