COMPUTER & ITS

APPLICATIONS IN
PHARMACY
COMPLETE
COURSE
FOR PHARM D
FINAL PROF.

Azfar Akram
08-013
 lnt-:-odnction
A· computer is a device that takes data in one form, uses it, and produces a
different form of information which is related to (but not the Sill1!C as) the original data.
Or an "intelligent" machine .You tells a person to do a job and the person follows your
"instruction" Similarly, a computer is a machine that follows insyuctions to perform
various useful tasks. [Show a calculator] It cm1 follow more complex instructionsthan a
calculator (involving more than just numbers, like, say, playing games with you). Also
has "memory" where data can be stored permanently. Cannot "think" on its own, does
only what is told. But computers are useful bebause they can correctly do what they are
told without a break. Similar to a very dumb but hardworking servant.

What can you do with a computer?

You type out instnictions using a keyboard and mouse ("input" to the computer).
Computer follows y6ur instructions and shows it to you on the computer monitor
("output" or the computer). [Sl1ow a laptop/computer and point the keyboard, mouse,
monitor ctc.J

How do I know hQW to give instl;'uctiQns'? .

YouJ1eetl ~pt write all the instructions. your computer comes with some common
inst~~Lc~j.~¥ lhat~clher people have written. These set of instructions are called "computer
.pr~~ains>~:o¥''s6ftware''. You can simpJy run the programs.
:Common programs th<li computers hnvc
.. Do calcul~1tions
" Write lcttcrshwi c::
II
Play games \Vith ::uu
• Many morL~ thi11g:'i

What Is A,~ompqtcr? .•i·qc.' ••·· ' ; , : ,. ,. ...•• · • ·

' ·~.<?§ •.,, ' . 'r ~~ an~¢ctr<?~ic,dcvicc, operating tinder the cohtro1 of instructions
··~~fttyN,r~.1~~): ·' · ·;?~'merry\j~unit, that can accept dat~ (input), maniptilate dat~l
'~~~~}(~,,;: ' mfom1atiOtt:J{'Ylltput) from the processmg. Generally, the term IS
·used'o desoor> llection of dev~ces that function together as a system.

What Docs A Computer Do?

Computers can perform four general operations, which comprise the information
·processing cycle.
• Input
•i Process
·•· Ohltput
· II Storage

\
 Data and Information
,
• Ail computer processing requires data, which is a collectioQ. of raw facts, figures
and symbols, such as numbers, words, iillages, video and sotmd, given to the
compJ.Jtcr during the input phase. l ~,~
' d

• CompJ.Iters manipulate data to create inJonnation. Information is data)l}at is ,. '<.

organized, meaningful, and useful.
• Qt,tring the ou~put Phase, the information that has been created· is put intq some
fotm; such as a printed report. .
• The information can also be put in computer storage for future use. !'

l<
WhyJs A Computer So Powerful? \!

• · T~ ability to perform the information processing cycle with amazing sp~d. -= u

• ~~iability (lowfailure.1rate). ·· · q
• Accuracy.
• Ability:to store huge amounts of data and information.
• AbiHty to communicate with other computers.

·u\jl.:;o::o.,uu.: Unit (containing the controllmit and the. ar~thmeticdi:Qgic

:, ·~~' . .
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i';f~,;,
···:
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 lnpnt.lJ nits
Used to enter infornntion intci the computer .Input devices: receive signals l"ron1
outside the computer and tran:dl:r them into the computer. Computer keyboard and mouse
me the standard way to interact with the computer. Other devices include joysticks and
game pads used primarily Ccr g;1:ncs. Some input devices accept voice. imnge. or other
signals.

The Central processing Uni:

The central processing unit (CPU) contains electronic circuits that cause
processing to occur. The CPI i illll'rprcls inslruclions to the computer. performs the
logical and arithmetic processing operations, ami causes tl1c input and output operatioll~>
\o occur. lt is considered the '·brain" of the computer. The CPU (Central Processing
Unit) is normally an Intel Pentium (or equivalent) and it is one of the most important
components within your computer. It determines how fast your computer will run and is
measured by its MHz speed. Thus a 600 MHz Pentium is much faster than say a 400
MHz Pentium CPU .It is the CPU thatpcrforms all the calculations within the computer.

Some of the Factors that Impact on a Computer's Performnnce

• CPU speed
• RAM size
• Hard disk speed and capacity

Components of CPU
• Control unit
• ALU

Control Unit
It controls all operation of computer. It take data li·01n the input unit and store it
into the main memory and· send qatafrommemory to ALU unit for calculation and again
receive data from ALU and store in main memory and send to crutput unit according to
the instructions of program.
Control unit sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes them, coordinates flow
or data in/out or A I,{ J. registers. prinwry ancl second;1ry slor~1gc. and various output
devices ·

Arithmetic and Logic UnH (ALU)

ALU performs mathematical calculations and makes l~gical compi!risons
It pro~esses the data in the registers according to instructions issued by the control unit.
• Perf6m1s arithmetic (addition, subtraction, etc ... ) and logical (comparison) operations.

.t
Registc1·s: k
Provicks temporary storage for (.bta and instrudious. It handL:s instructions ~md
<:~,;a at 10 times the spccd of cache memory. Registers facilitate the 1~1owment of data l
;;
..
nnd instructions bclween RAM, the control unit and the ALU. )?'. j
• Control unit n:gistcrs:
• The instruction register contains the current instruction being t.:xecuted
i
t
~

• The program register (instruction pointe;~ contains the RAM address of the next
instruction to be executed
~ ALU registers
• The ((CC/1111/tlator register store'S the result ori\LU orK·mtions

Output l I nits
Output Unitmakcs the information n.:sulling Ji·om the proccssill~~ ;tvailabk t'or
usc. 'rhc two output tkvices more commonly used arc the printer and the computer
Si.TC{'Jl.
The printer produc..::s ~~hard copy of your outpuL ~md the compuh:r screen produces a soil
copy or your output.

Main Memory

Primary stores data and instructions just before and immediately after the CPU
processes them
• Includes programs currently running on a machine
• Intermediate results of arithmetic operations
• Intermediate versions of documents being word processed
• Data that represent pictures displayed on a computer screen
• Sounds played by the speakers

'fhe amount of memory in computers is typically measured in kilobytes or megabytes.

One kilobyte (K or KB) equals approximately 1,000 memory locations and one megabyte
(M or MB) equals approximately one million locations a memory location, or byte,
usually stores one character.
Therefore, a computer with 8 MB of memory can store approximately 8 million
characters. One megabyte can hold approximately 500 pages of text information.
Types of Main Memory
o RAM (random access memory)
u ROM (read-only memory)

RAM - Random Access Memory

The main 'working' memory used by the computer. When the operating system
I,
loads frdm disk when you first switch on the computer, it is copied into RAM. As a rough ;

a
rufe·, Microsoft \.Vindows based computer will operate faster if you install more RAM.
Data and programs stored in RAM arc volatile (i.e. the information is lost when you
switch offthc computer) ,

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 ROM- Read Only Mcmor:;r
Read Only Memory (ROM) as the name suggests is a special type of memory
chip that holds software that can be read but not written to. A good example is the ROM-
BIOS chip, which contains rc:1d-only sofhvmc. Orten network cards and video cards also
contain ROM chips.

INPUT DEVICES

The Kcyho~u·d
Keyboard is an input device, partially n1odekd artcr the typewriter keyboard,
which uses an an-angemenl of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or electronic
switches. A keyboard typically has characters printed on the keys and each press of a key
- typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols
requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most
keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous
key presses can produce actions or computer commands. A keyboard typically has 101 or
105 keys.
The Mouse
IS a pointing device which i:: used to control the movement ora mouse p(iinlcr on
the screC'n to make sclectinns fi·om the screen. A mouse has one to five buttons_ The
bottom of the mouse is Oat and contains a mechanism that detects movement or the
mouse .
•
Tracker Balls
An alternative to the traditional mouse and o11cn used by graphic designers Bit
like an upside-down mouse. Ball is rotated inside static housing, relative motion moves
cursor. Indirect device, fairly accurate. Requires buttons for picking. Size and '"f'cd'' of
trackball itself important. Requires little space, becoming popular for portable and
notebook computers.
Scanners
Scanners are device that can change image into electronic form that can be stored
in a computer's memory.
• Image scanners: ·converts images to electronic form that can be stored and
manipulated.
• Bar code scanners: reads bar line.
I

• Magnetic Scanners: Reads encoded information on the back of credit cards. The
magnet code on back of the card contains encoded user's account number.
A scanner allows you to scan printed material and convert it into a file format that may be
.. used within the PC

• Touch Display Screen

Touch display screen allows you to input information on to the computer, by
touching the screen, which also serves as output device. This device is commonly used in
retail stores .

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Light Pens
A light pen is a computer input devic~? in the form of a lis;iL-S•:llsitive wand used
in conjunction with a computer's monitor. It allows the user to point to displayed objects,
or draw on the screen, in a similar \vay to a touch screen but with' greater positional
acc:uracy. A light
.
p.:n is fairly simple to impkmcnt. Just like a light
I
gun, a light pen
works by sensing the sudden s~nall change in brightness of a point on the screen when the
electron gun refreshes that spot. The light pen became moderately popular during the ffii
early I9R0s w
Joystick

A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its
angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video
games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the
computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the
stick. The joystick has been the principal flight control in the cockpit of many aircraft,
particularly military J~1st jets, where center stick or side-stick location may be employ~d

Digital Camera and Video Input

Digital camera: are stored digitally and then can be transferred in to the
computers memory. The images can be stored in a f1oppy disk, Hash memory card,
memory stick, and mini-disk.
Video input: is the process of capturing full-motion images -vvith a type of video
camera and then saving the video on a stor1,1gc medium such as a hard drive, CD, or
DVD. After it is saved, you can view and edit.

Biometric Input
Biometric is authentication technique using automated method of recognizing a
person based on physiological or behavioral characteristic. Some of the more common
identification techniques are finger print, face, handwriting, and voice, and looking at the
retina found in the eye. · -
Audio-Input Devices
• Convert sound into digital li.mnat
• Voice recognition system
• Operate computer by voice command
• Dictation
• Microphone, sound card, software
• Discrete
• Continuous
VoiceRecognitiori Systems Types
• Recognize individual worJs based on sound
• Discrete-speech recognition
• Cannot distinguish sam..:-sound \vords
• Continuous-speech n~cognition
• Can distinguish same-sound words
• Evaluates context of word

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Microphone
A microphone i~; ~m i1:pu1 device tlwt converts sound input into electrical signaL.
Latest technology usc~; . :untinuou;, speech recognition where the user docs not have to '
J

pause bet ween words

Vid~o-confcrcncin~
Videoconfcr~ncing us:~s digitnl video technology to simulate 1~1Ce-to-facc
meetings and Whitcboarcls. which arc a part of the screen. can be used to write or draw
Web Cam
A Web cam provide~; lqw-rcsolution viclco-confcrcncing for Internet users. The
ima,gcs arc small and jerky

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices arc peripheral devices that enable users to view or hear the computer's
processed data.
• Visual output- Text, graphics, and video
• 1\udio output Sounds, lllllsic, and synthc~;i/.c'd speech
Visual Display System
• ;\ viswtl display system is composed of two parts:
• Video adapter --Responsible l(>r video qu:tlity rvlonitor · · Displnys the
video adapter's output
Video Adapter
• A video adapter is also called display adapter, video card, or graphics card
• 1t plugs into an expansion slot on the motherboard
• It contains memory called video RAM (VRAM)
• It is designed to ·work with digital or analog monitors
• It converts digital signals to analog
• It determines a monitor's maximum resolution (VGNSuper VGA)
• It determines a monitor's refresh rate
• 3D graphics adapter- Enables 3-dimensional images
• Multi-display video adapter- Permits a connection of two monitors at a time

A display screen to provide "output'' to the user. It is where you view the
inform<1tion on your working on. Convert sound into digital format. Most frequently used
output device. Size is measured by diagonal of screen. Common sizes: 15, 17, 19, 21
inches. Clarity is indicated by resolution. Measured in pixels. A monitor is a peripheral
device which displays computer output on a screen. Screen output is referred to as son
copy.

• Resolution capabilities indicated by a monitor's standmd

• Super Video Grapl~ics Array (SVGA)
• Extended Graphics Array (XGA)
• Super Extended Graphics Array (SXGA)
• Ultra Extended Graphics Array (UXGA)

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 't\, a; of Monitor
• Cathode-ray tube (CRT)
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD or fiat-panel)

C:uiHH.ic-ray tube (CRT)

• Resembles televisions
• Uses picture tube technology
• Less expensive than a LCD monitor
• Takes up more desk space and uses more energy than LCD monitors

Liquid Crystal Display (LC.p)

• Cells sandwiched between two transparent layers form images

• TJsed for notebook computers, PDAs, cellular phones, and personal computers
• More expensive than a CRT monitor
• Takes up less desk space and uses less energy than CRT monitors
• Types of LCD monitors:
• Passive-matrix LCD
• Active-matrix LCD
• Gas plasma display
• Field emission display

Printers
A"prinler is a peripheral device that produces a physical copy or hard copy ofthe
computer's output
Two basic types:
• Impact printer
• Non-impact printer

Impact l1 rinter
An· impact printer is a printer~ that has a print head that contacts the paper to
produce a character. It uses ink rihbon. Tt is noisy. produces Ncar-letter q~Jqli1y J>rin~<HI~H,
. <uH.I is not comn~only used today. In the Dot-matrix Pins arc used to make chnractei·s p!So
called dot matrix printer.

Non-impact Printer
The non-impact printer is the most commonly used printer today. It works quietly
compared to an impact printer. There are two types. Inkjet printer, al$o called a bubble-
jet, makes ·characters by inserting dots of ink onto paper. Letter-qualit~ print-outs. Cost of
printer is inexpensive but ink is costly. Laser printer works like phot4cqpi~; dots of
electrostatic charge deposited on drum, vvhich picks up toner (black P9· .. ,..1·lonn of ink),
rolled onto paper which is th~ri fixed with heat. Typically 600dpi or.,.... ·" -·:~. Quality
determined by clots per inch (clpi) produced. Color printers availabl~'.r ighinitial costs
but cheaper to operate per page,

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 Multifunction Printt·1·
A mullifunction prir:l.cr t:\lll1hi1H:~; the functions (\r ~~ non-impact printer, scauncr.
i.. fax machine, and copier in on"? 1:nit.
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Plotters
A plotter is a printer llwl uses <1 pen that moves over a lmgc revolving sheet of
paper. It produces higlJ-qucdity in1:1gc:;. It is used in engineering. dralling, map 111~1king,
and seism ---o1ology.

Audio Output
Audio output is the ability oftbc computer to output ;;ound
0 Two components arc needed:
•
o Sound card- Plays contents or digiti;;:cd recordings
':':1 Speakers-- i\UZJchcd to sound e<ml
" Digital formats inciu(k W;\ V. MPI·:c;, l\H'J, ami iV!li)J

Stor·ag(• Devices
Auxiliary storage devices arc used to store data when tlJCy arc not being used in
memory. The most common types of auxiliary storage used on personal computers arc
floppy disks, hard disks and CD-ROM drives.
Floppy Disks
A floppy disk is a portable, incxpen.siv..; storage medium that consists of a thin,
circular, flexible plastic disk V/ilh a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-shaped plastic
shell.
Structm·c Of Floppy Di~;ks
• Initially Floppy disks \Vl'l"C S-inchl'S wide. they then shrank to 5.25 inches, and
today the most widely used lolly disks are 3.5 inches wide and can typically store
1.44 megabytes of data.
• A folly disk is a magnetic disk, which means that it used magnetic patterns to
store data.
• Data in 11oppy disks can be rcild fi·mn and written to.
• Formatting is the process ofpreparing a disk for reading and writing.
• A track is a narrow recording bnnd that forms a full circle on the surface or the
c.lisk.

1-Iart.l Uisks
Another form of auxiliary storage is a hard disk. Hard Disk, are used to store data
: inside the computer, although some removal hard disk can be found externally from the
computer.
• A hard disL consists of one or more rigid metal plates coated with a metal oxide
material that allows data to b~ magnetically recorded on the surface of the
platters.
• The hard disk platters spin at a high rate ol'specd. typically 5400 to 7200
revolutions per minute (RPM).
• Storage tapacities of hard disks for personal computers range from 10GB to 120
em (one billion byte:-:: nrc c;dlcd :1 gigabyte) .
•
 (JpticaJ Stontgc
Optical Storage, device use laser technology to read and \\rii.e data on silwr
platters. The term disk is used for optical m :dia. CDs and DVDs arc a ty;w n 1' optical
storage media.
• CDODA
• CD-R
• CD-ROM
• CD-RW
o DVD-ROMDVD-RW

Compact Discs
• A compact disk (CD), also called an optical disc, is a 11at round, portable storage
medium that is usually 4. 75 inch in diameter.
• i\ CD-ROM (read only memory}, is a compact disc that used the same laser
technology as audio CDs for recording music. In addition it can cont::iin other
1ypL'S ofdata such as text, graphics, and video.
• The capacity of a CD-ROM is 650MB of data.

IVIagnctic Storage Device

Magnetic storage device use oxide-coated plastic storage media called Mybr. A
device called an electromagnetic read/write head stores or retrieves data in circles called
tracks. Tracks are numbered based on a file allocation system.
Solid State Storage
II Solid-state storage is a nonvolatile removable medium in which everything is
processed electronically, and thus contains no mechanical parts.
• A popular solid-state storage medium is the USB Flash drive.

/ : Kinds of computer

Analog Computers
An analog device operates on continuously varying data. ConlirHrously v:1rying
data has an inlinite number ofpossibk stat. Analog computer mcasun.:s ami answer the
questions by the method of"HOW MUCH". The input data is not a r:umbcr infect a
physical quantity like tcm, pressure, speed, velocity. In analog computer the signals arc
continuous of (0 to 10 V). Its Accuracy is 1% approximately and also has High speed
The Output of this computer is continuous and Time is wasted in transmission times.

Digital Computer
A digital device uses discrete data .. Discrete data is distinct or separate. Example
is Numbers or digits. Most computers today are digital. Their circuits have only two
possible states, such as "Off' and "On" or "0" and "1 ".Digital computers counts and
answer the questions by the method of"HOW Many". The input data is represented by a
number. These are used for the logical and arithmetic operations. In digital computer
there are two level of signals etc 0 V or 5V.Accuracy of this computer is unlimited and
low speed seZ1uential as well as parallel processing's. The of
Output is continuous but obtaio vvhen computation is compldcd.

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 Hybrid Compute•·
The combination of f~,ccltmcs or analog and digital computer is called Digital
computer. The main example:; arc central national defense and passenger t1ight radar
system. They me also nscd to control whots.

Classification of ComJHlt:;E

Micro Computer .,
Micro Computer is a p~;;rsonal computer; designed to meet the computer needs of
an individual. It provides access to a wide variety of computing applications, such as
word processing, photo editing, e~mail, and internet.. Micro computer are the smallest
computer system. There size range from calculator to desktop size. Its CPU is
microprocessor. It also known as Grand child Compute!'. A microcomputer that fits on a
dcsl<. and runs on power f'rom an electrical wall outlet. The CPU can be housed in either ;1
vertical or a horizontal case. Have separate components (keyboard, mouse, etc.) that al"l'
each plugged into the computer.
Application:~ personal computer, Multi nscr system, offices.

Mini Computer
'· These are also small general purpose system. They arc generally more powerful
and most useful as compared to micro computer. Mini computer arc also known as mid
,range computer or Child computer.
Application: ~ Dcp~lrlmcnlal systems. Network Servers. work group system .
• Mainframs. .,
ll is a large and c:-.;pcnsivc co111putcr that is capable of handling requests and
passing data simultaneously to many users. Mainframe computers arc those computers
that offer faster processing and gr:1tcr storage area. The word "main frame" comes hom
the metal frames. It is also known as Father of computer. It is large expensive computer
.Used to store, manage, and process large amounts of data that need to be reliable, secure,
and centralized. Ostt:illy housed in a closet sized cabinet Used by governments and large
.corporations to provide centralized storage and control. Processes 'billions of data per
· second and includes many units where one directs overall operations. a second one
handles communication between users, and third searches for requests given by user.
Application -Host computer, Central data base server.
Super Computer
Super computer arc those computer which arc designed for scientific job like
whether forecasting and artificial intelligence etc. It is the fastest type of computer.
. 'Supercomputers are very expensive and arc employed for specialized applkations that
reqttite immense amounts of niathematical calculations. It is often used for Breaking
c0~s, modeling weather systems, Simulating nuclear explosions ~nd Research
. si~lat~~ns/'lt is Capable of performing over 600 billion -floating;,;point operations per
.· .seeon.d)A'$~r computer contains a number of CPUmhioh operates in parallel to make
:faster: Inti$~ known as grand father of computer. Very powerful, used by large
••"-"•""'U>l such as banks to control the entire business 'operation. Applications arc
forecasting, weapons research and development. .
~,_.,,,,•.,,. ... ~ .. tJlcs: Deep Blue, PARAM 1000. llitaehi's SR2201
..

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 Hard·warc & Software

Computer Hardwat·e
The tei·m hardware refer-~ to in,; physical components of your ~omputer such as
the system unit mouse, keyboard, monitor etc.

Computer Software
Te term soilwarc refers to the logical components of your cun•pukr such as
program or set of instructions given to the computer. The software is the instructions that ·
make the computer work. Sotlwarc is held either on your computers hard disk, CD-ROTVL
DVD or on a diskette (floppy disk) and is loaded (i.e. copied) from the disk into the
computers RAM (Random Access Memory), as and when required. =
Computer software is the key to productive usc of computers. Software can be
categorized into two types:
a Operating system soflware
B Application software.
Operating System Software
The operating system is a special type or program that loads automaticafly when
you start your computer. The operating system allows you to use the advanced katures of
A modern computer without having to learn all the details of how the hardware works
The link between the hardwar~ and you, the user
Operating system software tells the computer how to perform the functions of
loading, storing and executing an application and how to transfer data. Today, many
computers use an operating system that has a graphical user interface (GUI) that provfdes
visual clues such as icon symbols to help the user. Microsoft Windows 98 is a widely
• used graphi~al operating system. DOS (Disk Operating System) is an older but still
widely used operating system that is text-based.
Exan~ple~ of?S.software arc Microsoft Window~ J2NIX, ,.Mac OS, LINUX and etc.
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Apphcatwn So_ftw.ar·c U)f!rr j frro gumme!Y ({?Jtturl!re · .
An apphcatwn program IS the type of program that you usc once the operatmg,
system has been loaded.
Application Software consists c~C programs that tell a computer how to produce
infonnation. Some of the more commonly used packages are:

• Word processing
• Electronic spreadsheet
• Database Eef-0 \Lcfe.~ ; ;:
• Prese.ntation graphics r.J ,
o EYJI.bra_t~d 6<--vtwa.w
Word Processing
Word Processing software is used to create and print documents. A key advantage
of word processing software is that users easily can make changes in documents.
Word processing applications arc
• Microsoft Word
"' • Lotus Word Pro
• WordPerfect

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 • -Electronic Spreadsheets
' Electronic spreadsheet software allows the user to add, subtract, and perform
' ·user-defined calculations on rows and columns of numbers. These numbers can be
changed and the spreadsheet quickly recalculates the new results.
· .•.· ·Electronic Spreadsheets ll"C
" Microsoft E:-;ccl
" Lotus 123
Datahas<.~ Softwan·
!\!lows the user to enter, r·.. :\ril:\'~\ and npd;!lc data in :111 org:mizt:d ;md cllicienlmanncr.
·.with llcxibl'~ inquiry and :·cpn~ ling <.'ctpabililics.
Dat;th;,~;cs ;m·
" l'dicrosol't /,ccc:;~;
• I ,otus Approach
· · Presentation Graphic
Presentation graphic software allows the user to create documents called slides to
:be used in making the presentations. Using special projection devices, the slides display
. as they appear on the computer screen.
r Presentation Clraphics arc

f " ' Microsoft PowcrPoint

• Lotus Freelance

. . Needed calculation devices to keep track of accounting for commerce in

. .·
. 1200s the Mariual Calculating ·Devices were the abacus.
·: ' Tn i 6QOs the Mechanical Calculators was developed used wheels, gears, and
a
, '. ~ountcrs .To work on mccha1~ical calculator, the operator enters the numbers for a
' calculation, and then pulls a lever or turns a wheel to cari·y out the calculation
Example: the Pascalinc invented by Blaise Pascal. It used some principles of the abaci Is.
but used wheels to move cotmters.
In 1800s were the Punched Cards, Used holes following a specific pattern to
represe11t th¢ instructiqns giv'en to the machine or stored data. Different program
instructiops can be stpred On
separate punched cards, which can be fed through the
computing machine repeatedly. Once punched, the cards were fed into a card reader that
us~d art'a~ay of metal rods to electronically read the data from the cards rmd tabulate the
results. This is called the Hollerith Tabulating Machine
Mollerith incorporated The Tabulating Machine better 1-:nown today as
IBM.
Charles Babbagc designed a new general-purpose calculating device, the
Analytical Engine, vvhich is the ancestor of modern computers. It included the essential
components of present-day computers, which are input, process, storage, and output of
data. -
In 1940s the Vacuum Tubes were evolved which used to control the 11ow of
electro!ls;: Since vacuum tubes responded faster than mechanical components, faster
,.c,omputadons wct;·C possible. Rut, the tubes consumed a lot of power and burned out
. The fi.rst computer prototype using vacuum tubes was ENIAC (Electronic
umerical Integrator and Computer). It was designed to calculate trajectory tables for

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•
th~li.S. Army duri,;g World War lL but it was not complct;::d until three HlOlith:; after the
war.

ln i ()50s the Transistors were devdored which were smaller, cheaper, more reliabl<.::, and •
consumed less power than vacuum tubes. And could perform 200,000 to 250,000
calculations per second. ·

Tn 1960s the Integrated Circuits was invented. This was a thin slice of silicon packc~l with
microscopic circuit elements such as wire, transistors, capacitors, and resistors. Enabled
the equivalent of thousands of vacuum tubes or transistors to be packed onto a single
miniature chip about the size of your fingernaiL This reduces the physical size. weight,
and power requirements for devices such as computers.
In 1970s the Present Microprocessor was developed which combined components of a
computer on,£; microchip and can be manufactured and then _programmed for various
j
purposes.

Data Representation:
Data can be represented electronically with electrical components being On or
Off. On and ofT states can be repi·cscntcd using digits Os arid 1s. For example 0 Off state
and 1 On state. Thus, data can be represented digitally using digits 0 and 1. These 0 and
1 are called binary digits. Each binary digitis called a bit.
Bits, llytes, and Words
• A bit is a single binary digit (a 1 or 0).
• A byte is 8 bits
• A word is 32 bits or 4 bytes
• Long \von! - g hyks' (>·~hils
• Quad word= I 6 bytes= I 28 bits
• Programming languages use these standard numbers of bits when organizing data
storage and access.

Number ofJh:~:I:i

Kilobyte KB 1024 Bytes

Megabyte MB 1024 Kilobytes
Uigabyll: UB I 024 Megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 Gigabytes
Number Systems
Fundamental to understand how computers work a:Qd understanding the
number system. That computer use to store data and communicate with each other,
N~mbcr system has been used to li!H.krs!aml computer There an~ Jour types of Number
Systems.
• lkcinwl Number Sysktn
• Binary Number System
• Octal Number System
" • I Icxadecimal Number System

14
 Decimal Number Svskr;1
The decimal ~mmbcr system is a positional number system In everyday life we
usc a system based on dccim;;l digits The decimal number system is also known as base
10. The values ofthc positions arc calculated by laking 10 to some power.

Why is the base I 0 for dcc!nnl numbers?

Because we usc I 0 digits, the dit'.ils 0 through 9
.E:\ampk:
(5 6 2 I )Jo I X l 0° ·
: X I() I ~>.()
::, X l (/ =: 600
j )~ 10:> :;; 5000

Binal)' Number System

The binury number ~;y~:tcm is also known as hasc 2. The values of the positions
arc calculated by laking 2 lo some power. The ranu,c of binary system is 0 and I.

Why is the base 2 for bin~n·y number:;'.)

In Lhc binary system. we have only two digits, 1 and 0. Thus, numbers in the
hinar~' system arc rcprcscn(<._: i() 1hc base 2. F~1ch dirit in a binary number <Jls,) has a
value depcndinr. on its pn.':;;;,,n:
Example
(I 00 l I 01 l ,
•
(' 0 ()

Octal Number System

The Octal number system is a positional number system. The octal number
system is also known as base 8. The values of the positions arc calculated by taking 8 to
· some power.
Why is the base 10 for decimal numbers?
Because we usc 8 digits, the range ofoct<Jl digits is 0 to 7.
Examplc1 •

(?l65)i)
•
2 3 6 5
K3 82 :; I sn

Hexadecimal Number· System

The hcxadecinwl number system is also known as base 16. The values of tile
·itions <.ire calculated by taking 16 to some power.
y is the base 16 for hexadecimal number System?
ausc vve usc 16 digits 0 through 9 and the letters A through F.

15
•
,
.
..
.

l'~xampk
(5BE) u,
5 B F
162 16 1 16°

Converting Decimal to llinary

Decimal can be converted in to bimtry systems with the Remainder Method

Example I Convert (26)10 to ( ? )2

Q R
26/2 13 0
13/2 6
...,
1 (26)Jo = (11010)2
6/2 -' ()
3/2 -+I 1

Example 2 convert (124.565) 10 to ( ? h

Q R l .565'1'2
124/2 62 () 1/ .130*2
62/2 31 0 0/.26()"'2
31/2 15 0/.520'<~
15/2 7 11 .040
...,
7/2 _)

3/2 __, 1

Ans (124.565) 10 =(1111100.1001)2

Converting Binary to Decimal

Example 3 convert (11 011 01 h to ( ? ) 10

1*i'+ 1*2 5+0*2 4 -l-] *2 3 + 1*2 2 +0*2 1+ 1*2°

1*64+ 1*32-+0* 16-1-l *8 1-1 ':'4+0*2+ 1* 1 =I 09
J\ns (1101101)2=- (109)Jo

Example 4 convert (11101.011}, to ( '? ),o

1*2'1+ 1*2 3+ 1*i~+0*2 1 -1-I *2°.0':' 1/2+ I* 1/4+ 1*I /8

I* I(> I I *R I I ~'4 I ()' 1'2 I]* I .0 I .25 I .125
16+8+4+ 1.375 =--= (29.3 75)10
1\ns (Ill 01.011 );> "'' (29.375) 1o

16
 Example 5 convert ~ 1.~-:- 1 ):; io ( ? ho

Example 6

Q R
2432/8 304 0
304/8 38 0 Ans (2432) 10 = (4600)s
38/8 _, 4 G

Converting Hexadecimal to Decimal and Decimal to Hexadecimal

Example 7 convert (2/\C)u, lo ( '? )Jo

2*16 +A~'l6 1 +C*l6°

2

2*2)()·/-l 0"1' 16 I 13* I

512+ I 60-:-13 =-= 685 1\ns (2AC) 1r, =-= (685) 10

• Example 8

(I R
845/16 52 c
52/16 3----+4 Ans (825)Jo = (34C)J6

\Binary Addition Multiplication and Subtraction

Example 9 (11011)2+(1111)2, (11001)2*(1 t'lh(l l 11) 2 -(1001)

2

11011 11001 1I I 1
+ 1111 :___u_L .:]_001
101010 II 00 I 0110
11001
JJQQJ.
IOlOI I 1

•
..
\Vhat is MS-DOS'?
MS-DOS stdnds lor Micrusult .Qisk Qpcri.!liug ~~ystem. J.·t~)-iJUS cuuuols tltc
computer's hard\vare and provides an environment for programs lo 1llll. This system
program must always be present when working with your computer.

\Vhy You Need 1\IIS-DOS

There are a variety of reasons why you need IvfS-DOS. J\ fev,; or them arc iisted
below to satisfy your curiosity.
I. Windows is built upon MS-DOS and it is easy and fast to learn programming
under MS-DOS as compared to Windows. So, it is good for beginners
') MS-DOS controls the flow of information between you and the computer
(translator).
3. MS-DOS allows you to store information on your computer. '. f>

1
4. MS-DOS allows you to retrieve information stored on your computer. .
..~'·
S. l'viS-DOS intcrprL'ts and translates the software you havt: on your compulcr.
'
6. MS-DOS gives you access to all its function (i.e. saving, copying, and printing

I
files). '

This small introduction giws us an opportunity to try basic l'vlS-DOS comttWtH.Is. By

ft)llowing the procedures in this unit and the self study file, you will learn to:
• View the contents of a directory
• Change from one directory to another
• Create and delete directories
• Change from one drive to another
• Copy Jiles
• Rename files .
• Delete Iiles
• Format a 11oppy disk

The Command Prompt

When you first turn on your computer, you will see some cryptic information
flash by. MS-DOS displays this information to let you know how it is configuring
your computer. You can ignore it 11.>r now. When the information stops scrolling past,
you'll see the following:
For cxampk C:\>
This is called the command prompt or DOS prompt. The flashing unclerscuJ..:
· next to the command prompt is called the cursor. The cursor shows where the
command you type will appear.
..
• If your command prompt looks like the sample command prompt above, skip to
the following section, "Typing a Command."
• If your command prompt docs not look like the example, type the following at the
command prompt, and then press ENTER:
• cd \
• Nolc that the slash leans back ward, not li.mvard. You will learn more about lli~.- cd
command later in the tutorial

18
 Typing a Command
This section explain::; how to type a command at the command prompt and
demonstrates the "Bad command or file name" message.
To type a command at the command pnunpt
Type the following at the command prompt (you can type the command in either
uppercase or lowercase letters): nul. I r you make a typing mi~;takc. press the
BACKSJ> ACE key to erase tlle mistake, and then try again. Press ENTER You must
pres~' ENTER after every command you type.
The ro!lowing message appears: Bad command n1· file name
The "Bad command or Ilk name" message appears when you type something that !VIS-
DOS d·.•cs nnt recogt;i:,.:. lkcaust; nul is not a valid MS-DOS comm<md, MS-DOS
displays the ' l3ad command or tile name" message.
Now, type the following command at the command prompt:

Dos Comm:uuls

1\'IS-DOS Commands
1\ command is the ll<.unc or a :>pccial prognnn that nwkcs your computer ca11 :/ uut
a !ask. There ;n-c two type>: o!' t\ lS-.!)OS commamb- intcm;d and external

•
.1'

External Dos Commands.

Files with extension COM or EXE arc external commands. Because these
commands are files, they are not built into the operating system (these arc the commands
that alter between versions ofMS-DOS). External commands areAPPEND, EDIT,
LABLE, FORMAT , FIND and etc.
Name of Command Purpose OfComt_nand
DIR Display all the Files which arc store in computer
COPY 1\!Iakes a second copy of file to another destination
DEL Remove a file from the current Directory
MD Create a new directory in the current Directory
· FORMAT Formatted the new Disk
LABEL Give the name to the new Disk

Syntax of Command
.Command Filename Dc:stination
C:\> COPY .'\kr:m1.For /\:copy the akram.I(Jr from C to!\

,-
]<)
~mputer V:irus
n~.: :n ilion
I. ;\virus is <1 :--Jllall picCL: of soflw~1rc lh~il piggyb<1cks on real progr.um; i11 order to •
gel executed. One~ i: s ruuning, it spreads by iuserting copies of itself into other
exccut<tblc code or documents

J... A true virus is capable of sdf replication on a machine. 11 may sp1cad between
Iiles or disks, but the defining ch:tractcr is that it can recreate itsdi' ui! it's own with out
traveling to a new host.

3. A small program that gets into your computer and disturb3 the normal functions
and destroys the important data stored in the computer is called as computer virus.

4. A virus is program, which reproduces its own code by attaching itself to other
programs in such a way that the virus code is executed when infectcd program is
executed. It is remember that the computer virus docs not damage computer h~rdwan.:,
only data or software is corrupted. The computer file (data or programs) to which a virus
is attached is called infected file.

5. Viruses are small programs that hide themselves on your disks (both diskettes anJ
your h,ml disk). Unless you usc virus detection software the first time that you know !hat
you have a virus is when it activates. Different viruses are activat~d in different ways.

How do viruses infect PCs'?

Viruses hide on a disk and when you m:ccss the disk (either <J diskette or another
hard disk over a network) the virus program will start and infect your computer. •
The worst thing about a computer virus is that they can spread from one computer
to another, either via usc of infected 11oppy disk, or over a computer network, including
the I ntemet.

Activation of virus
Different computer viruses are activated in different ways. Some viruses are the
part of the application progwms (or opcmting systcm)and arc activated on Fixed data.

Vinrs thnmgh the lntcmct

Today almost 87 1Yo of all viruses arc spread through the inlcrnt;t (source: ZDNet)
Transmission time to a new host is relatively low, on the order of hours to days "Latent
virus"
Symptoms of Virus Attack
• Computer runs slower then usual
• Computer no longer boots up
• Screen sometimes flicker
• PC speaker beeps periodically
• Systelll crashes t<.>r no reason
• Files/directories sometimes disappear
• Denial of' Service (DoS)

20
 Coumntu Vinl.'' Hi:;l!ll',"
.. 1?49
Theories rur :;,_:l:~-;·qdi,·<:\,;lg programs me rir:-;1 dcvdopcd.
• 19SI
Apple Viruses l, ~mel 3 arc some of the first viruses "in lhc wild," or in the
public donwin. ::o\HH! P!l the Apple II npcr:1ting sysll'm. the viruses spre;HI
thn>11glt Tcx:.1:: J\/.:,_rvl viu pirated com;mtcr g<HllCS.
• 198J
l:rcJ Cohen \'>llik workinP
' 0
011 his dissertation. formally defines a com11Ulcr
-

virus as "a computer program that can affect other computer programs by
modifying them in such a way as to include a (possibly evolved) copy of
i tscl [."
• 1986
Two programmers named Basit and Amjad replace the executable code in
the boot sector of a floppy disk with their own code designed to infect each
360kb floppy accessed on any drive. Infected floppies had"© Brain" for a
vol11me label.
• 1987
The Lehigh virus, one of the first file viruses, infects command.com files.
• 1988
One of the most common viruses, Jerusalem, is unleashed. Activated every
Friday the 13th, the virus affects both .exc and .com files and deletes any
programs nm on that day. 'i

l\1acMag and !11·.~ Sc('rc::; vims cause the first major Macintosh outbreaks.

• Luckily, executable aml boot sector viruses arc declining because of CD's
• Computer technology is ever growing. Along with it, unfortunately, comes the
evolution ofcomputer viruses

·Virus Types

• J\1<lcro viruses me the mo~;t common virus today

• Unlike executable viru;,es, macro viruses cannot infect any file
• Microsoft Word documents & Excel spreadsheets
• The reason is the convenient macro languages that automatically perf~mn tasks
with little to no usc;· input
• Once an infected file is opened, the virus co pic:.; itself into the global template
used to store global macros
omputcr Worm Vil·us
,• Also known as the email virus
This new virus takes advantage of the World's growing dependency on electronic
mail
The most famous is the i'l-fc.dissa virus of 1999
[t \V:1s tlw t:t:;lt's1 :;pre;Hlill!'. epide111ic in history

21
•
/
Trojan Hors~ Virus
/\program which appcdr:; tt: !1c ':;dt.~tt)lc but L~1s :n; LL;;.::.:,c~kd co;;:::,:<.p:
Other Famous Viruses
•
Lorena Hobbit Virus · lt~n1s .\'\lllr l1ard disk inro :1 ~.:~ i•li'h 11uppy •
Woody Alkn Virus- b) passes Lhc: motherboard ami wn:.,; on a dau~·.hk·r • .•! · 1
II

Tonya Harding Virus- turns your .BAT iiles into lelkl vveapons
• Paul Revere Virus-- warn~; of impending virus infection:
I if by LAN, 2 if by C:\
•
Adam and Eve Virus·- Takes a couple bytes out of you( Apple compuk~r
•
Freudian Virus- your computer becomes obsessed with its own mothcrbc
becomes Ycry jealous ofthe size of your fi·iend's hard drive

How to prevent virus damage

There are a number ofthird party antivirus products av<tilable. Most of'li;
better than the rather rudimentary products available within DOS and Windows, bu• ,
course you do have to pay for them!
The main thing about your virus checker is that it should be kept up h: d:tL'. 1\.i.
companiL's supply upcbtcd disks on a regular basis or allow you to receive updafc•;
through an electronic, on-line bulletin board.

Anti Virus

Definition
Special types ofprogram that arc used to detect and remove the viruses from l-
computer arc called as Anti-virus programs. A large number of anti virus programs,,,~
available like Norton Anti-virus and N/\1 J'vfac/\lcc virus scan.. •

Norton Anti-Virus
This product is hL'ing UsL'd for years, having easy usc. It c~mnot search the illk'.
lile by has the option of placing them Quarantine ~trea. So that can be examined willu"
inJecting the rest of your computer in the process.

NAI McAfee Virus Scan

This type of Anti-virus is more professional atmosphL'rc. It is not so cnsy to liS(' !

ofkrs downloadabk updates Jl·om Web site, It checks every lilc. lt is mainly ClmCL'' ::·,!
with Internet downloads unci Jtlva/Activc applets.

Conclusions
• Generally thought upon as being awful human creations, the existence of
computer viruses, however, has opened the world's eyes to the potential powl'r:~
they possess and .....
• How susceptible we arc to our own ingeniousness
• Chinese saying, ''For every Yin, there is a Yang"
• As much as the computer revolution has helped mankind in its quest /()r
omniscience, there will always be a J(m:c that deters our ell(;rts ....
 I..
VVrittcn by f=>rof Allah N.::twaz
I
i

I
I
.I i

The word data is derived 'from L::ttin languaoe. It is plural of Datum (But Data is usually
sed as a singular ierm.) Datum (singular)- Dnta (plural). Data is any collection of facts
figureu. The data is 11F.-o ;-~l,\N mntcrial to be processed by a computer.

es of students, marks obtained in the examination, designation of employees,

resses, quantity, rate, sales figures or anything that is input to the computer i~· data.
pictures, photographs, clrowings, charts and maps ..;an be treated as date:•.
puter processes t11e r:Jc:t~,~ and produces the output or result

ly Data is divided i, do i'~'/O t;.Jr:H;;!::.:

.··Numeric Data
I
data which is represented in the form of numbers is known as Numeric Data. This
udes 0-9 digits, a decimal point(.), +,/,-sign and the letters "E" or "D".

haracter Data

II ctcr data falls into two groups.

Data
raphical Data

data consists of the sequence of characters. Characters may be English

, numbers or space. The space, which separates two words, is also a
cter. The string dat:; is further divided into two types.
. abetic Data
meric Data

I I
I
 possible that pictures, charts and maps can be treated as data. The scanner is
ally used to enter this type of data. The cmnrnon use of this data is found in the
nalldenti

ection of data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It rnay provide
rs to questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how.

raw input is data and it has no significance when it exists in that form. When data is
or organized into something meaningful, it gains significance. This rneaningful
nization is information

·ons and recordings are done to obtain dat8, while analysis is done to obtain
ation

processing~:.
Any operation or set of operations performed upon data, whether or not by
atic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation or
to convert it into useful information .
.. le

data is collected, it is processed to convert it into useful information. The data is

·-~""'"'"'sed again and again until the accurate result is achieved. This is called data
sing cycle.

The data processing is very important activity and involves very careful planning.
ally, data processing activity involves three basic activities.

1. Input

. 2. Processing

3. Output
 lc

-.
, It is the process through which collected data is transformed into a form
mputer can understand. It is very important 'step because correct output result
depends on the input data. In input step, following activities can be performed.

&:I"ITtt'•~T·Qn ~ ,

The collected data is verified to determine whether it is correct as

. For example, the collected data of all B.Sc. students that appeared in final
nation of the university is verified. If errors occur in collected data, data is
d or it is collected again.

The verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that
be processed through computer.

The data is stored on the secondary storage into a file. The stored data on
·. storage media will be given to the program as input for processing.

lc~

The term processing denotes the actual datc:t manipulation techniques such as
ifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, compnring, etc. that
vert data into information.

e data is classified into different groups and subgroup~-;. so that each oroup or sub-
up of data can be handled separately.

data is arranged into an :':·der so that it cnn be accessed very quickly as and when
ired.
 Calculations

arithmetic operations 8re perforrned on the numeric data to get the required results.
For example, total marks of each student are calculatc;d .

•
data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. ft means that the summary
.. data is prepared for top management. For example, the summary of the data of .
dent is prepared to show the percentage of pass and fail student examination etc.

After completing t11e processing step, output is generated. The main

' purpose of data processing is to get the required result. Mostly, the output is stored on
the storage media for later user. In output step, following activities can be performed.

Output stored on the storage media can be retrieved at any time. For
• example, result of students is prepared and stored on the disk. This result can be
. retrieved when required for different purposes .

. · ii) Conversion

The gencrc.ted output can be converted into different forms. For

example, it can be represented into graphical form.

·iii) Communication

The generated output is sent to diffore11t places. For example, weather

forecast is prepared and. sent to different agencies and newspapers etc. where it is
required.

Types of Data Processing

1. Manual Data Processin[):

This method of data processl!Jg involves human inteNention. The manual
process of data entry implies many opportunities for errors, such as delays in data
pture, as every single data field has to be keyed in manually, a high amcunt of
·. perator rnisprints or typos, 1-:ioh ltlbor costs from tho amount of manual labor required.
nual processing also irnpiies higher labor expenses in regards to spending for
uipment and supplies, :·cnt, (:;tc.

a
 EDP (electronic data processing), an infrequently used term for what is
called "IS" (information services or systcn1s) or "MIS" (managernent
.§ervices or systems), is the processing of data by a computer and its
an
environment involving electronic communication. EDP evolved from
processing), a term that was created when most computing input was
into the computer in punched card form or in ATM cards form and output
cards or paper r

· time processing/

In a real time processing, there is a continual input, process and output of

. Data has to be processed in a small stipulated time period (real time), otherwise it
create problems for the system.
when a bank customer withdraws a sum of money from his or her account
:::.:..o.::="'-'-'-"'-'-'=-'
vital that the transaction be processed and the account balance updated as. soon as
"ble, allowing both the)Jank and customer to keep track of funds.
/.(/'
tch processing ~,7

In a batch processing group of transactions collected over a period of time

collected, entered, processed and then the batch results 3re produced. Batch
·l!rhrrv·ossing requires seperate programs for input, process and output. It is an efficient
of processing high volume of data.
,._.;:::.:.._:~.:::"-'-'.·1~: Payroil S}'slorn, Examination system and billing system.

A computer can perform only the following rour operations which enable
uters to carry out the various data processing activities we have just discussed.
Input/Output operations

A computer cai 1 :1ccept data (input) from and supply processed data (output) to
wide range of input/output devices. These devices such as keyboards, display
ns, and printers make human-machine communication possible.

, ) C;:\:illati_9n and tf:nrt r~c'J~fuufation Operation~;

t Computer ci:·cuils perform calcu/alions on nur,Ucrs. They are also capable

rt lllC!idpululin~J nume! ics ~· other symbols used in text with equal efficiency.
I
l
. t
I

I
I
•
I
\.
 fc) Logic/Comparison Qf!Or3tions

A computer also possesses the ability to perform logical operations. For

example, if we compare two items represented by the symbols A and 8, there are only
.three possible outcomes. A is less than 8 (A<8); A is equal to 8 (A=8): or A is greater
than 8 (A>B).

A computer c<:~n perform such comparisons and the, depending on the

result, follow a predetermined path to complete its work. This ability to compare is an
important property of cornputers.

{d) Storage and Retrieyal Operations

Both data and program instructions are stored internally in a computer.

Once
or retrieved, for theyuse.
furiher <Jru ~~tored in the internal memory, they can be called up quickly
 1

.. 'Y Prof Allah Nawaz

DATA COMMUt!ICAT:C~~

Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source :=md a

receiver. The source tra:1smits the data and the receiver receives it. Or The
transmission of data from cnc computer to another, or from one de:ice to another.

Components of Data C·Gmmunication System

There are five com pone, r!~~,~ of Data communication are as under:

1. Message

It is the inforrnation to be cornmunic<Jted. Popular forms of information include

· text, pictures, audio, video etc.

2. Sender

It is the device which sends the data messages. It can be a computer,

ion, telephone handset etc.

Receiver

It is the device whic~ receives the data messages. It can be a computer,

rkstation, telephone handset etc.

4. Transmission Medium

It is the physical pat11 by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
amples include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, radiowaves etc.

5. Protocol

It is a set of rules that governs the data communications. It represents an

reement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices 'il3Y
connected but not communicating.

Transfer Rate

speed with which data can be transmitted from one device to another. Data
ission speeds are usually given in bits per second, or bytes per second. For fast
, this is sometimes expressed as kilobits ,megabits (million bits) or
ytes (million bytes) per second. These are usually abbreviated as Mbps and
s, respectively .

•
,2
'., .J;nputer Networking

Compute; networking is the engineering di::;cipline concernec; v..:;c;: Li ,.;;; comlllUI ;ic:Jtion
.;: .Lvveen computer systems or devices. Or A computer network is any set of comr! 1ters
01 devices connected to each other with the ability to exchange ciC<ta.

ln(roduction to Network Types

Common examples of area network types are:

1. LAN - Local Area Network

2. WAN- Wide Area Network

3. Wireless networks (WLAN, WVVAN)

4. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

LAN - Local Area Network

A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building
will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room).

WAN- Wide Area Network

• As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the
largest WAN, spanning the Earth.
• A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called
a router connects LANs to a WAN.
• An example of this is a multinational business that_uses a VVAN to interconnect
their offices in different countries.

Wireless Networks (WLAN, WWAN)

A wireless network is basically the same as a LAN or a WAN but there are no wires
between hosts and servers. The data is transferred over sets of radio transceivers (a
transmitter and receiver combined in one unit). These types of networks are beneficial
when it is too costly or inconvenient to run the necessary cables.

Me'tropolitan Area Network

A networl( spanning a physical area larger than aLAN but smaller than a WAN, such ::1s
a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a government
body or large corporation.
 Network Topolouy

.. "T!K vvay in which tho co:·'i·::;;:~ions ::nc nl<Jde amono <~I! the cornputcrs is cal:ed lhe
topology of the network"

. A network topology specifically refers to the physically layout of the network , specially
the location of the computers <:md how the cable is run between them .
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St:a r

E x"ten ded St:~ r Hier;archrc.;:Jtl Me~t-...

pes of Network Topologies

·.· etwork topologies nre catc."!gorized into the following basic types:

1. BUS

,. 2. RING
'!
3. STAR

4. Mesh

Topology:

bus topology is the simplest and most common Bus topology is one the easiest
gies to install. It is often used when a network installation is small, simple, or
orary. It does not require lots of cabling. Bus topology uses one common cable
bone) to connect all devices in the network in linear shape. In this type of network
logy, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common transmission medium
g two endpoints. Bus topology is easy to handle and implement and is best suited
· . mall networks
J·lo·sl A

•
J
Advanta0r~s of Bus :

/\dvantages of Bus·,·;:~) bus is simpk:1, reliable in very small network, and ea·~:/ to use.
T'1e bus requires the least arnount of caole to connect the cornpu~t.::rs to:_~cther "''· .d i~; .
t1 u::)refore less expensive than other C3bii;·,g arrangernents. Failure of one node does n,
affect the rest of network.

Dis~ulvantagcs of llus :

Disadvamagcs of Bus Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably. A break in the cable r
Jrke or prnpcr krminatioll can bring t!Jc llL'(\\'Ot-k down. ft is diflicuJ[ io [rollbkshoot a bus.

Ring Topology:

f~ing topology is one of the old ways of building computer network design . In a ring
topology, each computer is connected directly to the next computer in line, forming a
circle of cable. It uses token to pass the information from one computer to another.
Every computer is connected to the next compute in the ring, and each retransmit what
it receives from the previous computer. The message flow around the ring in one
direction. Ring is an active topology. There is no termination because there is no end to ..
the ring. All messages are travelled in the same directory either clockwise or
-
anticlockwise. In case of failure of any device or cable the whole network will be down ~ l'.

and communication will not be possible. -

!I ·.

Advantages of Ring Topology :

/\dvantages of Ring Topology All the computers have equal Clccc:~~s io the network.
Even with many users, network performance is even Allows error checking, and
acknowledgement.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology :

Disadvantages of Ring Topology Failure of one computer can affect the whole network.
It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring network. Adding or removing computers disturbs the
network.

F~.inq
.-·}--·----·.
 5-

Star Topology:
... This i~~ the most commoi used network topolooy design you will come aero::;._, in LAN
computP.r networks. In Star, all computers are connected to central device called hub,
router or switches using Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) or Shielded Twisted Pair
• cable~... In Bus topology ne(work, the computers regenerate signals and me responsible
for moving the data throuoh the network. On a bus network, All the entire computer ·are
connected to a single c<JUJ. \IVhcn one computer sends a signal using the cable, all the
computers on the network ;·eceive the information, but only one (Addressee) accepts it.
The restdisreg:-::·d the me2sage.

Advantages of Star ToprJ:ogy:

Advantages of Star Topology It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star
network During adding/deleting a node network can function normally. When the
capacity of the central hub is exceeded, it can be replaced with one that has a larger
.number of ports to plug lines into. Provide for centralised monitoring and management
-of the network. Single computer failure do not necessarily bring down the whole star.

dvantages of Star Topolo~JY :

advant..1ges of Stnr Topology If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to
rate. It cost more to cable a star network. Require dedicated server and NOS

Topology:

Topology In a mesh topology, every devices has a dedicated point to point link to
·other device. A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical
Is to link n devices. To accommodate that many links, every device on the
must have n-1 ir,ruVcutput ports.
6

Advantages of I!Jiesh Topology :

Advantages of Mesh Topology Because of the dedicated link, r1:J t affic uctvvc--:~c~:
computers. Failure of one node cotiiputer not affect rest of the neiwol"l<. Because o!
...
dedicated link privacy and security are guaranteed Point to point links make f?ult
identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology :

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology Due to the amount of cabling and number c~ L·,put
output ports, it is expensive. Large space is require to run the c<::blcs. Large space i·''· •
require to run the cables.

GATEWAY

o A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network

e A gateway is a combination of hard\vare and software that translates between
two different protocols and acts as the connection point to the Internet.

• A very popular example is connecting a Local Area Network or Wireless LJ\N L\.~
the Internet or other Wide Area Network. In this case the gateway connects a
LAN to the provider-specific network which in turn connect::; to the Internet .

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What is the Internet?

The Internet is a large "network of networks." It is a collection of tens of thousands Ln

computers connected in a tangled web, talking to one another through a common

communications protocol.

!
,
 7

History or ~:1c Intern::<

The Internet was startr::;cJ e:;~'. an experiment over 20 years ago by the Department of
[)efense. This experimeni:z<i network for the military was called ARPAnet because it was
tunded by the U.S. Advan::.:·2d Research Projects Agency (ARPA).

The Military was looking for a system to link all of the mainframe computers in
the United States. This network svstcm hvcl to ensure the s<:1fety <1ncl intearity of
tho flnw of infonnt.ttion bct'vvec!n the mainlrarnes, not be impaired if sections of
the neb~JOrk were damagecl, ancl have the capability of adding and removina
nodes easily.

nne of the most significant outcomes of the ARPAnet research was the
rJevelnnment of today's st<:mdard network protocol called TCPI!P
n-ransrnission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This is the language that
n~twork computers use to talk with each other. A common protocol is needed
since there are usually all types of systems connected on a network.

Future of the Internet

The Information Superhighway is already impacting areas such as businc:s,
education and research, and politics. Some of the advantages for each group
are outlined below.

• Education and Rcsf:arch

• Political System
• Online newsletters

CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

There are three ways to connect to the Internet:
Connect your computer to a LAN whose server is an Internet host
Dial into an Internet host using SLIP or PPP
Dial into an on-line service that provides Internet services

: '~file to your mail message, search for

, .spec :r;: messages, and delete messages. What is E-mail?

-mail is short for electronic mail. It is a method of sending a message from a

· ser on a computer to a recipient user on a destination host. The message is
· ade up of a set of header lines, which contain information describing how to
eliver the message, and the message body, which can contain any type of text.
-mail is the rriost commonly used f0ature on the Internet and was one of its
rst E: 1.J llications. Almost, if not all, Internet users have used some type of Email
 8

Basic Functions Ot E-rnail

E-mail applications have the same standard features in common, but they may
use completely different commands to perform them. Most programs have a
function that will allow you to read, save to a file, print, and reply to or forward
your incoming mail messages. Other common capabilities include the ability
to send your own messages, attach

Addressing Internet Messages

·lo send mail to people outside of your local network, you must be familiar with
Internet addresses. Every Internet address has three parts: a user name, an
"at" sign (@), and the address of the user's mail server consisting of an
organization name and domain name. Below is the sample format for an
Internet address.
uscrname@host.domain
 \_

DA T-t COJJECTJ();-'y· idL'Tf /0/'S

Data collcctioll mL·tl~tH!s <ti\' ~111 iltkgr;tl p:lrt til' tt::;,·;tr,_·it (k·:'it~ll. I hen· dn.: :;l·,·cr:d data

Data can be collected in a variety or \vays !'runt 1-i,·ld or l:thor~ttorv. I )ata collection
methods i ncludc

I. lntcrvi<.:w

2. Questionnaire

3. Observation
4. Documental ions

INTFRJ 'IFW/N(,'

One method or collecting data is to intL·rvicv·/ rcspPlllklt!s !o ohl:tin it!li:;mation on the

issues of interest. Interviews has the fi)llowing types:

1. Structured interview
II. l lnslructurcd i nkrvicw
111.

IV. Telephonic i;;[Crvic\V

l!NS'f1ll!CTURL~D IN11?RVJETV

Tlw main purpose of the unstructured interview is to cxplorc and probe into the several
bctors in the situation that might be central to the hro:1J problem ;trca. ( 'onducting
tu •. lructurcd interviews with many pcopk in the org<tnization could result in the
identification of several critical factors m the situation. These would then be pursued
further during the structured interviews.
2. STRUCTURED lfv'FE"RVIEJVS

1 \Her conducting the unc;tructurcd intcrvic\\'. :he i 111cn icwer wi !I 110\\' conduct the

struc.,tun;d interview, vvbich is used i(.)r eliciting more in-depth information ;1bout the

prnhlcJJI. This will help to i(k~ntify the critical problem <IS \\dl as :;ol1...: iL Ill :tpplil~d
n·.--,l:<irclt. a tentative the,~)) of ~he nlctor:; contributing to the pr(11·km is nncn

I
 structured intnvic\\s.

3. F>tCE-1'0-FA(.'E/ /.)JREC'T INTERI-'IEJV

f~lCC to hiCC or through the me-dium of the tckphonc. dcpcmling 011 lh~..: icvd of
complexity of the issues, the duration ur the intn\'il'\\' lllc l'\lil\\.'lli~·ncc or huth partie~:.
and tlw geographical area cm'crcd by the survey.

4. IELEI'IlONIC INTERVIEW:
Telephonic interviews ~1rc b~.::st suited when inf'ornwti~)n from a brgc number or
respondents spread over ~~ wide geographic ar ..·a is to he obl<tincd quickly. and the

duration uf' telephone intcrvil~\V is [ () lllilllltCS or k:;:'. l'.J'.. m;l!l) 111arl·;~_·t Slll'\'\.'YS dl\'

conducted through structured telephone interviews. In addition, computcr-assisk--1

telephone interviews (CJ\'Il) arc also possible. and ea~;y to m;tllag~.:.

I. Administering questionnaires: ()ucstionnairl'S have till~ <tdV<llll~tgc or

obtaining data more.c!Ticicntly in terms of researcher time, energy, and costs.

Questionnaires
1) Personally administered
2) Questionnaire sent through the mail
QUE:•n10NNAIRES

/\ questionnaire is a prefonnulatcd written sd or qu~·st ions to whid1 rcspondc11ts

record their answers, usually within rather closely dclincd alternatives. Qucs-

tionnairc;; ~trc an cli!cicnt data collcclion mcd1ani:;m ''hen the rcscarclln knows
cxac~l) wlut is rcqui:·cd and how to mcu~;mc tile \ :1ri<!blcs or interest. Qucs-
tiOllll:iir(:s c;m be administered personally. mnilc' 1 tn the respondents, or elcc-
irunic:tll_y distrihtik\.:.

!
 Personal~~· Administered Questionnaires

When the survey is conl'ined to a local area. and the organiz.atiou is willing and
able to assemble groups or employees to respond to the questionnaires at the
\Vorkplace, a good way to collect data is to personally administer the question-
naires. The main advantage of this is that llw n:scarchcr or a member of the
• research team can collect all the completed responses within a short period of
time. 1\.ny doubts that the respondents might h;IVl~ on any quc~;liun could be clar-
ified on the spot. The researcher is also arf()rlkd the opportlll1ity to introducc·thc
research topic and nwtiv<llc the respondents to offer their li·;lllk answers.
Afail Questionnaires

The main advantage of mail questionnaires is that a \Vide geographical area L-an be
covered in the survey. They are mailed to the respondents, who can complete them
at their convenience, in their homes, anJ at their own pace. I Iowcv<:r, the return
rates of mail questionnaires are typically low. A 30% response rate is considered
ucccptablc. Another disadvantage of the mail qw:slionnairc is th:~t any doubts the
respondents might have cannot be clarilicfl. Also, \\ ith very Imv rctum rates it is
di1Ticult to establish the representative ness of the sample because those
responding to the survey may not at all represent

Ohscn·alicm
Data can be also coik'ctcd through ohscl'\'ation. It is \'CI')' intq',r~li p<lr or tile survey.
Observations or individuals and events with or without videotaping or audio
• recording. A analyst personally observe the work of the organizational personnel
and collect the data through his Observations.

Documentations
The another method of data collection is Documentations. It is very important and easy
method of data collection. Documentation of data collection such as its extraction from
company records have the advantage of accuracy, e.g. attendance records will probably
give a truer and more reliable pictureor the absenteeism or
employees than infi:wmation
elicited directly from 1:1c respondents.
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 Written By Prof Allah Nawaz

Sy.stt·m Analysis and Design

System

1. The term "system" originates from the Greek term syst-ema, which means to
''place together." Multi ph: business and engineering domafns have dellnitions of a
system. This text defines a system as:

2. A system is the collection of all business processes which perform tasks or

produce outputs we care about. It is "what happens."

3. A system is a collection of clements or components that arc organized for a

common purpose. The word sometimes describes the organization or plan itself
(and is similar in meaning to method, as in "T h::wc my own little system") and
sometimes describes tlw parts in the syskm (as in "computer system").

4. A computer system consists or hardware components that have been can: fully
chosen so that they work well together and sofhvarc components or programs that
run in the computer.

:5. Organized, p~1rposcful structure regarded as a 'whole' consisting of interrelated

and interdependent clements (components, entities, factors, members, parts etc.).
~
~
These clements continually inlluence one another (directly or indirectly) to
e maintain their activity and the existence of the system, in order to achieve the
~ common purpose the 'goal' of the system.

6. A System is typically considered to be a set or interrelated elements or

components that collcct(input), manipulntc(proccsscs), and disseminate (output)
data and information and provide a feedback mechanism to meet an objective.

\Vhat Is a System'!
+ System: A set of components that work togclhcr to achieve a common
goal
• Subsystem: One part of a system where the products or more than one
system arc combined to reach an ultimate goal
+ Closed system: Stand-alone system that has no contact with other syskms
+ Open system: System that interLtccs with other systems
Computer-based Informat-ion System

An Information System is an organized combination of people, hardware, software,

communication networks and the data resources that collects, transforms and
disseminates information in a organization.
 -·,',,,

Defining A System .
A collection of components that work together to realize some objective forms a system.
Basically there arc three major components in every system, namely input, processing
and output

Input Output
______.,I Processing
"'L.....------'
1------..,..

• In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are
interdependent. For example, I Tuman body represents a complete natural system. We arc
also bound by many national systems such as political system, economic system,
educational system and so forth: The objective of the system demands that some output is
produced as a result of processing the suitable inputs.

System Development Life Cycle

The system development life cycle is the overall process of developing, implementing,
and retiring information s)1;tems through a multistep process ti'om initiation, analysis,
design, implementation, and maintenance to disposal.

The SDLC process is defined as an organized Y\'~ty lo d~_'terminc customer needs and user
requirements such that technology can be applied through systems development, and help
customers ami users perform their jobs more cfTcctivcly and crficicntly.
The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), or Sc?fhvore Development Life Cycle in
systems engineering, information systems and sonware engineering, is the process of
creating or altering systems, and the models and methodologies that people usc to
develop these systems. The concept generally refers to computer or information systems.

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by a systems analyst to

develop an information system, including requirements, validation, training, and user
(stakeholder) ownership. Any SDLC should result in a high quality system that meets or
exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost estimates, works
effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technology
infrastructure, and is inexpensive to maintain and cost-cLTcctivc to enhance.

t
 SDLC l'hasc Concept
The SDLC phase concept is used to describe functitmal systems development activity, to
gain ..:ontrol of the complexities of systems development, and to ensure the needs of
customers and users are the basis for technical activity. The SDLC process is best
described as a series of phases occurring in various degrees and stages of owrlap.

Phuscs of SDLC

1. Systems Investigation
Identify problems or opportunities
2. System Feasibility Study
Measure ofhow suitable system dcvclopmcnl will be to the company
3. Systems Armlysis
How can we solve the problem?
• 4. Systems Design
Select and plan the best solution
5. Systems Implementation
Place solution into effect
6. Systems Maintenance and Review
Evaluate the results of the solution

Investigation

In this phase we come to l(now about the reason for which the system wants changes. 1\.s
we know that any system in the universe except natural system is not totally complete
So after a period of time they show their side effects and deficiency than user of the
system reports to the administration of the organization for the changing of the system or
modification of the existing system. Investigation Phase gives a clear picture of what
actually the physical system is? which is expected.

The iu vcstigation is done in two phases. In the first phase, the preliminary investigation
of the system is done which helps in identifying the scope of the system. Whatever may
be the reason of a request submitted by the Users or Managers to the Management
department ,a system analyst is assigned to make a preliminary investigation. The
objective of this activity is to review all requests and identify those proposals that are
most beneficial to the organization. But this should be noted that this is neither a designed
study nor it includes collection of details to completely describe the business system.
second phase of the system investigation is more detailed and in-depth study in which
the identification of user's requirement and the limitations and problems of the present
system arc studied. After completing the system study, a system proposal is prepared by
tllC System Analyst The proposed system contains the findings of the present system and
recommendations to overcome the limitations and problems of the present system in the
light of the user's requirements. Based on the Observation and Findings of the An<tlyst,
selected requests arc put up for the approval of 1\Janagcmcnt.

....
t
 Feasibility Study

On the basis of result of the first phase, feasibility study takes place. The feasibility
study is basically the test ofthe proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting

• user's requirements, effective use of resources and .of course, the cost effectiveness. The
main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to achieve the scope. In the
process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits arc estimated with greater accuracy .
..
There arc five feasibility Tests.

• Technical Feasibility: IIardware and softvv:m~ av;~ilability, Tcchnic~Jl Guarantee

of Accuracy, Reliability, Easy to Access, Data security, technical capacity to hold
data and future expansion.
I
• Economic feasibility: is proposed system cost-effective- if benefits do not
outweigh costs, it's not worth going ahead. Evaluation of cost & Benefits
expected.
• Legal feasibility: Is there any con11ict between the proposed system and legal
requirements -e.g. the Data Protection Act?
• Operational feasibility: Finding views of workers, emr>loyces, customers &
suppliers about the use of new system.
• Schedule feasibility: Estimation of time to take new system to become
operational.

Syst·cm AnalysJ~///
..., / .
After the detailed feasibility study and selection of a request for development, analyst
stlf((l' in depth the Prcscl/1 and /'ropos('d Nnl' ,\)·stem. This is lhc study of wc;ll~n..:-ss &
Problems in the present system and management requirements of' new system.

This phase of System Development is being completed in following step:

../ Collection of dqta and facts

../ Analysis of Present System
../ Analysis of Proposed system

Collection of Data & Facts

Every system is built to meets some set (?{needs· and to assess these need~·, the analyst
often interact extensively \Vith the people, who will be bcncfiteclfl·om the system In order
to determine the requirement of those peoples he c~m usc following facts finding
techniques:

Docwnc11ts: This includes the Manuals, diagrams, forms, organization:ll charls

etc. 1t should be ensured that all documents arc accurate & up to date

.
 5

• Questionnaires: Tbcsc arc skillfully drafted group oC stambrd question which can
be given to nil pcr:;onal and can be :1i1:dyzc quickly.
• Interviews: To get a complete picture ol' problems and opportunities.
Observalion: Surprise Visit ot'uscrs work palac<: to gel a clear picture of user's
• environment.

Analysis of Present System

Detailed investigation of the pres~nt system involves collecting, organizing ami

evaluatiugf(lcts about the present system and the environment in which it operates by
studying following areas in depth:

. ./ Review of Historical Aspects of organization

./ Analyze Present inputs to the system
./ Review of all data file maintained irrespective of online or ofl1ine
./ Review methods, procedures & uata communica-tions
./ Analyze Present outputs of system
./ Undertake overall nnalysis of prcsc1JI s~·.,;tcm

Analysis of Proposed System

or
Aller c<ich functional arc~~ present system is defined tbc purposed systl:m specification
must be defined. These spccilication will be based on the strength and weakness of
present system.

System Specification which should be in confonnil!' with the J>n~ject Ol~jedil•e aud
Areas Covered should be following:

./ Output I Reports
./ Maintenance of Database
./ Data Inputting Process
-/ Methods and Procedures to show the relationship between Input and
Output
./ \.York volume including peak period work \'olumc

System Design

Sy:,tcm design first involves Logical Design. First om: has to write detailed specification
that called design specification. Than secondly it involves Physical Design. This Phase of
System Development includes followingftmctions:

• Designing System Output

• Designing Systen1 Input

•
 6

e Data Storage

Designing System Output

• A process of Output designing contained Designing of Content (required info in an
output), Form (the way in which a content presented to user), Volume (quantum of
Output i.e. Prints), Time Lines (time of need of outputs), Media (method of output i.e.
Print, CD etc) and Format (Physical arrangement of Data).

The way in which data will be presented to the User which should be simple and better.
understandable and for this Tabular und Graphic (charts, maps etc) can be used.

The layout of a output can be in Printed form, visual on screen etc.

Designing System Input

i\. process or Input <..ksigning contained Designing ol L'ontent (required into in a input),
Form (the media in which input is received by user), Volume (quantum of input records),
Time Lines (required time to enter one record), Media (method of input i.e. keyboard,
B<::;R etc) and Format (Input by the user in the system).

To reduce input control e1Tors nnd speed up the entire process coding is very important.
This is also important to get all records in a specific form.

Data Storage

This includes the stor::tgc of data, indexing etc. For storage of data it can f'ollow following
approaches:

o Conventional File Approach: This is a traditional approach where each transaction

is updated in the master file, each application h:1vc their own database and it is not
useful for other applications.
• Database Approach: This support decision making skill or the management. Data
are stored in the small-small database files and same data can be used in the
multiple applications.

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