A.

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT
Gravimetry
B. OBJECTIVE OF EXPERIMENT
At the end of this experiment students can find out about:
1. The basic principles of gravimetry
2. Determine the contents of the terusi crystal water (CuSO4.xH2O) and iron content
as iron (III) oxide
C. LITERATURE REVIEW
Gravimetry is one of the ‘classical’ techniques of analysis, and although less
frequently used now, it is of value when an accurate reference method is required
for comparison with an instrumental technique. If an element is present in a mixture,
for example, silver in a sample of nickel, one way of separating it is to dissolve the
metal completely in a suitable solvent. In this example, the metal mixture could be
dissolved in concentrated nitric acid and a reagent added that would react with the
silver to produce a precipitate. nickel nitrate and nickel chloride are very soluble in
water. The precipitate will be wet and may contain traces of nickel in solution, so
must be thoroughly washed and dried. Since weighing may be carried out readily
and accurately in almost all laboratories, gravimetry is often used as a reference
method. Analysis of major components of metal samples such as steel, and of
minerals and soils may be carried out by gravimetric methods, but they often
involve lengthy separations and are time consuming. Newer instrumental methods
may determine several components simultaneously, rapidly and are generally
applicable down to trace levels (Kealey, 2002: 95-96).
Gravimetry is one of only a small number of techniques whose measurements
require only base SI units, such as mass and moles, and defined constants, such as
Avogadro’s number and the mass of C. The result of an analysis must ultimately be
traceable to methods, such as gravimetry, that can be related to fundamental
physical properties. Most analysts never use gravimetry to validate their methods.
Verifying a method by analyzing a standard reference material, however, is
common. Estimating the composition of these materials often involves a
gravimetric analysis (Harvey, 2000: 235).
 A typical gravimetric analysis procedure may be divided into five stages:
sample pretreatment; precipitation; filtration; drying and ignition; weighing. Two
aspects, however, need slight amplification. Firstly, the possible generation of the
precipitating agent within the solution in a homogeneous precipitation procedure
should be considered. This method, in which the precipitation is generated within
the solution, has the advantage of preventing local high concentrations of reagent
and thus promoting particle growth as well as minimizing the occlusion of
impurities. Secondly, the filtration method must be selected to fit the treatment of
the precipitate. Where the material is merely to be dried and weighed, a sintered
glass crucible is generally the most satisfactory. If an ignition step is to be used,
however, the precipitate may be collected on a filter paper and transferred to a silica
or platinum crucible for ignition or filtered on an asbestos pad in a
Gooch crucible. Sintered silica crucibles are also used for these
precipitates (Fifield, 2000: 223).
An accurate gravimetric analysis requires that the mass of analyte present in a
sample be proportional to the mass or change in mass serving as the analytical
signal. For all gravimetric methods this proportionality involves a conservation of
mass. For gravimetric methods involving a chemical reaction, the analyte should
participate in only one set of reactions, the stoichiometry of which indicates how
the precipitate’s mass relates to the analyte’s mass (Harvey, 2000: 234).
The field of mass measurement, commonly called weighing, is conveniently
structured according to the degree of numerical precision involved. Analytical and
precision balances are based on the principle of electromagnetic force
compensation, where the weight of a sample is counter balanced by a corresponding
electromagnetic force. A weighing instrument is commonly tested by loading it
with calibrated mass standards and then ascertaining whether the displayed weight
values are accurate, meaning that each result corresponds to the value of the test
standard within some predetermined tolerance limits. In the most elementary check
of balance accuracy, a single test mass is placed once on the balance. This is a test
that is often performed for extra assurance in critical
applications (Gunzler and Williams, 2001: 63-66).
 The measurement results of glucomannan levels with gravimetribel
consequences imperfect coagulation and precipitation processes. Coagulation
process and size coagulant by 3 factors, namely heating, stirring, and addition
electrolyte. The attachment made in this process is not uniform particles are not
uniform too. This is advantageous which is a small size precipitate pass the fine
filter paper, not weighted and not feasible as glucomannan. The number of
particles that can produce the number of particles that pass through
the filter paper varies, which results in high data and decreased
presystems (Widjanarko, 2015: 1587).
In a particular system, the nature of the precipitated particles will be determined
by the relative rates of nucleation and particle growth. Where nucleation
predominates, small particles are produced and a colloid may result, whereas a
predominance of particle growth will form a more tractable precipitate. From the
practical standpoint, the difference (Q–S) should be controlled and kept to a
minimum. On mixing reagent and analyte solutions it is difficult to avoid a
momentarily high (Q–S) value (in the region where the two first make contact),
especially if S is small. Furthermore, a low value of S is necessary for quantitative
precipitation, so that a situation often arises in which the rate of homogeneous
nucleation vastly exceeds that of particle growth. Consequently, the analyst
frequently has to cope with colloidal precipitates or suspensions. Where S is larger,
crystalline precipitates are more readily obtained. Colloidal suspensions occur as a
result of electrical repulsions between particles which prevent agglomeration.
These repulsive forces develop from ions adsorbed onto the surface of the
precipitate which cause the formation of an electrical double layer. The adsorbed
layer will contain an excess of the precipitate ion which predominates in solution
whilst the diffuse counter ion layer will contain an excess of oppositely charged
ions to maintain the overall electrical neutrality of the solution. In the familiar
example where Cl– has been precipitated as AgCl by the addition of an excess of
silver nitrate, the adsorbed layer will contain an excess of Ag+, and the counter ion
layer an excess of and OH– (Fifield, 2000: 221-222).
 According to Kealey (2002: 96) many elements will form compounds insoluble
in water or other solvents. Provided the compound is stable, or may be converted
into a stable compound easily, these insoluble precipitates may be used for analysis.
The technique for obtaining a precipitate may be summarized as follows:
1. The sample should be dissolved as completely as possible in a suitable solvent.
Any residue that does not dissolve (for example, silica present in the metal
sample of the above example), may be filtered off at this stage.
2. Unless there are undesirable changes when the sample is heated, the solutions
should be warmed. This speeds up reactions and helps to form a more granular
precipitate.
3. The precipitating reagent must be chosen to give as insoluble a precipitate as
possible. Preferably, a reagent that will produce the largest mass of precipitate
should be used. For example, aluminum may be precipitated and heated to give
the oxide, Al2O3 when 10.0 mg of aluminum will produce 18.9 mg precipitate.
If ‘aluminon’ (8-hydroxyquinoline, C9H6ON) is used, 170.0 mg of precipitate
results.
4. The precipitating reagent should be added slowly, with stirring to the warm
solution. To check whether precipitation is complete, the precipitate is allowed
to settle, and more reagent added. If further precipitate does not form, the
reaction is complete. If the solution appears cloudy, it is possible that a colloidal
form of the solid is present. This may be coagulated by further warming or
adding more reagent.
5. The reaction mixture is filtered. Various means may be used for this. The
simplest is a quantitative filter paper (ashless), which has been dried and
weighed previously. These may be dried, or burnt (‘ashed’).
Coagulation can be induced in two ways: by increasing the concentration of the
ions responsible for the secondary adsorption layer or by heating the solution. One
way to induce coagulation is to add an inert electrolyte, which increases the
concentration of ions in the secondary adsorption layer. With more ions available,
the thickness of the secondary absorption layer decreases. Particles of precipitate
may now approach one another more closely, allowing the precipitate to coagulate.
The amount of electrolyte needed to cause spontaneous coagulation is called the
critical coagulation concentration. Heating the solution and precipitate provides a
second way to induce coagulation. As the temperature increases, the number of ions
in the primary adsorption layer decreases, lowering the precipitate’s surface charge.
In addition, increasing the particle’s kinetic energy may be sufficient to
overcome the electrostatic repulsion preventing coagulation at lower
temperatures (Harvey, 2000: 242-243).
Drying can be done in stages. To remove water, the filtered solid in its container
is placed in a desiccator and left for a few hours. A vacuum desiccator is even more
efficient for removing solvents at low temperature. Heating in ovens, furnaces or
directly with burners will raise the temperature to remove materials or to decompose
the precipitate to a more stable form. For example, ‘basic aluminum succinate’
is a good precipitate for aluminum, but must be ignited to constant weight
at about 1200∞C to convert to aluminum oxide. The stages
involved in drying and decomposition can be studied using
Thermogravimetry (Kealey, 2002: 96).
The gravimetric measurement was carried out with the same experimental setup
but using deionized water. The same dispensing parameters, as well as
measurement configuration was used like before, except of the fact that dispensing
was performed onto the balance only and no Artel MVS measurements were made
this time. This second experiment was carried out in order to determine whether the
measurement results are obtained gravimetrically with deionized water and the
Artel solution of type C, D or E are the same. The time interval between these two
experimental series with the same hardware and dispensing parameters was about
12 h with an ambient difference of about 3 ◦C temperature. (Liang et al, 2015: 9).
After precipitation and digestion are complete, the precipitate is separated from
solution by filtration using either filter paper or a filtering crucible. The most
common filtering medium is cellulose-based filter paper, which is classified
according to its filtering speed, its size, and its ash content on ignition. Filtering
speed is a function of the paper’s pore size, which determines the particle sizes
retained by the filter. Filter paper is rated as fast (retains particles > 20–25 mm),
medium fast (retains particles > 16 mm), medium (retains particles > 8 mm), and
slow (retains particles > 2–3 mm). The proper choice of filtering speed is important.
If the filtering speed is too fast, the precipitate may pass through the filter paper
resulting in a loss of precipitate. On the other hand (Harvey, 2000: 243).
After filtering, do weighing. Modern balances can readily weigh samples
directly, and masses from several grams down to a few micrograms can be weighed
accurately and quickly. It is important that the conditions are the same for the initial
weighing (crucible, filter paper) as for the final weighings. Temperature is
especially important and hot samples should never be placed directly on to a
balance pan (Kealey, 2002: 97).
In the illustrate the different ways,the mass can serve as an analytical signal.
Its can be illustrate the four gravimetric methods of analysis. When the signal is
the mass of a precipitate, we call the method precipitation gravimetry. The indirect
determination of PO33– by precipitating Hg2Cl2 is a representative example, as is
the direct determination of Cl– by precipitating AgCl. In electrogravimetry the
analyte is deposited as a solid film on one electrode in an electrochemical cell. The
oxidation of Pb2+, and its deposition as PbO2 on a Pt anode is one example of
electrogravimetry. Reduction also may be used in electrogravimetry. The
electrodeposition of Cu on a Pt cathode, for example, provides a direct analysis for
Cu2+. When thermal or chemical energy is used to remove a volatile species, we
call the method volatilization gravimetry. In determining the moisture content of
food, thermal energy vaporizes the H2O. The amount of carbon in an organic
compound may be determined by using the chemical energy of combustion to
convert C to CO2. Finally, in particulate gravimetry the analyte is determined
following its removal from the sample matrix by filtration or extraction. The
determination of suspended solids is one example of particulate
gravimetry (Harvey, 2000: 234).
D. APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS
1. Apparatus
a. Analytical balance 1 unit
b. Exicator 1 unit
c. Stove 1 unit
d. Stir bar 1 unit
e. Spray bottle 1 unit
f. Drop pipette 3 units
g. Watch glass 1 unit
h. Beaker glass 500 mL 1 unit
i. Beaker glass 50 mL 1 unit
j. Graduated cylinder 10 mL 1 unit
k. Graduated cylinder 250 mL 1 unit
l. Crus porcelain 2 units
m. Funnel 1 unit
n. Stopwatch 1 unit
o. Smooth cloth 1 unit
p. Rough cloth 1 unit
2. Chemicals
a. Terusi crystal (CuSO4.xH2O)
b. Iron crystal (II) ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2 FeSO4.6H2O)
c. Aquadest (H2O)
d. Concentrated of nitric acid (HNO3)
e. Ammonia (NH3)
f. Ammonium nitric 1 % (NH4NO3)
g. Filter paper
h. Ammonium 1:1
i. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
j. Aluminium foil
k. Tissue
l. Label
E. WORK PROCEDURE
1. Determination of Terusi Crystal water (CuSO4. x H2O)
a. Crus porcelain was heated and cooled after got the constant weight.
b. Terusi crystal 0.5 grams was weighed in crus porcelain, noted as Wo.
c. Heated on the stove as long as 10 minutes, until the crystal become white.
d. Moved into the eksicator as long as 5 minutes, and after cooled, the crystal was
weighed. Noted the mass as W1.
e. Heated again CuSO4 crystal on the oven as long as 10 minutes.
f. Repeated the third step, and noted the weigh as W2.
g. Repeated the fourth and fifth until the differences between the two weighings is
just 0.0002. Last weigh noted as Wn.
h. Calculated the content of water in terusi crystal.
2. Determination of Iron as iron (III) oxide.
a. Iron (II) ammonium sulphate 0.8 grams was weighed, and filled into the beaker
glass 250 mL (the weight noted as Wo).
b. Iron (II) ammonium sulphate was dissolved by using 250 mL of aquadest and
10 mL HCl 1:1, stired and closed by watch glass.
c. Added by 3 ml concentrated HNO3, then boiled in a few minutes to obtain a
clear yellow color.
d. Diluted by water as much as 200 mL, and boiled again.
e. Slowly, added by ammonia 1 : 1 to excess (the smell of ammonia).
f. Heated again as long as 1 minutes until the precipitate formed. Noted that the
above solution is pure precipitate.
F. OBSERVATION RESULTS
1. Determine the contents of terusi crystalline water (CuSO4.xH2O)
No Activity Result
1 Crus porceline was weighed 30.507 gram
2 CuSO4 terusi crystal was weighed as w0 X0 =31.007 gram
3 CuSO4 terusi crystal was heated on the gas White crystal
stove until 10 minutes
4 Crstal was cooled in exicator until 5 minutes White crystal
5 The crystal wa weighed as w1 X1 = 30.587 gram
6 Crystal was heated again until 10 minutes and White crystal
cooled again
 7 Crystal was weighed as W2 X2 = 30.847 gram
8 Crystal was heated again with 10 minutes and White crystal
cooled until 5 minutes

2. Determine iron content as iron (III) oxide

No Activity Result
1 NH4Fe(SO4)2 Crsytal was weighed 0.8 gram
2 Dissolved with 250 mL H2O Yellow solution
3 Added 10 mL HCl 1:1 Yellow solution
4 Added 3 mL of concentrated HNO3 Yellow solution

5 The solution was heated Clear Yellow solution

6 Added 250 mL H2O Clear Yellow solution

7 Added ammonia 1:1 Precipitation was not

formed

G. DATA ANALYSIS
1. Determination the water content of crystal hydrate CuSO4.xH2O
Known: Mw H2O = 18 g/mole
Mw CuSO4.xH2O = 177.5 g/mole
Wcrus empty = 30.507 grams
W0 + Crus = 31.010 grams
W0 = 0.503 grams
W1 + Crus = 30.857 grams
W2 + Crus = 30.847 grams
Asked: (x) the content of water =…?
Solution:
Wn = (W2 + Crus) grams – Wcrus empty
= 30.847 grams – 30.507 grams
= 0.340 grams
 (W0 −Wn ) (0.503−0.340)g
Mw H2 O 18 g/mole
x = Wn = 0.340 g
Mw CuSO4 .xH2 O 177.5 g/mole

0.009 mole
= 0.002 mole

= 4.5
Based on theory
CuSO4∙xH2O → CuSO4 + x H2O
0,5 g - -
Crystal weight
Mole of CuSO4.5H2O = Mw terusi
0.500 g
= 177.5 g/mole

= 0.0028 mole
1
Mole of CuSO4 = 1 × 0.0028 mole = 0.0028 mole
5
Mole of H2O = 1 × 0.0028 mole = 0.014 mole

Mass of CuSO4 = mole CuSO4 × Mw CuSO4

= 0.0028 mole × 159.5 g/mole
= 0.447 grams
Mass of H2O = mole H2O × Mw H2O
= 0.014 mole × 18 g/mole
= 0.252 grams
(m H2 O) 0.252 g
Mw H2 O 18 g/mole
x = m CuSO4 .xH2 O = 0.500 g
Mw CuSO4 .xH2 O 177.5 g/mole

0.014 mole
= 0.0028 mole

= 5
So, x (theory) = 5
x (experiment)
% rendement = × 100%
x (theory)
4.5
= × 100%
5

= 90 %
2. Determination of Fe as Fe2O3
Known: Mw Fe2O3 = 160 mg/mmol
 Mw Fe = 56 mg/mmol
Wo = 0.8000 g = 800 mg
W1 = 0
Asked: %Fe =….
Solution:
2 ×𝑀𝑤 𝐹𝑒
×𝑊1 (𝑚𝑔)
𝑀𝑤 𝐹𝑒2𝑂3
%Fe = × 100%
𝑊0
(2 ×56) 𝑚𝑔/𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙
× 0 (𝑚𝑔)
160 𝑚𝑔/𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙
= × 100%
800 𝑚𝑔

=0%
H. DISCUSSION
Gravimetri adalah salah satu teknik anailis 'klasik' yang merupakan nilai ketika
sebuah metode referensi yang akurat diperlukan untuk perbandingan dengan teknik
instrumental (Harvey, 2000: 235). Prinsip dasar pada percobaan ini adalah
berdasarkan pemurnian dan penimbangan yang didapatkan dari proses pemisahan
analit dari zat-zat lain dengan metode peenguapan. Adapun prinsip kerja pada
percobaan ini yaitu penyiapan sampel; pengendapan; penyaringan; pengeringan dan
pemijaran; beratnya. Metoda gravimetri adalah suatu metoda analisis secara
kuantitatif yang berdasarkan pada prinsip penimbangan. Analisis gravimetri
digunakan pada beberapa bidang diantaranya untuk mengetahui suatu spesies
senyawa dan kandungan-kandungan unsur tertentu/molekul dari suatu senyawa
murni yang diketahui berdasarkan pada perubahan berat. Analisis kandungan air
didalam uranium oksida dengan metoda gravimetri menggunakan alat
microprocessor oven. Air terserap secara fisika oleh suatu bahan padat danbukan
membentuk ikatan kimia dalam suatu bahan dapat dilepaskan lagi dengan cara
membentuk uap. Pelepasan air ini sangat tergantung pada suhu dan waktu
(Okdayani, 2010). Adapun proses kerja dari gravimetri dilakukan dengan cara sebagai
berikut. Mula-mula cuplikan zat dilarutkan dalam pelarut yang sesuai lalu ditambahkan
dengan zat pengendap. Endapan yang terbentuk disaring, dicuci, dikeringkan atau
dipijarkan dan setelah dingin ditimbang. Kemudian jumlah zat yang ditentukan dihitung
dari faktor stoikiometrinya. Hasilnya disajikan sebagai persentase bobot zat dalam cuplikan
semula. Pada percobaan ini dilakukan dua analisis gravimetri yaitu penentuan air
kristal terusi (CuSO4 x H2O) dan Penentuan kadarbBesi sebagai besi (III) oksida.
A. Penentuan Kandungan Kadar Air Kristal Terusi (CuSO4 x H2O)
Tujuan percobaan ini bertujuan untuk menentukan kadar air Kristal terusi
melalui analisis gravimetri. Kristal terusi adalah Kristal yang berbentuk kristal biru
dengan ukuran partikel yang lebih besar (Kusumahningsih, 2013: 16). Jika molekul
air hidratnya dilepaskan dengan cara pemanasan maka molekul hidratnya akan
berwarna putih dengan bentuk molekul monoklin. Proses pendinginan akan
menyebabkan molekul air sebagai hidrat yang akan terjadi kembali. Sehingga,
warna senyawa akan berubah menjadi biru dikarenakan terdapat kandungan air
dengan bentuk molekul triklin.
Sebelum penentuan kandungan air kristal terusi mula-mula memanaskan dan
mendinginkan krus porselin yang bertujuan untuk memperoleh berat konstan.
Selanjutnya kristal dimasukkan ke krus lalu dipanaskan untuk menguapkan airnya
sehingga menjadi kristal yang berwarna putih yang semula berwarna biru.
Selanjutnya dimasukkan ke dalam eksikator yang berfungsi sebagai pengering.
Eksikator sifatnya vakum yakni mencegah uap air yang berada di luar eksikator
tidak masuk ke dalam eksikator. Hal ini dikarenakan eksikator merupakan wadah
yang terbuat dari bahan gelas yang kedap udara dan mengandung desikan yang
berfungsi menghilangkan air dan kristal hasil pemurnian. Zat di dalam eksikator
dapat tetap kering karena uap air di dalam zat diabsorbsi oleh silica gel. Silika gel
merupakan suatu bentuk dari silika yang dihasilkan melalui penggumpalan sol
natrium silikat (NaSiO2). Sol mirip agar – agar ini dapat didehidrasi sehingga
berubah menjadi padatan atau butiran mirip kaca yang bersifat tidak elastis. Sifat
ini menjadikan silika gel dimanfaatkan sebagai zat penyerap, pengering dan
penopang katalis. Garam – garam kobalt dapat diabsorpsi oleh gel ini. (Kealey dan
Haines, 2002: 96).
Adapun hasil yang diperoleh dari perubahan ini yakni W1 = 30.587 gram, W2
= 30.847 gram serta kandungan air yang diperoleh yaitu x = 4.5. Data ini sangat
jauh menyimpang dari teori yakni selisihnya seharusnya hanya 0,0002 g saja.. Hal
ini disebabkan oleh suhu pemanasan yang tidak dapat diketahui dan tidak dikontrol
(Syabatini,2011) . Adapun tujuan dilakukannya perlakuan berulang-ulang yakni
untuk memperoleh selisih berat yang mendekati teori atau bahkan mungkin sama
besar dengan teori yakni sebesar 0,0002 g sebab ketelitian yang sangat tinggi
merupakan ketelitian analisis gravimetrik. Adapun reaksinya:
CuSO4.5 H2O CuSO4 + 5 H2O
(Biru) (Putih)
B. Penentuan Kadar Besi sebagai Besi (III) oksida
Penentuan kadar besi sebagai besi (III) oksida berdasarkan metode gravimetri
bertujuan untuk mengetahui seberapa besar kadar besi dalam Fe2O3 dengan
menggunakan metode gravimetric yakni metode pengendapan. Prinsip dasar pada
percobaan ini adalah berdasarkan pemurnian dan penimbangan yang didapatkan
dari proses pemisahan analit dari zat-zat lain dengan metode peenguapan. Adapun
prinsip kerja pada percobaan ini yaitu penyiapan sampel; pengendapan;
penyaringan; pengeringan dan pemijaran; beratnya. Dimana besi (III) diendapkan
dengan ammonia sebagai besi (III) oksida.
Kristal besi (II) ammonium sulfat ditambahkan dengan H2O dan HCl sebagai
pemberi suasana asam. Selanjutnya ditambahkan HNO3 pekat yang berfungsi
mengoksidasi Fe2+ menjadi Fe3+.
Larutan yang diperoleh ditambahkan aquades lalu didihkan dan ditambahkan
NH4OH 1:1 hingga larutan jenuh. Adapun reaksinya:
Fe(OH3) (s) + NH4NO3 Fe2O3.5H2O
Hubungan pengendapan dengan gravimetrik yakni metode pengendapan yang
merupakan salah satu dari metode gravimetrik, dimana pada percobaan ini yang
ingin diendapkan adalah Fe (besi) sebagai Fe3+ sebagai bentuk Fe(OH)3.
Pada percobaan ini tidak dihasilkan endapan hal ini dikarenakan kesalahaan
proses pemanasan, dan ammonia yang sudah tidak baik digunakan sebab senyawa
stabil, atau dapat diubah menjadi senyawa yang stabil dengan mudah, maka
endapan tidak larut dapat digunakan untuk analisis (Haines, 2002: 96).Selain itu,
Analisis gravimetri dapat berlangsung baik, jika persyaratan berikut dapat terpenuhi
: 1). Komponen yang ditentukan harus dapat mengendap secara sempurna (sisa
analit yang tertinggal dalam larutan harus cukup kecil, sehingga dapat diabaikan),
endapan yang dihasilkan stabil dan sukar larut. 2). Endapan yang terbentuk harus
dapat dipisahkan dengan mudah dari larutan (dengan penyaringan). 3). Endapan
yang ditimbang harus mempunyai susunan stoikiometrik tertentu (dapat diubah
menjadi sistem senyawa tertentu) dan harus bersifat murni atau dapat dimurnikan
lebih lanjut (Stevla, 1990).
I. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
1. Conclusion
a. The basic principle of gravimetry is based on the purification and weighing
obtained from the process of separating the analyte from other substances with
the evaporation method.
b. Based on the experiment, it was obtained the crystal content of the molten water
of 5 (X = 5)
3. Suggestion
a. For the next practican to be careful in adding ammonia because adding too
much ammonia can lead to no formation of deposits
b. For laboran to complete the tools needed so that the experiment runs smoothly.
c. For assistant more supervise the practitioner during the practicum.
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Harvey, D. 2000. Modern Analytical Chemistry. USA: McGraw-Hill.

Kealey, D., & Haines, P. J. 2002. Analytical Chemistry. UK: Bios Scientific
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Liang, D., Steinert, C., Bammesberger , S., Tanguy, L., Ernst, A., Zengerle, R., and
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