ME 425: Aerodynamics

Dr. A.B.M. Toufique

q Hasan
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BUET

Lecture # 03
13 March 2017

teacher.buet.ac.bd/toufiquehasan/
toufiquehasan@me.buet.ac.bd

L4 T2: Dept. of ME, BUET ME 425: Aerodynamics (Jan. 2017)

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cl from cp distribution
Consider an airfoil at angle of attack
(AOA) of α to a fluid traveling from left to
right at speed V∞ .
Let x be the distance measured along p
the chord, and let s be the distance
measured d along
l h
the f
surface f
from
leading edge as shown in figure.
Consider an infinitesimally small surface
of length ds and unit length in the span
direction as shown by shaded area. The
area of this surface (a) is 1×ds.
The dashed line ab is perpendicular to chord c and solid line ac is locally
perpendicular to the shaded area. The angle between ab and ac is θ. The
aerodynamic
d i force
f on the
th shaded
h d d area isi p(1×ds)
(1 d ) which
hi h acts
t in
i the
th direction
di ti off ac,
normal to the surface.
Then, the component in the direction normal to the chord is (p cos θ)(1×ds).
Adding a subscript u to designate the pressure on the upper surface of the airfoil,
as well as a minus sign to indicate the force is directed to downward, the normal
force of the pressure on the strip is - pu cos θ ds.

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 cl from cp distribution contd…

All the contributions from all the strips on the upper

surface are added to give the force in normal direction
due to pressure distribution on the upper surface of
the airfoil TE
  LE
p u cos  ds

A similar term can be obtained for the force in normal

direction due to pressure distribution on the lower
surface of the airfoil (However the sign will be
positive +) TE
 LE
p l cos  ds

The total normal force acting on the airfoil of unit span will be-
TE TE
N  p cos  ds  
LE
l
LE
p u cos  ds
c c
 N   p dx   p dx l u ; dx  ds cos 
0 0

ME425: Aerodynamics
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cl from cp distribution contd…

Adding and subtracting p∞ in the last expression

c c
N  ( p  p ) dx   ( p  p ) dx
0
l 
0
u 

N p  p
c p  p c

q c 
  dx  
l
dx  u 

 q c
0 q c
 0 
c c
c c
1 1
 cn  p ,l dx  p ,u dx
c 0 c 0

 c 
1 c
 cn  p ,l  c p , u dx
c 0

where cn  normal force coefficienct 1

q   V 2
p  p 2
c p, l  l  pressure coefficient on lower surface
q
pu  p 
c p, u   pressure coefficient on upper surface
q
However, lift coefficient can be defined by
cl  cn cos - ca sin
where ca  Axial force coefficient
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 cl from cp distribution contd…

However, considering the AOA ( )

cl  cn cos - ca sin ; ca  Axial force coefficient
In case of small AOA (say   5 ); cos  1 and sin   0
cl  c n

 c 
1 c
 cl   p ,l  c p ,u dx
c 0

This means the area between the curves of pressure coefficients along upper and
lower surface gives directly the value of lift coefficient, cl

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Problem

Consider a conventional airplane at steady level flight condition. The pressure

coefficient variations over the upper and lower surfaces are given by:

c p ,u 1  300 ( x / c) 2 f 0  x / c  0.10
for
c p ,u   2.2277  2.2777 x / c for 0.10  x / c  1.0
c p ,l 1  0.95 x / c for 0  x / c  1.0

Calculate the lift coefficient at this condition.

Ans. cl =1.40

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Aerodynamic Drag

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Skin friction drag

Skin friction drag results from the frictional forces that exists between a body
and the air through which it is moving. Its magnitude completely depends on the
viscous effect.
This is the drag that is generated by the resolved components due to the shear
stresses acting g on the surface of the body.y At each p point it has a component
p
aligned with but opposing the undisturbed flow (i.e. opposite to the direction of
flight). The total effect of these components, taken (i.e. integrated) over the whole
exposed surface of the body, is the skin-friction drag.
It could not exist in an invisicid flow.
The magnitude of the skin friction drag depends on:
• Surface area of the aircraft, since the whole surface area of the aircraft
experiences skin friction drag,
drag as it moves through the air.
air
• Surface roughness, the rougher the surface the greater the skin friction drag.
Hence, as mentioned earlier, the need to keep surfaces polished or with a
good paint finish, in order to maintain a smooth surface finish.
• The state of boundary layer airflow, i.e. whether laminar or turbulent.

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Form drag
Form drag is that part of the air resistance, that is created by virtue of the shape
of the body subject to the airflow.
Those shapes which encourage the airflow to separate from their surface create
eddies and the streamline flow is disturbed.
Form drag g can be reduced byy streamlining g the aircraft in such a wayy as to
reduce the drag resistance to a minimum.
The act of streamlining shapes reduces their form drag by decreasing the curvature
of surfaces and avoiding sudden changes of cross-sectional area and shape.

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Form drag

Streamlining and relative reduction of form drag

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Interference drag
Interference occurs at the various junctions of the surfaces. These include the
wing/fuselage junctions, wing/engine junctions and those between tail plane, fin and
fuselage.
This flow interference results in additional drag, that is called the interference drag.
Interference drag can be minimized by using suitable fillets, fillets and stream lined
shapes.

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Induced drag / Drag due to lift / Vortex Drag

Induced drag results from the production of lift.

It is created by differential pressures acting on the top and bottom surfaces of the
wing. The pressure above the wing is slightly below atmospheric, while the
pressure beneath the wing is at or slightly above atmospheric.
This results in the migration of the airflow at the wing tips from the high pressure
side to the low pressure side. Since this flow of air is spanwise, it results in an
overflow at the wing tip, that sets up a whirlpool action (See Figure). This whirling
of the air at the wing tip is known as a wing tip vortex.

These vortices increase drag due to the turbulence produced and this type of
drag is known as induced drag.

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Induced drag/Drag due to lift

Wingtip vortices Wingtip vortices

Production of lift induced drag, resulting from the creation of wingtip vortices

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Induced drag/Drag due to lift

Wing tip vortices and Induced drag

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Wave drag
Wave drag is a component of the drag on aircraft, blade tips and projectiles
moving at transonic and supersonic speeds, due to the presence of shock
waves.
Wave drag is generated by the shock wave- boundary layer interaction (SWBLI).
Wave drag
g is independent of viscous effects.

Boundary layer separation

shock

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Wave drag contd…

Approximate relation for the calculation of wave drag is

4 2
cd , w 
M 2
 1
where
α = angle of attack (AOA) in radian
M∞ = free stream Mach number

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Total drag
It is of utmost importance that aircraft designers know the circumstances under
which the total drag of an aircraft is at a minimum. Because then it is possible to
fly a particular pattern, that keeps drag to a minimum, reduces fuel burn and
improves aircraft performance and operating costs.
It is known that profile drag increases with the square of the airspeed and that
induced drag decreases with the square of the airspeed. Therefore there must be
an occasion when at a particular airspeed and AOA, drag is at a minimum.
The drag curves for induced drag and profile drag show when their combination,
i.e. total drag is at a minimum.

Minimum total drag and airspeed

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Drag divergence Mach number (MDD)

At low Mach numbers, less than Mcr, cd is virtually constant and is equal to its low-
speed value. The flow field about the airfoil for this condition is M<1 everywhere
in the flow.

If M∞ is increased slightly above Mcr, a “bubble” of supersonic flow will occur,

surrounding the minimum pressure point. Correspondingly, cd value will still
remain reasonably low.

If M∞ is still further increased, a very sudden and dramatic rise in the drag
coefficient will be observed due to appearance of shock waves in the flow field
and subsequent interaction of shock waves with boundary layer.
The Mach number at which cd begins to increase rapidly is known as drag
divergence Mach number, MDD.

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Drag divergence Mach number (MDD)

Fig. Variation of drag coefficient

with Mach number

Fig. Physical mechanism of drag divergence

(a) Flow field associated with point a
(b) Flow field associated with point b
(c) Flow field associated with point c

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