WATER SUPPLY

Roslinda Seswoya, Nur Shaylinda Mohd Zin, Azra Munirah Mat Daud
 2.1 Introduction

• Malaysia was reported to receive rainfall of 324billion m3/year in

year 20001. It distributed to surface runoff and evapotranspiration
about 152 billion m3/year respectively and only 20 billion
m3/year becomes groundwater.
• Malaysia‘s water status are diverse, increase and competing
needs. However the future forecast ( done by SMHB) indicated
that water supply demand cannot be met in many locations due
to
 uneven rainfall distribution, temporally or spatialy
 degradation in the raw water supply catchments, because of Un-control
opening of forested areas (logging, roads, urbanizations) resulting in
massive sedimentation flow into rivers
 Pollution in rivers as it passes urban areas, reaches between raw water
source catchment/storages & downstream water supply intake
Humans are defending on water
supply for the daily basis routine. .
Therefore we should not keep
throwing everything into the river.
Consequently, the cost of water
treatment will be higher and not
affordable any longer. Freshwater is
finite and water should be treated as
a commodity.
We should learn from other on what
they have been doing to have a
sustainable water supply.
A Singapore Success Story
On 27 February 1977, at the opening of the Upper Pierce
Reservoir, the prime Minister, Lee KuanYew said ‘It should be a
way of life to keep the waters clean .. In ten years let us have
fishing in the Singapore River and in the Kallang River.’In October
1977, The Ministry of the Environment , submitted an Action Plan
to the Prime Minister
Singapore River and in Kallang Basin
How did they do it?
5,000 hawkers were relocated into food centres
26,000 squatter families were resettled to HDB flats
Moved factories to JTC, then only
Removed more than 200 tonnesof rubbish
Upgrade the riverside walkway along the river
Upgrade parking lots along rivers
Developed recreational areas along rivers
Sand was brought in to form beaches for recreation
In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 1998 for Klang Valley
residents. The main reasons for the water crisis were due:

•development of the resource and treatment facilities could not

meet the rapid
pace of urbanisation and industrialisation;
• a prolonged drought causing the reduction of flows in the rivers and
the
subsequent decrease in the reservoir levels;
• the low flows in the rivers were insufficient to dilute the pollutant
loads
resulting frequent closures of water treatment plants and
• High water losses due to leakages in the distribution systems and
pilferages
2.2 Water Sources

There are two water sources used

regularly as shown below
Groundwater Surface water
(shallow wells, deep wells) (rivers, lake, reservoir)

 constant composition  variable composition

 high mineral content  low mineral content
 low turbidity  high turbidity
 low color  colored
 low or no D.O.  D.O. present
 high hardness  low hardness
 high Fe, Mn  taste and odor
5
2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)

• The National Water Services Act 2006 or the

Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara Act 2006 which
came into effect on 1 February 2007 is enforced by the
Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication.

• This Act was enforced to establish a body known as

the Suruhanjaya Perkihdmatan Air Negara (SPAN), or
the National Water Services Commission to regulate
and enforce the provisions of the Water Industry
Services Act 2006 (Act 655) known as WSIA
• The Commission, which is fully functional since 1January 2008, is a central
regulatory agency to oversee adequate, clean and healthy water supply
including thetreated water supply.

• The Commission shall have all the functions conferred on it under the water
supply and sewerage services laws and shall also have the following
functions:
 to implement and enforce the water supply and sewerage services
laws and to recommend reforms to the water supply and sewerage
services laws;
 to ensure the productivity of the water supply and sewerage services
industry and the monitoring of operators’ compliance with stipulated
services standards, contractual obligations and relevant laws and
guidelines;
 to ensure national development goals pertaining to coverage, supply
and access to water supply services and sewerage services are
achieved;
• The Water Services Industry Act 2006 (WSIA) which came into force on 1
January 2008 is a federal law and enacted to regulate water supply services
and sewerage service industry.

• The WSIA is enacted for the following objectives:

– to ensure uniformity of law and policy to make a law for the proper
control and regulation of water supply services throughout Peninsular
Malaysia and the Federal Territories of Putrajaya and Labuan;
• Three main subsidiary legislation have been introduces in WSIA;
– Water Services Industry (Licensing) Regulations 2007)
– prescribes all matters relating to the issuance of individual
licenses and registration of class licenses granted under WSIA.
– Water Services Industry (Permit) Rules2007
– issues rules on all matters relating to the issuance of permits granted
under WSIA.
– Water Services Industry (Licensing) (Exemption) Order 2007
– exempts a person from individual or class licensing requirement, by
order of the Minister.
Progress in water supply management in Malaysia in year 2013
Water usage: Domestic and Non Domestic

http://www.span.gov.my/index.php/en/statistic/water-statistic/water-consumption-2017
2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index

The beneficial use of a freshwater

is determined s based on the
Water Quality Index (WQI)

WQI = 0.22(SIDO) + 0.19(SIBOD)

+ 0.16(SICOD) + 0.15(SIAN) +
0.16(SISS) + 0.12(SIpH)

The WQI serves as a basis for

environmental assessment of a
watercourse in relation to pollution
categorization and designated
classes of beneficial uses
Class Uses
I Conservation of natural environment.
Water Supply I – Practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species.

IIA Water Supply II – Conventional treatment required.

Fishery II – Sensitive aquatic species.

IIB Recreational use with body contact.

III Water Supply III – Extensive treatment required.

Fishery III – Common, of economic value and tolerant species; livestock drinking.

IV Irrigation

V None of the above

In 2012, 34 rivers were categorized as being polluted, as shown below.
Out of these:-
19 rivers were classified as Class III
14 rivers as Class IV
1 and one river as Class V

Quality of Water Resources in Malaysia

By Yuk Feng Huang, Shin Ying Ang, Khia Min Lee and Teang Shui Lee
DOI: 10.5772/5896
parameters of pollutant loading that have significant impact on the river
quality, which include BOD, SS and NH3-N. Based on the monitoring results
in 2012 by DOE, in terms of river basin basis

• BOD Load
Klang River Basin ( state of Selangor) 142 tons per day,
Perak River Basin (State of Perak) 114 tons per day,
Sarawak River Basin (State of Sarawak) 30 tons per day,
Jawi River Basin (State of Pulau Pinang) 26 tons per day and
Muar River Basin (State of Johor) 24 tons per day.

• SS Load
Klang River Basin (360 tons per day)

• NH3-N load
Klang river basin (37 tons per day)

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) =sewage and discharges from agro-

based and manufacturing industries.
suspended solids (SS) = earthworks and land-clearing activities.
ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) = sewage that included livestock farming and
domestic sewage.
2.5 Malaysia : National Guidelines for
Raw Drinking Water Quality
National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality (Revised December 2000)

Parameter Symbol Benchmark

Sulphate SO4 250 mg/l
Hardness CaCO3SO 500 mg/l
Nitrate NO3SO 10 mg/l
Coliform - Must not be detected in any 100 ml sample

Manganese Mn 0.1 mg/l

Chromium Cr 0.05 mg/l
Zinc Zn 3 mg/l
Arsenic As 0.01 mg/l
Selenium Se 1.mg/l
Chloride Cl 250 mg/l
Phenolics - 2.mg/l
TDS - 1000 mg/l
Iron Fe 0.3 mg/l
Copper Cu 1.0 mg/l
Lead Pb 0.01 mg/l
Cadmium Cd 0.003
Mercury Hg mg/l
0.001 mg
2.6 Water demand
Various types of water demands

While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary
to determine the total quantity of water required for various purposes by
the city.

As a matter of fact, the first duty of an engineer is to determine the water

demand of the town and then to find suitable water sources from where
the demand can be met.

Following are the various types of water demand of a city or town:

1. Domestic water demand
2. Industrial water demand
3. Institution and commercial water demand
4. Demand for public use
5. Fire demand
6. Losses and wastes 19
Per capita demand
• Since there are so many factors involved in water
demand, it is not possible to accurately determine the
actual demand.
• Certain empirical formula and rules of thumb are
employed in determining the water demand, which is
very near to the actual demand.
• If Q is the total quantity of water required by various
purposes by a town per year and P is population of town,
then per capita demand will be:
• Per capita demand = 𝑄 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑑𝑎𝑦
(𝑃 𝑥 365) 20
Factors affecting per capita demand
1. Size of the city
2. Climatic conditions
3. Types gentry and habits of people
4. Industrial and commercial activities
5. Quality of water supplies
6. Pressure in the distribution system
7. Development of sewerage facilities
8. System of supply
9. Cost of water
10. Local policy of metering and method of charging (water tariff)

• Refer National Water Services Commission (Suruhanjaya

Perkhidmatan Air Negara) for further details on policies and water
21
tariff for Malaysia.
Domestic water demand
Quantity of water required for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing, and other daily
routines

Mainly depends upon habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the people

Under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water is about 135-150

L/day/capita (lcpd)

However, in developed countries, the figure may reach 350 L/day/capita due to the use
of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, and automatic household
appliances

The details of the domestic consumption are ( total 135 Lcpd):

- Drinking (5 lcpd) - Cooking (5 lcpd)
- Bathing (55 lcpd) - Laundry (20 lcpd)
- Utensil washing (10 lcpd) - House cleaning (10 lcpd)
- Toilet flushing (30 lcpd)
22
Water usage: Domestic consumption

Malaysia is targeting
the water consumption
at 180 L/cap.day

http://www.span.gov.my/index.php/en/statistic/water-statistic/domestic-consumption-2017
Industrial water demand
• Quantity of water required in industrial
sectors depends on the type of industries
• The quantity of water demand for industrial
purpose is approximately 20 -25% of the
total water demand of a city
• Per capita consumption for industrial
needs of a city is generally taken as 50
lcpd
24
Institutional and
commercial water
demand
Universities, institutions,
commercial buildings,
and commercial centres
including office
buildings, warehouses,
stores, hotels, shopping
centres, health centres,
schools, religious
houses, cinema houses,
railways, and bus
stations comes under
this category.

Uniform Technical Guidelines for Water Reticulation and Plumbing, SPAN 2017 25
Fire demand

Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching
materials, explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen
mishappenings.

If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they
lead to serious damage and may burn cities.

All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads.

As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over
the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply
sufficient quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.
In the cities, fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 m apart for
fire demand.

The quantity of water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different
empirical formula.
𝑄 = 3182 √𝑃
Where,
Q – quantity of water required in liter/min , P – population of town or city in thousands26
Though the total demand of water for extinguishing fire is usually very small,
the rate of consumption is very high. It depends upon bulk, congestion and fire
resistance buildings.

The minimum limit of fire demand is the amount and rate of supply that would
extinguish the largest probable fire in the city.

Fire hydrants of 15 to 20 cm diameter are normally provided on all street

corners, and at suitable intermediate points. These are generally connected to
water supply mains.

When fire occurs, pumps installed on fire brigade trucks are rushed to the site
and connected to fire hydrants from where they throw jet of water under very
high pressure. The pressure varies between 1 to 2 kg/cm2.

For a fire of moderate, three streams each of 1100 L/min are required.
Assuming an average total consumption of 150 L/day, thus the rate of flow
required for the fire demand, is very much higher than the total flowrate
required for the purposes.

However, the provision of fire demand is made only for 3 to 5 hours fire flow.
The total quantity of water calculated on yearly basis is usually very small
27
because fire breaks out only few times in a year.
2.7 Engineered water system

28
2.8 Surface Water Treatment

• Primary objectives are to

1. Remove suspended material (turbidity) and color
2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms
• Treatment technologies largely based on coagulation and flocculation
(--- compulsory)

29
Loji Rawatan Air Semenyih, Selangor

30
Example of complete processes for surface water treatment plant in
Malaysia

31
Rapid Mix - From the aerators, the water flows into the rapid mix tank
/chemical pre-treatment. The purpose of the rapid mix tank is to provide a
complete mix, allowing the lime/alum to come in contact with the dissolved
minerals. Motor-driven paddles keep the mixture moving and prevent
settling in the mix tanks. Alum is a polymers, acts like a "glue,” holding
together the particles and allowing them to grow even larger.

Flocculation.- During mixing and flocculation, the particles attach to one

another to form larger solids that will be settled by gravity and removed
during another stage of treatment. As slow proceeds through each tank
the force and speed of the mixing is gradually reduced, allowing the
particles to grow as large and heavy as possible.

32
Settling - Next, the water flows to settling/sedimentation tanks, or clarifies,
where floc settle to the bottom as lime sludge/alum sludge. The retention
time is two to three hours to allow the flow settle by gravity. Part of this
sludge is returned to the mixing tank to assist in coagulation; the
remainder is drawn off continuously to holding ponds or lagoons for final
disposal.
Filtration –This step id particularly for the removal of the very fine particle
which is not settle by gravity.
Chlorination - To ensure bacteriological safety of the water supply a
calculated dose of chlorine will be added. The chlorine disinfects the
water and protects against microbial contamination after the water leaves
the treatment plant. Dose of chlorine will also protect treated water from
growth of algae if exposed to direct sun.
33
Other treatment process to be considered

Pre chlorination - used for disinfection of the raw water only if it does not result
in formation of thrihalomethane.
Pre sedimentation - To reduce silt and settleable organic matter prior to chemical
treatment
Flouridation - Fluoride is added into water to prevent incident in dental
caries.
Post Chlorination - To form and remain the residual chlorine in the distribution
system.
Activated Carbon - To remove odor and taste producing compound.
 The goal of municipal water treatment is to
provide water that is both palatable and potable
• Palatable • Potable
– aesthetically pleasing – safe to drink
– considers the presence of – not necessarily aesthetically pleasing
chemicals that do not pose – potability affected by
a threat to human health • microbials (e.g. Giardia,
– palatability affected by Cryptosporidium)
chloride, color, corrosivity, • organic chemicals (e.g., alachor,
iron, manganese, taste and chlordane, cis-1,2-
odor, total dissolved solids, dichloroethylene, disinfection by-
turbidity products)
• inorganic chemicals (e.g.,
cadmium, copper, lead, mercury)
• radionuclides

35
2.9 Raw water intake

• Raw water intakes withdraw water from a river, lake, or

reservoir over a predetermined range of pool levels.

• Intake can be correctly positioned using a number of

techniques including suspending the inlet from a float,
securing the inlet in a rigid structure such as bucket or crib
( Figure 3.3), using rigid pipe work ( Figure 3.4) , or in freezing
condition.

36
Bucket or crib

37
rigid pipe

38
Types of intake structures; floating intake , submerged intake, pier intake,
tower intake, exposed or tower intake and shore intake

Floating intake
Tower intake
Intake Site Selection
The following are the characteristics
for intake site selection
a) Intake velocity
• Water quality • High velocities – head loss, entrain suspended

Intake Design Consideration

• Water depth matter, trap fish, and other aquatic animals.
• Velocity below 8 cm/s allows aquatic animal to
• Stream or current velocities
escape, and minimize the suspended matter.
• Foundation stability
• Access
• Power availability b) Intake-port location- Water quality in each stratum
• Proximity to water may vary. To achieve, multiple intake ports set at
treatment plant various levels are generally provided

• Environmental impact • Top intake – less than 2 m below normal level.

• Bottom intake – least 1 m above the bottom
• Hazard to navigate

40
2.10 Grit Removal System
2.11 Screening
• It is a unit operation that removes suspended matter from water.
• Screens may be classified as coarse, fine, or micro strainer,
depending on the size of material removed

Coarse screen or trash rack

• To prevent large object from entering
the conveyance system
• Consists of vertical flat bars, or, in
some cases, round pipes spaced with
5 to 8 cm of clear opening.
fixed
• Installed outside of any sluice gate.
• The velocity through the coarse
rotary
screen is generally less than 8 cm/s.

53
Fine screen
• To remove smaller objects that may
damage pumps or other equipment.
• Screens consists of heavy wire mesh
with 0.5 cm square opening
• The typical design velocity through
the effective area is in the range
of 0.4 to 0.8 m/s.
• There are two types: Traveling
screens and passive screen
installation

54
2.12 Aeration

 Aeration involves bringing air or other gases in contact with water.

 The purpose of aeration are
1. Reduce the concentrations of taste and odor causing substance
by volatilization
2. To oxidize iron and manganese, rendering them insoluble.
3. To dissolve oxygen in water to make it taste better
4. To remove compounds for better water treatment (H2S removal
before chlorination and CO2 removal before softening)

55
Types of aerator

1) Cascade -Water is sent down

gravitically, and oxygenated as it
come into contact with the air
bubbles caused by turbulent flow
Cascade Tray

2) Diffused air -Water is

enriched with oxygen as it
come into contact with the air
bubbles.

56
Cascade aerators also consist of
circular trays stacked one above
the other, with a central feed
pipe. The spacing between trays
varies from 460 mm to 760 mm
with a total height of fall being
calculated from Gameson’s
Formula which is:

r = 1+ 0.5 (a x b x h)
Aeration occurs in splash area. The
collection basin area is sized according to
the loading rate of 49 m3/hour/m2.

Generally the head required at a cascade

aerator range from 1 to 3 m.
where

r= the ratio of the oxygen deficit just before the aerator to that
just after the aerator.

The “oxygen deficit” is the difference between the actual oxygen

content for the water at that temperature and pressure.

a = level of water pollution

1.25 in slightly polluted water
1.0 in moderately polluted water
0.85 in sewage effluents

b = types of weir
1.00 for a free fall weir
1.30 for a stepped weir

h = the total height of the fall in metres

Example

From the intake port, the DO content of a raw water is 4.5 mg/L whereas at
saturation point at average temperature of 26oC and pressure of 755 mm
Hg, the DO is 8.2 mg/L. The water inflow is 390 m3/hour. Design a cascade
aerator.

Solution

For treatment requirements, it is sufficient to raise the DO to 80% of that at

saturation condition.

i.e. 0.8 x 8.2 = 6.56 mg/L.

Calculate the the ratio of oxygen deficit, r

r = (8.2 – 4.5)/(8.2 – 6.56)

Applying Gameson’s Formula for slightly polluted water and a stepped weir,
r = 1 + 0.5 (a x b x h)
= 1 + (1.25 x 1.30 x h)
Knowing r = 2.256
Therefore ,
2.256 = 1 + (1.25 x 1.30 x h)
h = 1.55 m

Taking the flow rate to be 49 m3/hour/m2,

Area of collection basin

= 390 / 49 = 7.95 m2

Hence, if D is the minimum diameter of collection basin,

 D2/4 = 7.95
D = 3.2 m
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles.

such as clay and colloids remain in are charged negatively

suspension without aggregating for long and stable in nature
periods of time. Therefore, particle cannot be (stable = existing in
removed by sedimentation. ionized form).

How to destabilise the particle/colloid to

make it able to settle down in sedimentation
tank?

ANSWER:
By adding the COAGULANT ( charged positively)!!!

61
62
JAR test is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and flocculation concepts
associated to nature water. From this experiment the optimal pH, coagulant dose ,and
coagulant aid could be determined.

Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove

• Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
• Toxic compounds that are absorbed to particles
• Inorganic materials

63
Rapid mixing varieties

64
 Coagulant is a process utilizes chemical coagulant. The coagulant is mixed
thoroughly with the water (in rapid mix process). The various species of the
positively charged particle (from coagulant) adsorb to the negatively
charged colloids (color, clay, turbidity) and negatively charged particles.
 Once the charge is neutralized, the small suspended particles are capable
of sticking together. The slightly larger particles formed through this process
and called microflocs, are not visible to the naked eye.
 The water surrounding the newly formed microflocs should be clear. If it is
not, all the particles' charges have not been neutralized, and coagulation
has not been carried to completion. More coagulant may need to be added.
 Microfloc itself is not yet settleable, and then flocculation process takes
place.

65
 Flocculation is the process in which the destabilised
particles are bound together by hydrogen bonding of Van
der Waal’s forces to form larger particle flocs

 High molecular weight

polymers, called coagulant aids,
may be added during this step
to help bridge, bind, and
strengthen the floc, add weight,
and increase settling rate. Once
the floc has reached it optimum
size and strength, the water is
ready for the sedimentation
process.

 Figure shows the flocculation

basin, in which no motor or
paddle used to assist the
mixing.

66
Effectiveness of
Coagulation
The crux of efficient
coagulation is the efficiency of
MIXING the coagulant with the
raw water.

Coagulation happens in two

mechanisms;
•Adsorption/destabilization of the
soluble hydrolysis species on the
colloid and destabilization
•sample with high turbidity which
needs low dosage of coagulant (pH
5-7)
•Sweep coagulation where the
colloid is trapped in the hydroxide
precipitate
•low turbidity, high dosage of
coagulant (pH 5.8-9)
Mixing Time

•The time that a fluid remains in the reactor and affects the degree to which the
reaction goes to completion.

•In the ideal reactor,

t = V/Q
where ,
t = time ( in second)
V = volume ( m3)
Q = flow rate ( m3/s)

Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s

note : real reactor do not behave as ideal reactor because of density difference due to
temperature or other causes.
Mixing equipment is need in coagulation. Why?
Answer : To dispersion of the coagulant into the raw water.

Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid mixing.
Rapid mixing aims to produce the high G.

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is

adsorption/destabilization are;
• Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets
• In line mechanical mixing
• In line static mixing

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is sweep

coagulation are;
• Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
• Diffusion by pipe grid
• Hydraulic mixing
 Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2) mixing time

Velocity gradient, G
• G , can be thought as the amount of shear taking place;

• For coagulation, G must be higher enough. When chemical be added, the

different G should e take into the consideration.
Adsorption/destabilization: 3000 s-1 < G < 5000 s-1 , t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 600 s-1 < G < 1000 s-1 , 1 s < t < 10 s

• Different chemicals require different velocity gradients

• Power of mixture imparted to water could be calculated;

Power = G2 V
where,
G = velocity gradient, s -1
V = volume in m3
 = dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
Example
A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to achieve the
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water ( temperature 170 C) flows at
300 MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate the power.
Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s-1

Solution
For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as 0.5 s.
Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 106 L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m3
1000L
= 1.74 m3
Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @170 C =1.081 x 10-3 Pa.s
Refer Table
Power = G2 V
= (2000) 2 (1.74) (1.081 x 10-3)
= 7524 Watt
Note: recalculate the power by assuming the temperature of water is 250 C. Give comment.
Effectiveness of Flocculation
The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of MIXING to bring the particles into
contact with one another so that they will collide, stick together and grow to a size
that will readily settle. The mixing to to flocculate the coagulated water.

Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2)mixing time.

Velocity gradient, G

For flocculation, high enough to cause particles contact and keep the floc from
settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing apart.

Mixing Time

•For conventional treatment where settling follows flocculation, the flocculation

times ranges from 20 -40 minutes.
Flocculation is normally accomplished with

1) paddle flocculator or 2) baffled chamber

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation

2) baffled chamber
1) In flocculation tank, flow-through
velocity is normally to 2.5 - 75
mm/s. Explain what will be happen if
the velocity is less than 2.5 mm/s
and more than 7.5 mm/s.

1) In designing a flocculation tank,

which one of the following
parameters take more priority:
horizontal /flow through velocity or
detention time?

2) Flocculation and settling tanks

should be as close as possible . Why?
Coagulant  Types of coagulant
 is the substance (chemical) that is - Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
added to the water to destabilize - Ferric chloride: FeCl3
particles and accomplish coagulation. - Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
 Properties of coagulant - Polyelectrolytes
 Non-toxic and relatively inexpensive
 Insoluble in neutral pH range - do not
want high concentrations of metals
left in treated water
 Cation: trivalent cation is lesser
dosage ( compared to Ca2+ and Na+)

Roslinda@Sem 1 2016/2017 76
• Why trivalent cations
considered as good
coagulant ?

ANSWER:
Cations such as Fe3+
and Al3+ has a higher
molecular weight, easy
to settle. Therefore, it
removes turbidity
effectively even a small
dose was used.

Roslinda@Sem 1 2016/2017 77
Coagulant type Examples

Inorganic metallic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3•14H2O, sodium aluminate,

coagulant aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate and ferric chloride

Prehydrolyzed metal Made from alum and iron salts and hydroxide under
salts controlled condition; polyaluminium chloride (PAC)

Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and nonionic polymers

Natural plant-based Opuntia spp. And MoringaOleifera (used in many parts of

materials the world esp. developing country)

Roslinda@Sem 1 2016/2017 78
How does alum works?
In sufficient alkalinity in the water Alum sludge=alum floc =dry sludge
(without water, H2O=Al(OH)3), settle in the flocculation tank

1Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 +14H2O + 3SO42-

1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of CO2

The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decreases the pH
However, as long as sufficient alkalinity is present and CO2 (g) is allowed to
evolve, the pH is not drastically reduced and is generally not an operational
problem
Roslinda@Sem 1 2016/2017 79
Example Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO3- ) consumed when 1
mg/L alum was used.
Solution

1) Chemical reaction

Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 8 H2O + 3SO42- + 14H2O

2) Equivalent weight (EW)

MW alum = 594 g/mole

MW alkalinity = 61 g/mole
MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole

3) Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10-6 mole/L

(594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)

4) Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 2 mole/L of alum sludge, therefore

Solid removed = 2 (1.684 x 10-6 mole/L) (78 g/mole)

= 2.63 x 10-4 g/L = 0.26 mg/L

Roslinda@Sem 1 2016/2017 80
5) Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

Known that 1 mole/L alum yield 6 mole/L of alkalinity, therefore

Alkalinity removed = 6 (1.684 x 10-6 mole/L) (61 g/mole)
= 6.16 x 10-4 g/ L
= 0.62 mg/L HCO3-

Expressed in CaCO3
= 0.62 mg/L HCO3- x EW CaCO3 / EW HCO3-
= 0.62 mg/L HCO3- x 50 g/eq /61 g/eq
= 0.51 mg/L HCO3- as CaCO3

Roslinda@Sem 1 2016/2017 81
Example

Two sets o such jar test were conducted on a raw water

containing 15 NTU and an HCO3- alkalinity concentration
of 50 mg/L expressed as CaCO3. using the given data to
find:

a. the optimal pH,

b. The optimal coagulant dose and
c. the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be
consumed at the optimal dose
Jar Test 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

Alum dose 10 10 10 10 10 10
Settled
Turbidity 10.5 7 6.5 5.7 9 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Jar Test 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Alum dose 5 7 10 12 15 20
Settled
Turbidity 15 10.5 6 5.5 7 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Answer
2) Construct the graph
1. Construct the graph of turbidity turbidity remaining vs alum dose
remaining versus pH

Turbidity vs pH
14
turbudity remaining (NTU)

12

10

0
5 6 7 8
pH
• The optimal pH was chosen as 6.25
• The optimal alum dose was about 12.5
mg/L
• 1 mole of alum consumes 6 mole of
alkalinity (HCO3-).
Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3-↔2Al(OH) 3• 3H2O(s) + 6CO2 +8H2O + 3SO42-

• Therefore, you have to calculate moles of

alum added per liter.
• Recalled: (Eq. 5-7 pg 223 text book)
mg/L = molarity x molecular wt x 103
= (moles/L) x (g/mole) x 103 mg/g)

12.5 mg/L alum, MW of alum= 594 g/mole

 mole/L = 12.5 x 10-3 g/L (alum)/594 g/mole
= 2.1 x 10-5 moles/L
Which will consume 6 (2.1 x 10-5 ) = 1.26 x 10-4
mole/L HCO3-
• MW HCO3- = 61, so
• (1.26 x 10-4 moles/L)(61 g/mole)(103 mg/g) = 7.7
mg/L HCO3- are consume,
• mg/L as CaCO3 = 7.7 (50)/61 = 6.31 mg/L as
CaCO3
 2.14 SOFTENING
The removal of ions that cause hardness is called SOFTENING. This process is
common for groundwater source.

Hardness in natural waters comes from the dissolution of minerals from geologic
formation that contain calcium and magnesium . Two common minerals are calcite and
dolomite. The natural process by which water become hard is shown below.
 Hardness is a term often used to characterize the ability of a water to:
ocause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)-  Ca(Soap)2 (s)
oincrease the amount of soap needed
ocause scaling on pipes
ocause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium carbonate crystals
oleave stains on plumbing fixtures
•Total Hardness (TH)
Technically - the sum of
all polyvalent cations Description Hardness range (mg/L as CaCO3)
Practically - the amount Extremely soft 0 - 50
of calcium and
Very soft 50 100
magnesium ions (the
predominant minerals in Moderately 100 – 150
natural waters) hard
(TH = Ca2+ + Mg2+) Hard 150 - 300
It is divided into Very hard > 300
carbonate (CH) and
noncarbonate hardness
(NCH), (TH = CH + NCH)
•Carbonate Hardness (CH)
associated with HCO3-, CO32-
CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less
Often called "temporary hardness" because heating the water will remove
it. When the water is heated, the insoluble carbonates will precipitate and
tend to form bottom deposits in water heaters.
Ca2+ + 2HCO3-  CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O

•Non-Carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH
If Alkalinity  Total hardness, then NCH = 0
Called permanent hardness because it is not removed when the water is
heated. It is much more expensive to remove non-carbonate hardness than
carbonate hardness.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-
Example
A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the following concentrations of ions
Ca2+ 40 mg/L
Mg 2+ 10 mg/L
Na + 11.8 mg/L
K + 7.0 mg/L
HCO3 - 110 mg/L
SO4 2- 67.2 mg/L
Cl - 11 mg/L
Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct a bar chart of the constituents

Solution
Ion Conc. M.W. n Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.
mg/L mg/mmol mg/meq meq/L (ion mg/L as
conc. / EW)
CaCO3
Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5
*Sample Calculation: Concentration of Ca2+ in mg/L as CaCO3 = (Concentration in meq/L) *
(Equivalent Weight of CaCO3) = (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq) = 99.8 mg/L as CaCO3
•Check Solution
(Cation)s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within  10% mg/L as CaCO3

•Total Hardness
=  of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3

•Alkalinity = (HCO32-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)

Since pH = 7.2  (neutral pH, OH- & H+ are negligible)
Alkalinity  (HCO32-) = (1.80 x 10-3) eq/L
Alkalinity = (1.80 x 10-3 eq/L)(50 g/eq)(1000 mg/g)
= 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3

•Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness associated with carbonate

or bicarbonate)
• Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
(Note: if TH < Alk then CH = TH; and NCH = 0 )

•Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 =50.9 mg/L as CaCO3
 Softening can be accomplished by the lime soda process, ion exchange,
nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Lime –soda softening is discussed in this chapter.

Lime-Soda Softening
-it is possible to calculate the chemical doses necessary to remove hardness
-hardness precipitation is based on the following two solubility reaction:

To supply hydroxyl ions, the

To supply carbonate ions, the economic way is to buy LIME (
chemical used is SODA CaO) , then mix with water to
( Na2CO3) produce Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime)

Ca2+ + CO32- ↔ CaCO3 (s) Mg2+ + 2OH- ↔ MgOH2 (s)

Softening Reactions

The softening reactions are regulated by controlling the pH.

FIRST – any free acids are neutralized
THEN- pH is raised to precipitate the CaCO3; if necessary
- pH is raised further to remove Mg(OH)2
FINALLY – if necessary, CO32- is added to precipitate the noncarbonate hardness

Six important softening reactions

are shown.
1

In each case, the chemical that has

2
been added to the water is printed
3
in bold type.
4

Designation (s) is for solid, hence

indicates that the substance has 5

been removed from the water.

6

In reality they occur

simultaneously.
Magnesium is MORE EXPENSIVE to remove than calcium, then we leave as much Mg 2+ as
possible in the water.

The removal of non-carbonate hardness is MORE EXPENSIVE , because we must add the
CO32- ( in term of SODA) therefore we leave as much non-carbonate hardness as possible
in the water.

Traditionally, the final total hardness is set of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO3, however due to
the economic constraints, many utilities will operate at total hardness of 140 -150 mg/L
as CaCO3.
Concurrent removal of other Limitation
species •Because of the solubility of CaCO3 (s) and
•Natural Organic Matter (NOM) MgOH2 (s), ideal mixing is prohibited
•Turbidity some hardness ions remain in solution
•Other metals •insufficient time for reactions
•Minimum Ca hardness ~ 30 mg/L as
CaCO3
•Minimum Mg hardness ~ 10 mg/L as
CaCO3
 (1) NEUTRALIZATION OF CARBONIC ACID(H2CO3)
- Add lime
- To neutralize any free acids ( acid carbonic) that may be present in the water
- NO hardness is removed in this step

CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3(s) + H2O

(2) PRECIPITATION OF CARBONATE HARDNESS DUE TO CALCIUM
-add lime
-pH must be raised up to 10.3 to percipitate the calcium carbonate
-To achieve this pH , convert all of the bicarbonate to carbonate
-The carbonate then serves as common ion for percipitation reaction

Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O

With the aid of chemical
equation, show the
formation of carbonic
acid
(3) Precipitation of carbonate hardness due to magnesium
Must add more lime to achieve a pH about 11.
The reaction may be considered to occur in two
It is SOLUBLE.so
stages. the hardness of
First stage occurs when we convert all of the water did not
bicarbonate to carbonate CHANGE

Mg2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2  MgCO3+ CaCO3(s) + 2H2O

Second stage- addition of more lime

Mg2+ + CO32- + Ca(OH)2  MgOH2(s)+ CaCO3(s)

4) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Calcium
NO further increase in pH is required.
Provide additional carbonate in the form of soda ash

Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

5) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Magnesium not much changes
in hardness . We
-First add lime still HAVE Ca2+

Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2  MgOH2(s)+ Ca2+

-to eliminate Ca2+ , add soda

Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

Flow
diagram for
solving
softening
problem
( all
addition as
mg/L as
CaCO3 )
Example

From the water analysis presented below, determine the amount of lime and soda (mg/L
as CaCO3) to soften the water to 120 mg/L as CaCO3
. Water composition (mg/L as CaCO3)
Ca2+ = 149.2 CO2 = 29.3 HCO3-= 185.0

Mg2+ = 65.8 SO42-=29.8

Na+ = 17.4 Cl-= 17.6

Solution
2) From the bar chart , we note
1) Plot the bar chart as shown below following
149.2 + 65.8
TH = 215 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 185 mg/L as CaCO3
if TH > alk CH = Alk
NCH = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
NCH = TH -CH

185 + 29.8
3) Follow the logic of Figure in Slide 38, calculate the lime dose as follows

Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)

Lime = CO2 29.3
-
Lime = HCO3 185.0

Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 65.8 - 40 25.8

Lime = excess 25.8

TOTAL = 265.9

CH left due to solubility & other

factors (30 – Ca, 10-mg =40
4) Calculate NCH left and NCH removed mg/l as CaCO3)

NCH left = final desired hardness – 40 NCH removed = NCH – NCH left

Therefore,
NCH left = 120– 40 = 80 mg/L
NCH removed = NCHi-NCHleft=30 – 80 = -50 ( negative is indicating there is
no need to remove NCH, no SODA required )
 TRY !

From the water analysis presented below, determine the amount of lime
and soda (in mg/L as CaCO3) necessary to soften the water to 80
mg/L hardness as CaCO3

-water composition (mg/L)

Ca2+ =95.20,
Mg2+=13.44,
Na+=25.76,
CO2 = 19.36,
HCO3-=241.46,
SO42-=53.77,
Cl-=67.81
 349.53
238.00

293.37
44.14

0 mg/L as CaCO3
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+
CO2
HCO3- SO42- Cl-
mg/L as CaCO3

198.00

235.92

349.53
44.14

• From the bar chart: TH= 293.37 mg/L as CaCO3

(noted: CO2 –does not contribute to the
hardness) CH = 198.00 mg/L as CaCO3 ; NCH = TH-
CH = 95.37 mg/L.
Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)
Lime = CO2 44.14
Lime=HCO3- 198.00
Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 55.37 -40 15.37
Lime = excess (equal to Mg2+ to 20.00 (minimum)
be removed) 277.51
Total
 The amount of lime to add is 277.51 mg/L as CaCO3.
the excess chosen was the minimum since (Mg2+-40)
was less than 20.
 Determine if any NCH need to be removed.
 NCHleft=final hardness (80 mg/L) –the CH left (40 mg/L)
• NCHleft=80-40 = 40 mg/L
• Thus 40 mg/L may be left.
• NCHR= NCHi-NCHf
• = 95.37 – 40 = 55.37 mg/L
• Thus the amount soda to be added = 55.37
mg/L as CaCO3.
2.15 Sedimentation Tank/
Settling Tank/ Clarifier

• Following flocculation, the water then flows into the settling basins as
shown below (left) . The plan view of clarifier shown below (right)
• Water in clarifier/settling/sedimentation tank is nearly quiescent – low
flow with little turbulence and resides for at least 3 hrs and the flocs
settle out and collect at the bottom ( mechanically removed
periodically).

Sedimentation basins are either rectangular or

circular, normally 1 unit sedimentation system
comprises of 2 tanks

106
 Typical sedimentation tanks
a. Rectangular, horizontal-flow
b. Circular, radial-flow
c. Hopper-bottomed, upward-flow
 Rectangular basin
Upflow clarifier

Over flow – settle water outlet Over flow – settle water outlet

109
The key parameters and typical values in the design of settling tank are:
- surface over flow rate – 20 - 35 m3/day/m2
- detention times – 2- 8 h
- weir overflow rate – 150 – 300 m3 /day/m

Inlet zone; to evenly distribute

the flow and suspended
particles across the section of
the settling zone

Outlet zone;to remove the settled

water from the basin without
carrying away any of the floc
particles.

Sludge zone depends upon the

method of cleaning, the frequency
of cleaning and the quantity of
sludge estimated to be produced
Example
Calculate the diameter and depth of a circular clarifier for a design flow of 3800 m3/d and an
overflow rate of 0.00024 m/s and a detention time of 3 h. Calculate the weir loading rate by
assuming the total effluent weir is 20 m.

Solution

1) Volume , V = Qt
= (3800 m3/d) ( 3/24)
= 475 m3

2) Q = 3800 m3/d = 0.044 m3/s

3) Surface overflow rate = Q/A

0.00024 m/s = (0.044 m3/s ) / (A m2)
So , Area, A = 183.3 m2

4) Depth, D =V/A
= 475 m3/183.3 m2 = 2.59 m

5) Diameter = 15.3 m

6) Weir loading rate = Q/ Lw

= (3800 m3/d )/(20 m) = 190 m3/day.m (OK!, refer to slide 32)

111
Example
Determine the surface area
of a sedimentation tank.
The design flow is 0.044 Solution
m3 /s. Use a design
overflow rate of 20 m / day.
Find the depth of the 1) First change the flow rate to
sedimentation for the compatible units.
given overflow rate and
detention time. (0.044 m3/ s)(86,400 s / day) = 3801.6 m3
day
2) surface area.

surface area is = 3801.6 m3 /day

20 m/ day
= 190.m2

112
3) Length to width dimension

Common length-to-width , L: W ratios

( 2:1< L:W < 5:1 , and lengths seldom exceed 100 m)

A minimum of two tanks is always provided.

Use two (2) tanks, each with a width of 5 m, a total surface area of 190 m2

Length = 190 m2 /(2 tanks)(5 m wide) = 19 m

length-to-width ratio of 3.8: 1 (OK!)

4) Find the tank depth.

Rule of thumb that the detention time should be 2-8 h.
Assumed the detention time of 120 min
Q = V/t
V=Qt
V = (1900.8 m3/d )(120 min)( d/1440 min) = 158 m3

Depth = 158 m3/ 95 m2 =1.684 m,= 1.7 m

The final design would then be two tanks, each having the following
dimensions:

5 m wide x 19 m long x 1.7 m deep plus sludge storage depth.

113
 Example
Types Description Water Wastewater
Treatment Treatment
-Settling as discrete particles at a constant 1.Pre-sedimentation 1.Grit chamber
settling velocity 2.In filter bed after
-No flocculation during backwashing
I Sedimentation
- Apply Stokes’ Law

-Particles that aggregated or flocculate during Sedimentation after alum or 1.Primary sedimentation
sedimentation iron coagulation 2.In settling tanks after trickling
filtration
II
3.In upper portions of
secondary clarifiers after activated
sludge treatment
-Particles settle as a zone or blanket Settling in lime soda ash 1.Activated sludge sedimentation
-Usually have a clear interface between the settling sedimentation 2.Sludge thickeners
III
sludge and the clarified effluent

114
115
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1) - UPFLOW CLARIFIER
The concept of an upward-flow sedimentation tank is shown in Figure.
Two important terms in sedimentation zone design are:

1)settling velocity, vs : velocity of the particle

to be removed

2) overflow rate / hydraulic surface loading, vo :

velocity of water decreases as the water flows upward

Note that the velocity of the particle remains

unchanged. Therefore,

If vsvo, then 100% of particles remain in

tank
If vs<vo, then 0% of particles remain in tank

116
Example
If a settling velocity of a particle is 2.8 mm/s and the overflow rate of a
upflow clarifier is 0.56 cm/s, what percentage of particles are retained in
upflow clarifier?

Solution

vs = 2.8 mm/s = 0.28 cm/s

v0 = 0.56 cm/s,

Note that

vs< vo, then 0% of particles remain in tank

117
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1)- REGTANGULAR BASIN
Particle removal is dependent on the overflow rate, v0.
In order for particle to be removed settling velocity, vs must be sufficient so that it
reaches the bottom during the time the water resides in the tank (td).

vs= v0 , 100 % particles removed

vs> v0 , 100 % particles should be easily removed
vs< v0 , some fraction of the particles will be
removed , P = 100 Vs/V0
The concept of a horizontal flow sedimentation
tank is shown on Figure

In a horizontal flow sedimentation tank:

118
Example
If a settling velocity of a particle is 0.7 cm/s and the overflow rate of a
horizontal flow sedimentation tank is 0.8 cm/s, what percentage of particles
are retained in sedimentation tank?

Solution

Vs = 0.7 cm/s
v0 = 0.8 cm/s,
Note that

vs < v0 , P = 100 vs / vo= 100 ( 0.7)/(0.8) = 87.50 or 88 %

119
Example
A water treatment plant has a horizontal –flow sedimentation tank with an
overflow rate of 17 m3/d. m2 and wishes to remove particles that have
settling velocities of 0.1 mm/s. What percentage of removal should be
expected for each particle in an ideal sedimentation tank?

Solution

Vs = 0.1 mm/s
v0 = 17 m3/d. m2 =? mm/s, ( do the conversion so, v0= 0.2 mm/s)

Note that
vs < v0 , P = 100 vs / vo= 100 ( 0.1)/(0.2) = 50%

Recalculate by considering v0 are 0.3 mm/s

120
2.16 Filtration
 The water leaving the sedimentation tank (settled water) still contains floc
particles, remaining the turbidity in the range from 1 to 10 NTU. These
levels of turbidity interfere with the subsequent disinfection processes, so
the turbidity must be reduced. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
requires the turbidity of treated water at least at 0.3 NTU.
 In order to reduce turbidity to less than 0.3 NTU, the filtration process is
normally used.
 The most common filtration used is granular filtration. Granular filtration is
a process for separating suspended or colloidal impurities from water by
passage through a porous medium.
 Porous medium usually a bed of sand or other medium; coal, garnet,
granular activated carbon (GAC), or ilmenite.
 Basically water fills the pores between the sand particles, and the
impurities are left behind either clogged in the open spaces or attached to
the sand itself.

121
122
Several methods of classifying filter accordingly to;

A) the type of medium used B) Allowable loading rate, va

i) Sand i) slow sand filters ( SSF)

ii) coal ( anthracite) ii) rapid sand filters (RSF)
iii) dual media ( coal + sand) iii) high-rate sand filters
iv) mixed media
( coal, sand + garnet) Note: va = Q / As

va = face velocity ,
Q = flow rate onto filter surface, m3/d
As = surface area of filter, m2

124
 Comparison between granular filtration

Process Slow Sand Filtration Rapid Filtration

Characteristics
Filtration rate 0.05-0.20 m/h 5-15 m/h
Media diameter 0.30-0.45 mm 0.5-1.2 mm
Bed depth 0.9-1.5 m 0.6-1.8m
Required head 0.9-1.5 m 1.8-3.0 m
Run length 1- 6 months 1- 4 days
Regeneration method Scraping Backwashing
Maximum raw-water turbidity 10-50 NTU Unlimited with proper
pretreatment

126
3.10.1 Rapid Sand Filtration

 Also known as depth filtration.

 Rapid sand filters (Figure 3.23) are the most common type of filter used
in water treatment.
 The filters are cleaned by backwashing;
- Agitating the bed either mechanically or with compressed air and
washing water upwards through the bed to the surface.
- The ‘backwash’ water is then wasted or return to the beginning of
the plant to treatment.
 Normally a minimum of two filters are constructed to ensure
redundancy.
 For a larger plant (> 0.5 m3/s), a minimum of four filters is suggested.
 The surface area of the filter tank is generally restricted in size to about
100m2, except for very large plants

127
Example

For a flow of 0.8 m3/s, how many rapid sand filter of dimensions 10 m x 20 m are needed
for a loading rate of 300 m3/d.m2?

Solution

1) Determine Q in m3/d

Q = (0.8 m3/s)( 86400 s/d) = 69120 m3/d

2) Determine total area required

A = 69120 m3/d = 230.4 m2

300 m3/d.m2
3) Number of filters ( must round to next highest integer)

No = 230.4 m2 = 1.152 or 2 filters

(10 m) (20m)
128
Slow sand filtration
Maintenance

Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as the Schmutzdecke grows and thereby reduces the rate of
flow through the filter.

The top few millimetres of fine sand is scraped off to expose a new layer of clean sand. Water is then
decanted back into the filter and re-circulated for a few hours to allow a new Schmutzdecke to develop. The
filter is then filled to full depth and brought back into service.
at a loading rate
of 2.9 to 7.6
m3/d.m2 by
gravity feed

formed in the first 10–

20 days of operation
and consists of
bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, rotifera and
good quality range of aquatic
with 90-99% organisms
bacterial
reduction. provides the effective
purification in potable
water treatment,

129
2.17 Disinfection
 Disinfection is used in water treatment to
reduce pathogens (disease –producing
microorganism) to an acceptable level.
 Disinfection is not the same as sterilization.
Sterilization implies the destruction of all living
Vibrio cholera
organisms. Drinking water need not be sterile.
 Human enteric pathogens that must be Giardia
destroyed by disinfection included bacteria (E.
coli O157, Vibrio cholera), Viruses, Protozoa,
(Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia) and Amebic
cysts.

E.coli
133
 Others disinfectant
1. Ozone (O3)
5. Chloramines (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3)
– very powerful oxidant – kills cysts
– longer contact time if primary disinfectant
– no taste and odor problems
– used in combination with other disinfectants
– widely used in Europe
6. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
– no residual
– very effective
– more expensive than chlorine (produced on-site)
– must be produced on site
2. Ultraviolet radiation
– effective bactericide and viricide
– water must be free of turbidity and lamps free of slime
and precipitates
– no residual protection
3. Hypochlorite salts: NaOCl and Ca(OCl)2
– more expensive to purchase
– easier to handle
– more common for small supplies
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Disinfectant

 Cheaper,
 Tends to decrease pH
 Each mg/L of chlorine
added reduced the
alkalinity by up to 1.4 mg/L
as CaCO3

 Always contain alkali to

enhance stability
 More expensive
 Tend to raise pH
 safer

136
Typical mixers for the addition of chlorine

137
Chlorine Reaction in Water

 When chlorine is added to water, a mixture of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is formed:

Cl2 (g) + H20  HOCl + H+ + Cl-

 This reaction is pH dependent and essentially complete within a very few milliseconds. The pH
dependence may be summarized as follows:
- In dilute solution and at pH levels above 1.0, the equilibrium (above equation) is displaced to the
right and very little Cl2 exists in solution.
- Below pH 1.0, depending on the chloride concentration, the HOCl reverts back to Cl2 (above
equation)
- HOCl is a weak acid and dissociates poorly at levels of pH below about 6.
- Between pH 6.0 and 8.5 there occurs a very sharp change from undissociated HOCl to almost
complete dissociation:

HOCl = H+ + OCl-

- Chlorine exists predominantly as HOCl at pH levels between 4.0 -6.0

- (At 20oC, above pH 7.5), and (at 00C, above pH 7.8), hypochlorite ions (OCl-) predominate.
- Hypochlorite ions exist almost exclusively at levels of pH around 9 and above.

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To be of practical service, such water disinfectants must possess the following properties:

1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced into water
within a practicable period of time over an expected range in water temperature.
2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration and condition of the
waters to be treated
3. The must be neither toxic to human and domestic animals nor unpalatable or otherwise
objectionable in required concentrations.
4. The must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe and easy to store, transport, handle
and apply.
5. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined easily, quickly and
(preferable) automatically.
6. They must (residual chlorine) persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration to
provide reasonable residual protection against its possible recontamination before use.

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Residual Chlorine

140