Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
A-Whaling We Will Go
I am coming back to be caught again.
—Makah whale song
On a summer morning in 1995, like nearly every other morning that year, I went
to the Makah Cultural and Research Center to research the history of the reser-
vation community in Neah Bay, Washington. This morning was set apart from
the others, however. There on the table, awaiting the staff, sat a paper plate
stacked with smoked whale blubber. The blubber—boiled and smoked by a
Makah linguist on the museum staff—was a novelty. As endangered species,
California and Pacific gray whales had been off limits to hunting for many years.
Whale hunting was once a significant spiritual, social, and economic practice
for the qwidicca7atx, or Makah people,2 and they were adamant about securing
the right to it in their 1855 treaty with the U.S. government.3 Although the
Makah people still enjoy occasional meals of salmon, halibut, sea urchin, goose-
neck barnacles, and many other sea creatures, gray whale has not been a part of
their diet since they ceased whale hunting early in the 20th century. By the
1920s, the whale population, decimated by commercial hunting, could no longer
support this tradition (Pascua 1991). The smoked blubber sitting on the staff ta-
ble that summer morning had come from an "accidental whale."4
It was July, and the net of a Makah fisherman accidentally entangled a gray
whale. Entanglement in Makah nets had reportedly occurred five times in the
prior 15 years. Each time, the federal government either confiscated the whale
or sought prosecution for killing an endangered species (Bock 1995; Tizon
1998). But this time the Makah were allowed to keep the whale. Ironically, only
two months prior to the "accidental whale," the Makah Tribe had announced its
intention to resume hunting the gray whale because this species had recently
been removed from the Endangered Species List. This announcement generated
considerable commotion internationally among anti-whaling activists. The
556
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CENTER 557
While the Makah were noted for their ability as fishermen and seal hunters, they
were probably most noted for their exploits as whale hunters. More than anything
else, whale hunting utilized almost every technical skill possessed by the Makahs
from the building of the canoes, to the development of the equipment, the intense
physical training, the fulfillment of spiritual preparations for the hunt, and ex-
traordinary knowledge of the ocean. The whaling canoe holds a crew of eight men
with each man having a specific task to perform throughout the entire whale hunt.
Once the whale was harpooned, float bags made of hair seal skins were attached to
the harpoon line and were thrown into the water as a means of tiring the whale. The
actual killing of the whale was done by a special lance. Once this was done, a man
dove into the water and sewed the whale's mouth shut to help prevent the whale
from sinking after he was dead. The whale was then towed ashore and was divided
among the people of the village. More than anything else, the whale hunt repre-
sented the ultimate in both physical and spiritual preparedness and the wealth of
the Makah Indian culture.
The media has been drawn not only to these narrations of the history and tech-
nology of whale hunting but also to the dramatic centerpiece of this spring sea-
son gallery—reproductions of whaling and sealing canoes and their equipment.
Visitors may walk around and touch these canoes carved from cedar trees. On
the wall behind the canoes, a photographic image attributed to Asahel Cur-
tis—enlarged to some twenty feet high—documents a Makah whaler thrusting a
harpoon into the back of a whale (see Figure 1). In addition, through temporary
exhibits such as Riding in His Canoe: The Continuing Legacy of Young Doctor
MCRC has offered the media narrations of how Makah cultural sensibilities
have continued in the midst of dramatic social change.6
Narrations of Makah history at the MCRC can also draw from the mu-
seum's library and the collection of Ozette artifacts. A staff member can choose
to point out passages in Frances Densmore's Nootka and Quileute Music (1939)
which detail the significant presence of whaling in Makah ceremonial life early
in this century.7 Densmore details how Makah Wilson Parker described pot-
latches organized by successful whalers. In these potlatches, special dancers
wore "prayer garb," imitated the motions of a whale, and shook a whaler's rattle
of elk horn. According to oral history gathered by Densmore (1939) and James
Gilcrest Swan (1870), the area around the dorsal fin of the whale was ceremoni-
ally significant. When whale meat was distributed on the beach, the dorsal fin
area, or "whale saddle," was hung, decorated, and treated ceremonially for days.
Apparently, whaling-related ceremonies took place in the presence of the
whale's saddle or in the presence of a wooden effigy of the saddle (Swan
1870:21-22). One of these wooden effigies—inlaid with more than 700 sea
mammal teeth—was excavated at Ozette and is now on exhibit at MCRC. This
remarkable artifact is available for staff members or other interpretive guides to
point out in conjunction with explanations about the history of Makah whaling.
By way of curating their exhibitions and archives, the MCRC has become one of
the possible backdrops for projecting Makah voice(s) and projecting Makah in-
terpretations of why recuperating whaling is important to many members of the
community. Of course, Tribal Council chambers, fishing wharves, and private
IHl- MAKAII CUM URAL AND RESEARCH CliNTLR 559
Figure 1
In the only known photograph depicting historical Makah whaling in progress, a
Makah harpooner thrusts a harpoon into the back of a whale as it tows their
hand-carved cedar canoe. This image, enlarged to some twenty feet high, provides
a dramatic backdrop for one of the Makah Cultural and Research Center's
permanent galleries. Photo by Asahel Curtis, 1910, negative #56519. Reproduced
by permission of Washington State Historical Society, Tacoma.
living rooms have also served as significant locations for Makah people to ar-
ticulate their opinions to the public.
The antagonism generated by the pro-whaling position of the Makah Tribe
and the anti-whaling position of animal rights activists also drew media, espe-
cially from the Northwest region. These reports were picked up and distributed
nationally by the Associated Press. In the wake of Save the Whales campaigns,
the Free Willy and Free Willy II movies, and the saga of repatriating the whale,
Keiko, to his original homeland in Iceland, the Makah people have been facing
considerable anti-whaling sentiment. The Sea Shepherd Society and Progres-
sive Animal Welfare Society have led very high profile campaigns against the
Makah intention to whale. Some of the more intense elements of this anti-whal-
ing strategy have included threats to destroy Makah whaling vessels, blockading
of the Neah Bay harbor, and plans of swamping the annual Makah Days gather-
ing with protestors (Mapes 1998b). Not all animal rights organizations have
made the same choice, however. Greenpeace, for example, has maintained a low
profile, choosing not to challenge indigenous rights secured by treaty and citing
that other factors pose a greater threat to whale populations (Tizon 1998, 1999).
On the morning of the day I submitted this article for review, the national
news announced that the Makah people had broken their whale-hunting hiatus.
560 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The following account of the whale hunt has emerged since this article was ac-
cepted for publication.8 In the early morning of May 17, 1999, Makah whalers
paddled their 32-foot, hand-carved cedar canoe, the Hummingbird, off the coast
of Point of Arches. Anti-whaling protestors were absent because days before the
U.S. Coast Guard had confiscated their boats. The Coast Guard cited the protes-
tors for violating the Marine Mammal Protection Act that dictates the distance
from whales that boats must remain. In using their boats to shield the whale and
to haze the Makah canoe, the protestors entered this protected halo around the
whale.9 Throughout the melee, the media shadowed the movements of the cedar
canoe, prompting one journalist to comment, "Saturday's unsuccessful hunt,
during which the Coast Guard seized at least three protest boats, was broadcast
live for almost 10 hours by Northwest Cable News, prompting a Seattle Times
television critic to describe it as 'this region's own CNN-style epoch' " (Ver-
hovek 1999:A14). Despite this, on the morning of the successful hunt, the U.S.
Coast Guard and National Marine Fisheries Service observers looked on with-
out the protestors. Motorized Makah support boats stood ready. In her home,
Makah Elder Helma Ward lay motionless in bed following the belief that female
relatives must observe certain taboos to ensure the success of the hunt.10
Pulling up alongside a 30-foot, juvenile, female gray whale, harpooner
Theron Parker stabbed the whale with his harpoon. With the whale towing the
canoe by the harpoon line, the motorized chase boat pulled alongside, and a
Makah shot the whale in the vicinity of the brain with two bullets from a .50-
caliber rifle (see Figure 2). n The whalers refloated the sinking whale and, with
the help of two fishing boats, towed it to Neah Bay harbor, where a crowd of
tribal members had waited hours for their arrival. After they approached the har-
bor with an accompaniment of four other canoes from neighboring tribes, the
whalers detached the whale from the fishing boat and pulled it to shore with their
canoe.
Following a jubilant landing and a ceremonial dusting of the crew and car-
cass with eagle down, tribal members hauled the whale—hand over hand—onto
the beach with the towline. Over a span of several days, the Makah people butch-
ered the whale, cooked the meat, rendered its oil, and hosted a parade and large
potlatch celebration for hundreds in the high school gym. From the sand of Neah
Bay's beach, or from a chair set up at the potlatch, the momentum of the celebra-
tion must have seemed to exceed that of the backlash (Figure 3). The Seattle
Times, however, received hundreds of phone calls, letters, faxes, and emails—
many of them laced with hateful or racist remarks. Communications from pro-
testors outnumbered those from supporters at a 10:1 ratio (Tizon 1999). As one
journalist characterized it, "Blood has spilled, and a door has opened to all man-
ner of incivilities. The public discussion has become a free-for-all. Political cor-
rectness, for better or worse, has gone out the window" (Tizon 1999: A16).
The contours of the anti-whaling argument are complex and shifting, espe-
cially now that the hunt has become a reality. A full account of the arguments
is not my intention here. However, it is critical to point out that one of the
main objections to Makah recuperation of their whaling tradition is based in the
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESFARCII CENTER 561
Figure 2
Wayne Johnson, captain of the whaling crew, carries a high-caliber rifle designed
with the help of veterinarians to more quickly and humanely kill the whale. Critics
of Makah whaling have argued that the use of modern technology contradicts the
Makah assertion of their cultural need to recuperate whaling. Photo by Alan
Berner. Reproduced by permission of Seattle Times.
562 CULTURAL ANTHROPOI O(,Y
Figure 3
More than one hundred protestors gathered in Seattle for a candlelight vigil the
night the Makah people were carving up and distributing the carcass of their gray
whale on the Neah Bay beach. The vigil, organized by the Progressive Animal
Welfare Society, called for ten minutes of silence to memorialize the whale's death.
Another protestor carried a sign that read, "Save a Whale, Harpoon a Makah"
(Burkett 1999). Photo by Benjamin Benschneider. Reproduced by permission of
Seattle Times.
conviction that the Makah people are opening a "Pandora s box ' on commercial
whaling (Watson 1999a). The Sea Shepherd Society, perhaps the most visible
opponent to Makah whaling, predicts that the Makah Tribe will pursue a "hid-
den agenda": selling the whale meat internationally (Watson 1999b). The fear is
that the Makah's successful use of "cultural necessity" as a justification for
hunting will embolden others to cite cultural necessity, such as other Northwest
Coast aboriginal groups in the United States and Canada, as well as groups in
Norway, Japan, and Iceland.
What I am highlighting here is how the specter of reopening commercial
whaling is leading animal rights activists and commentators to question the no-
tion of "cultural necessity" and to question the sincerity and legitimacy of cul-
tural recuperation by the Makah people. In the process of asserting animal
rights, human rights and cultural survival issues are coming under attack.1' Al-
though the Makah right to hunt whale is secured by their 1855 treaty with the
U.S. government, it is the specifications of the International Whaling Commis-
sion that are shaping the debate. One of the exceptions to the worldwide ban on
whaling is "aboriginal subsistence, an exception that requires demonstration of
a "continuing ' tradition of hunting and eating whales (Blow 1998). The Makah
people have negotiated this stipulation by arguing the following:
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CENTER 563
Many of our tribal members feel that our health problems result from the loss of
our traditional seafood and sea-mammal diet. We would like to restore the meat of
the whale to that diet. We also believe that the problems that are troubling our
young people stem from lack of discipline and pride and we hope that the restora-
tion of whaling will help restore that. But we also want to fulfill the legacy of our
forefathers and restore a part of our culture that was taken from us. [Johnson
1998:B9J
Hey, I think we should also be able to take their land if they can take our whales.
Publish this article but don't use our last names. We wouldn't want to lose our
scalps. [Wendy and Erica, mother and daughter, quoted in Tizon 1999: A16]
These peoples want to rekindle their traditional way of life by killing an animal
that has probably twice the mental capacity they have. These idiots need to use
what little brains they have to do something productive besides getting drunk and
spending federal funds to live on. [Steve Greenwood, quoted in Tizon 1999:A16]
I am anxious to know where I may apply for a license to kill Indians. My forefa-
thers helped settle the west and it was their tradition to kill every Redskin they
saw. "The only good Indian is a dead Indian," they believed. I also want to keep
faith with my ancestors. [Phillips Wylly, Pebble Beach, California, quoted in Ti-
zon 1999.A16]
Such is the racial hatred, drawing from pan-Indian stereotypes, that is directed
at the Makah people. Part of what fuels this debate are the conceptual separation
of Makah whaling from its history and the insinuation of the disingenuity of
Makah "cultural needs." This skepticism has been compounded by accusations
that any intentions to sell the whale meat would strip whaling of its aboriginally
(Tizon 1998). The underlying assumption here is that traditional Native Ameri-
can "culture" was and should be separate from economic trade. Striking a mid-
dle ground, some critics have suggested that, rather than kill whales, the Makah
people should spiritually "count coup," that is, simply touch them. Furthermore,
some have suggested that if such encounters were reenacted for ecotourists, it
could help revitalize the reservation economy. 13
Opposition to whaling has not come from strictly non-Makah sources,
however. Some members of the Makah community feel that the Makah "know
who we are" and do not need whaling to prove "Makahness." Others fear for the
lives of the whalers. Significantly fewer Makah individuals share animal rights
activists' sentiment that whale hunting constitutes a wrongful abuse of animal
564 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
rights.14 Still others, while indifferent to the prospect of resuming whale hunt-
ing, maintain the legitimacy of their right secured by treaty.
Like many people, I am internally conflicted on this issue. While I am de-
cidedly pro-Makah in supporting their self-determination efforts (including
whaling), I also have little interest in commercial whaling driving various spe-
cies to the brink of extinction once again. Despite this internal conflict, I am
compelled to point out that the Makah are as much at risk as the whale here.
Anti-whaling passions are running high. In an attempt to draw conservative sup-
porters, the Sea Shepherd Society is decrying the involvement of the U.S. Coast
Guard as wasteful expenditure of "U.S. taxpayers' dollars." The situation is
clearly inflaming strong regional anti-Indian sentiments. From my perspective,
at the heart of this whaling controversy are the processes of authenticating and
discrediting Makah identity in the 20th century. Who gets to control the expres-
sion of Makah identity—both its legitimacy and legality? Who gets to decide
what is "cultural," "traditional," or "necessary"?
Here, the identity politics and politics of representation inherent to the
whaling controversy articulate with my own research on the evolving relation-
ship between museums and Native peoples in the Western hemisphere. Since the
1960s, an increasing number of indigenous communities have founded their
own museums and cultural centers (Erikson 1996a, 1996b, 1996c). Indigenous
peoples have become better represented in the museum and cultural preserva-
tion professions; they have also increasingly asserted their value systems in the
legal arena, thus fostering the passage of crucial laws such as the Native Ameri-
can Graves Protection and Repatriation Act in 1990.15
By looking at the case of the MCRC and one of its temporary exhibits, en-
titled Riding in His Canoe: The Continuing Legacy of Young Doctor, we can see
more clearly the general links between museum representation and Native
American efforts to achieve self-determination. As is well known, Native peo-
ples (including the Makah) have long been targeted for various assimilation pro-
jects. These projects were designed to create American citizens by eliminating
traditional, cultural lifeways (Erikson 1996a: 125-168). Beliefs in the inevitable
expansion of Euro-American civilization created expectations that Native
American peoples were destined for cultural extinction. We can see this in the
perspective of James Swan, who wrote an ethnography of the Makah people un-
der the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution in the late 19th century. He
penned the following:
Many indigenous museums seek to tell the history of these assimilation projects
and to disrupt the current ideologies that are their legacy.16 Additionally, many
hope to utilize museums/cultural centers to help mitigate (through language,
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CENTER 565
land, material culture, and oral history preservation projects, for example) the
effects of colonization.
This year, the Makah people celebrate 20 years of forwarding cultural pres-
ervation and self-representation through the MCRC. Using the museum/cultural
center as a tool to reclaim traditions, lifeways, and identities previously targeted
by assimilation projects has lent additional significance to the importance of the
museum. From the Makah perspective, potential interference with treaty-pro-
tected whaling rights resonates with a long history of being defined and control-
led by others.17
Now that the Makah people have landed a gray whale, the media frenzy and
controversy are far from over. A lawsuit challenging the legality of Makah
whaling under the U.S. Whaling Convention Act of 1949 is before the Ninth Cir-
cuit Court of Appeals (Watson 1999b). The Sea Shepherd Society continues to
campaign against Makah whaling, arguing, "We have made the case that the
whales are citizens of the seas, with the right to pass by this place unharmed, and
that inventing a new category of 'cultural whaling' has not given the Makah the
right to flout international law and start killing whales with an eye on future
commercial trade" (Watson 1999b).
In the ongoing dialogue between non-Native and Native peoples regarding
who "Indians" are and how they should live, tribal museums/cultural centers be-
come a critical tool for negotiating the significant gap between the dominant
constructions of Indianness and self-perceptions by Native peoples. As a promi-
nent member of a Makah whaling family has said, "We've got to get the story
out. . . . If we didn't we'd be these horrible, dirty savages, the killers of the
whales. It's just not that way" (Keith Johnson, quoted in Verhovek 1998.A13).
Museums have always been highly complex "zones" where "contact" between
indigenous and nonindigenous peoples takes place (Clifford 1997). However, in
an era characterized by abundant tribal museums and charged by the politics of
treaty rights and repatriation, the nature of this contact has recently become sig-
nificantly different.
Before I offer a particular account of how the MCRC, in general, and a tem-
porary exhibit, in particular, relate to community history and processes of self-
determination (including pursuit of the right to whale), I should describe briefly
my "anthropology of museums" framework. Michael Ames (1986) was one of
the first theorists to define the anthropology of museums literature. He called at-
tention to the nature of museums as both "social artifacts" and social actors. The
term social artifacts calls attention to museums as social constructions. They are
not somehow freestanding but are products of political, economic, and cultural
566 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
am arguing here, that the post-1960s Native American movement has been
marked by critical discourses conducting a "self-genealogy." By "self-geneal-
ogy" I mean the process of establishing one's own subjugated knowledge as
valid, as part of an emancipatory or self-determining process. Self-determina-
tion through museums has entailed necessarily calling attention to the processes
that have constructed "official knowledge." Clifford's analysis of museums as
"contact zones" (1997:188-219) captures this sense of the museum as an arena,
zone, or border where knowledge and meaning are negotiated in the midst of un-
even power relationships.
Clifford illustrates the concept of museums as contact zones by describing
a 1989 "encounter" between curators of the Portland Museum of Art in Oregon
and several Tlingit Elders. Tlingit Elders were present in the basement of the
Portland Museum of Art as consultants for a project intending to reinstall the
Rasmussen Collection (a collection gathered in the 1920s in southern Alaska
and coastal Canada). Whereas Clifford (in the role of consultant) and the cura-
tors expected the Elders to comment on the objects, they instead used the objects
as mnemonic devices, or what Clifford calls "aides-memoires" (1997:189). In a
somewhat spontaneous ceremonial event, the Elders performed songs and sto-
ries in the museum basement. In part, the ceremony was a dialogue between
members of different Tlingit clans and a demonstration of their respective rights
and privileges. But it was also a dialogue with non-Natives. Clifford quotes
Austin Hammond as saying to the museum staff, "We're telling you these
things.. . . We hope you'll back us up [with respect to land rights, fishing
rights]" (1997:190). It became obvious to Clifford and the museum staff that the
objects in the Rasmussen Collection were far more than aesthetically pleasing
objects with cultural meaning. The Tlingit referred to them as " 'records,' 'his-
tory,' and 'law,' inseparable from myths and stories expressing ongoing moral
lessons with current political force" (Clifford 1997:191). What sort of genre,
then, would guide the reinstallation—objects as artifact or as art?
In the particular situation recounted by Clifford, the Portland Museum staff
had the responsibility of deciding which meanings should be highlighted. Addi-
tionally, they faced the dilemma of how the museum could reciprocate to the
communities represented. Hence, Clifford uses the concept of museum as a con-
tact zone to highlight the encounter between different systems of meaning in
which wow-Native paradigms have, historically, been those institutionalized and
legitimated (1997). 22 Clifford takes this concept from Mary Louise Pratt's pro-
ject to critique and complicate diffusionist models of colonialism (diffusionist
models that either celebrate or criticize an "inevitable" spread of colonization).
As Pratt defines it, a "contact zone" is a space of colonial encounter involving
"conditions of coercion, radical inequality, and intractable conflict" (1992:7).
Her term contact zone preserves the sense of inequality yet allows human
agency to the colonized. For Pratt, a "contact zone" is
In the summers between 1923 and 1926, Young Doctor recorded over sixty
songs on wax cylinders with Frances Densmore. Densmore writes that Young
Doctor recorded the songs in the rear of his store, where he "carves and paints
many articles for commercial sale" (1939:72). He would occasionally interrupt
his recording of songs with Densmore to go and wait on customers up front
(Densmore 1939:xxv). In the rear of the store where Densmore and Young Doc-
tor recorded songs, a cotton cloth representing one of his dreams hung beside
them on the wall. Apparently, Young Doctor explained to Densmore that spirit
helpers conferred powers and enabled Makah individuals to accomplish
tasks—such as carving, healing the sick, fishing—that would not otherwise
have been possible. He labeled these spirit helpers tumanos.21 Half a century ear-
lier, Swan explained these dreams as encounters with animals who were mani-
festations of spirit beings, beings that had chosen to show themselves in a par-
ticular form (1870:63-64).
Young Doctor also told Densmore that some of the songs he was recording
with her were sung in "dream language," which could only be understood by the
person who received the song in her or his dream. Other singers could only learn
and repeat the syllables (Densmore 1939:xxv). As Densmore explains it, Young
Doctor considered this spiritual knowledge, this Makah way of knowing, as the
basis for creating and interpreting the use of material culture items. Young Doc-
tor specifically described for Densmore situations in memorial potlatches in
which "dream songs" of the deceased were sung and the belongings of the de-
ceased—such as a whaler's rattle or whale harpoon barbs—were displayed,
shown great respect, and curated by the deceased's children for such instances
in which they were needed to terminate mourning (Densmore 1939:34, 39).
In Young Doctor's lifetime, missionaries sternly disapproved of Makah
cultural expressions such as songs, potlatching, and gaming. This censure, in ad-
dition to the new political-economic strains on family structures that interrupted
hereditary patterns, contributed to the loss of songs. These changes led Young
Doctor to modify the traditional, kinship-based system of passing down knowl-
edge. Young Doctor, who died in 1934, bequeathed a selection of songs, and
their associated regalia, to the community at large. These eventually became a
part of Makah Days celebrations. These songs, including the paddle song, are re-
hearsed by children in Neah Bay's community hall for many weeks leading up
to Makah Days (the annual August celebration of Makah identity). The staff of
the MCRC curates the dance paddles and spears and often helps teach the chil-
dren and guide them when they perform on the village street for as many as
1,000 Native and non-Native onlookers. Celebrating these traditions and inter-
preting them to outsiders are among the ties that the MCRC sees between itself
and Young Doctor.
For two decades, the MCRC has afforded the Makah people the opportu-
nity to participate in the making of knowledge about themselves by providing an
institution that allows them to practice social science in a manner both accessi-
ble and effective for them. The museum is a new mstitutional format whereby
the Makah may synthesize their oral history with ethnography and archaeology
574 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
to make sense of their culture history. The museum has become a new tool for
collecting and representing the memories that are distributed throughout differ-
ent Makah families. Central to the subjectivity of the MCRC is that it collects
oral history and material remains of the past, and it also serves as a tool for en-
couraging remembering and for encouraging the continuation of culturally sig-
nificant practices.
In short, the museum reveals its concept of itself as embodying the cultural
preservation project that individuals like Young Doctor (and many others) be-
gan a century earlier. Between Young Doctor's potlatch house and the high-pro-
file excavation of Ozette, cultural preservation efforts took many forms. Some
Elders led classes meant to celebrate Makah heritage. These carving, language,
and basketry lessons were held in the Neah Bay school (Erikson
1996a:223-232; Renker and Arnold 1988). Others founded and maintained
clubs that celebrated Makah identity through carrying on song, dance, and bas-
ketry traditions. Through less institutionalized means, Makah identity was ex-
pressed and reinforced through the continuation of potlatching, often in the
guise of parties to celebrate birthdays, Christmas, the Fourth of July, or World
War II homecomings (Erikson 1996a:212-218; cf. Cranmer Webster 1991).
To put Makah whaling in context, the current recuperation of whaling is
only one example of Makah efforts to adapt to social changes in their commu-
nity, changes that are a response to the surrounding political economy. Because
Makah actions are articulated with national and global political economies,
Euro-American notions of "what Indians are" or "what they should be" come
into play in a manner very familiar to the Makah people.
Conclusions
But our opponents would have us abandon this [whaling] part of our culture and re-
strict it to a museum. To us this means a dead culture. We are trying to maintain a
living culture. We can only hope that those whose opposition is most vicious will be
able to recognize their ethnocentrism—subordinating our culture to theirs.
—Makah Tribe, Makah Whaling: Questions and Answers
This excerpt from the Makah Tribe's website captures the line that the
MCRC walks between being a museum and being a cultural center. Based on
personal experience, I would say it is not uncommon for Native American com-
munity members to associate, at least partly, the idea of a museum with repre-
sentations of Native American cultures as "dead" or extinct cultures. Main-
stream museums have certainly played a role in making the public comfortable
with particular traditional and folkloric representations of Native American cul-
ture. Tribal museums, such as the MCRC, may approximate a mainstream mu-
seum in professional quality and the format of their exhibitions and operating
procedures. Yet, by embracing the mission of a cultural center to support Makah
cultural survival, the MCRC demonstrates its conviction that Makah people
have the right to participate in authoring not only their past but their present and
future.
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CENTER 575
The current discourse swirling about Makah whaling reveals a popular re-
luctance to accept the complexity of Makah identity. When the Makah whalers
harpooned their whale, Peter M. Golly from Woodinville, Washington, submit-
ted the following to the Seattle Times:
Michael McCarty, a Makah, was quoted as saying, "Harpooning, going back to the
old days, is just awesome for the whole tribe." Wouldn't it be even more "awe-
some" to really go back to the "old days"? Make your clothing on looms so you
will look like your ancestors when you are hunting. Give up Gore-Tex and Thin-
sulate, wear moccasins instead of sneakers and hiking boots. Grow and hunt the
rest of your food, stop going to grocery stores. Stop using electricity and all the ap-
pliances it supplies. . . . Stop living in modern-day homes and live in lodges like
your forefathers.... If you really want to return to the "old days" of your culture,
then turn around and go all the way back. [ 1999:B9]
they have been where official narratives confront oral tradition. Through exhib-
its like Riding in His Canoe, the Makah people produce and validate knowledge
about themselves, offering representations that are preferable to, but in dialogue
with, those of the dominant historiography. Exhibits such as Riding in His Ca-
noe document how the Makah negotiation of dominant notions of Indianness
has been one of their strategies of survival and self-determination.
This venue for indigenous knowledge making becomes very salient in the
highly charged atmosphere of the whaling controversy. At issue is who gets to
control the expression of Makah identity. Following the successful whale hunt,
Wayne Johnson, captain of the whaling crew, wrote to the Seattle Times,
Some people have criticized us for this [post-whaling] celebration saying that it
should have been a somber event and that we should have mourned the whale in
the way they imagine to be proper. I am so tired of the Paul Watson's [Sea Shep-
herd Society] crew—and the long line of missionaries and government Indian
agents that preceded them—pushing their cultural values on Makah people and
telling us how and how not to be Makah. [ 1999:B9]
Obviously, the media (newspaper, television, the Internet) is a vital means for
the Makah people to try to communicate to the public why they are breaking
Figure 4
The adoption of turn-of-the-century Euro-American clothing, worn here by Makah
people harvesting meat and blubber from a whale carcass, reveals a complexity of
identity not often anticipated, or accepted, by the non-Native public. Photo by
Asahel Curtis, 1910, negative #NA?21. Reproduced by permission of Special
Collections, University of Washington Libraries.
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CENTER 577
with reified notions of Indian culture, notions in which only a particular era of
the past is "authentic." Yet it is through their museum/cultural center that the
Makah people can frame their interpretations of the past, present, and future in a
format the public associates with knowledge. Despite this similarity, tribal insti-
tutions such as the MCRC differ in their long-standing commitment to reaffirm-
ing Makah ways of knowing in order to ensure cultural survival.
Like mainstream museums, tribal museums/cultural centers are "contact
zones" where human subjects are constituted through their relations with each
other, often within unequal power relations. The MCRC is a critical tool for at-
tempts to equalize this imbalance in power relations and to regain knowledge
making and remembering among those whose knowledge has been previously
discredited.
The forces buffeting contemporary Makah whaling are likely to continue
operating within predominantly non-Native perceptions of Indianness. The
mere presence of the MCRC, however, disrupts notions of inevitable cultural
loss. Furthermore, the juxtaposition of the permanent gallery, featuring Makah
whaling, with temporary exhibits, such as Riding in His Canoe, contests notions
of culture as static. The museum represents what Euro-Americans expect to be
Indian "tradition" (i.e., whaling), but MCRC also implicitly connects this tradi-
tion to the present and future. Whaling artifacts, for example, are not only ob-
jects that represent the past; they are objects that can provide guidelines for
thinking about the present and the future (Cruikshank 1998:103). They serve as
mnemonic devices for remembering, and pursuing, Makah versions of Makah
identity.
Tribal museums/cultural centers, such as the MCRC, demonstrate a pre-
sumed authority to interpret the cultures of their respective tribes and to partici-
pate in projects in which knowledge is made about their tribes. In tribal muse-
ums/cultural centers, Native peoples are not just participating as informants,
consultants, or even cocurators, but as owners and curators of their own collec-
tions. This opens up other possibilities for how they are able to influence their in-
teractions with non-Native peoples. The hope is for greater Native American
agency in counteracting stereotypical representations and exploitive relations.
Nevertheless, these accomplishments and negotiations occur in a social land-
scape that continues to be structured in dominance. This is evident in how the
museum has become one of the localized points of encounter with global forces,
such as the international debate on commercialized whaling.
In the midst of the whaling controversy, it would not be surprising for pub-
lic attention to turn to the direct representations of whaling in the Makah Cul-
tural and Research Center. Perhaps more instructive than these expected repre-
sentations of tradition are the MCRC's temporary exhibits, such as Riding in His
Canoe, which make a subtle point. This point is that "being Makah" can con-
tinue in the midst of dramatic social change and that this identity may continue
to honor the past at the same time that it must adapt to survive.
578 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Notes
Acknowledgments. I am indebted to members of the Makah Tribal Council and the
Makah Cultural and Research Center Board of Trustees for permission to conduct re-
search on the Makah Reservation. Deborah Cahalen's reading of an earlier draft of this
article is greatly appreciated. Support for this research was generously provided by the
National Science Foundation and the Jacobs Research Funds.
1. This song was sung by James Guy for Frances Densmore and documented by
Densmore as "No. 7 A Whale Returns." According to Densmore, Guy's explanation of
this song was that "it was said that a man had a dream in which a living whale came to
him. This was a whale he had caught at some previous time and it came back, saying it
was ready to be caught again" (1939:66).
2. In their own language, the Makah are known as the qwidicca?atx, or People of
the Cape—more specifically, People Who Live by the Rocks and Seagulls (Makah Tribe
1999). The term Makah is Salish in origin and was mistakenly assigned to the
q w idicca ? atx as their official name during the treaty and reservation-building era, thus
becoming firmly embedded in government documentation. The qwidicca?atx have in-
habited the Cape Flattery region for more than 4,000 years, primarily as fishermen, seal
hunters, and whale hunters, but also as land-mammal hunters and gatherers. Today,
tribal members work in commercial and subsistence fishing, commercial logging, art-
istry, and tourism-related retail businesses, as well as in Tribal Government, the Indian
Health Service, the Neah Bay public school system, the Makah Cultural and Research
Center, and the Clallam County Correctional Facility (as well as other major off-reser-
vation employers).
3. The Makah Nation remains the only tribe in the United States to have treaty-
secured whaling rights. See Kappler 1904 for the Treaty of Neah Bay text.
4. I take this term from Bock 1995.
5. These nations are particularly interested in the Makah intention to resume whal-
ing, for they have historically challenged and sought loopholes in the international ban
on whaling.
6. This exhibit was created in 1989 for the ten-year anniversary of the Makah Cul-
tural and Research Center. It was remounted in 1995 while I was working there. Cur-
rently, this temporary exhibit space hosts an exhibition featuring Makah basketmakers
and their artistry.
7. I witnessed a staff member pointing out these resources to journalists while I was
there. She provided the resource and then left them to make their own conclusions.
8. For examples of the published accounts, see Mapes 1999 and Mapes and Solo-
mon 1999a, 1999b.
9. Obviously the Makah canoe, from which Makah planned to harpoon the whale,
was also violating the halo dictated by the Marine Mammal Protection Act. However,
their permission to hunt the whale exempts them from this restriction. Anti-whaling pro-
testors bitterly pointed to the irony in the confiscation of their boats (Watson 1999a).
10. See Gunther 1942:67-68 for a description of these taboos.
11. The introduction of high-caliber rifles was recommended by veterinarians in
order to "more humanely" and quickly kill the whale (Makah Tribe 1999). Death by har-
poon used to be a very slow process: Makah oral history suggests that sometimes Makah
whalers were towed for more than a day before the whale died.
12. Similar confrontations elsewhere, for example, over wall-eyed pike spearing in
Wisconsin and seal hunting on Baffin Island, are discussed in Wenzel 1991.
THE MAKAH CULTURAL AND RESEARCH CENTER 579
13. To see the different threads of this discourse, see Johnson 1998 and Peterson
1996, 1998.
14. See Hogan 1996, Mapes 1998a, and Verhovek 1998 for accounts of these sen-
timents.
15. For an account of how Makah whaling pertains to repatriation from museum
collections, seeTweedie 1999.
16. In addition to that in the MCRC, I have seen critiques of colonization in indige-
nous museums at the following locations: Warm Springs, Oregon; Mashantucket, Con-
necticut; Salamanca, New York; and Santa Maria Yucuihiti, Oaxaca, Mexico.
17. See Harmon (1999), who charts the dialogue between Native and non-Native
peoples regarding who Indians have been, or are supposed to be, over the last century.
18. Michael Ames articulates these two levels of analysis while reflecting on es-
says by Virginia Dominguez and Ira Jacknis. Ames sat on a panel with them ('The Ob-
jects of Culture") at the November 1988 American Anthropological Association
meeting in Phoenix (Ames 1992:141, n. 173).
19. Clifford Geertz recently characterized James Clifford's Routes (1997) as "hit-
and-run" or "walk-through" ethnography (Geertz 1998). He was referring to Clifford's
alterNative readings of museum exhibits and practices. Clifford's methodology has been
shaped by his well-known concerns for ethnographic authority (1988).
20. Specifically, I refer to feminists who have been influenced by poststructuralists
(such as Lacan, Derrida, and Foucault) in their theorization of the construction of human
subjectivity. While influenced by poststructuralism, some feminists argue with post-
structuralism's denial of human agency, and here I find affinity with them. See Alcoff
1997 and Nicholson 1997, for example.
21. As Linda Alcoff describes, "Identity [is] relative to a constantly shifting con-
text, to a situation that includes a network of elements involving others, the objective
economic conditions, cultural and political institutions and ideologies, and so on"
(1997:349).
22. Compare Jonaitis' s (1991) discussion of encounters between museum staff and
Native community members with Cranmer Webster's (1991) discussion of the meaning
of tribal museum collections to see this juxtaposition.
23. This kind of collaborative working relationship is currently common and is a
response to Native critiques of academia. See Biolsi and Zimmerman 1997, Jocks 1996,
and Kidwell and Plane 1996.
24. For representative popular publications on the Ozette excavation, see Kirk
1974, 1975.
25. I explore less "institutionalized" means by which Makah people negotiate by
way of self-representations—such as basketry—in Erikson 1998.
26. As Ruth Phillips (1991) has pointed out, material culture expressions produced
in postcontact settings (such as Huron embroidery, for example) reveal not only the in-
terrelationship of Native and Euro-American political-economic systems but also Na-
tive efforts to present "preferred self-images." Trudy Nicks makes a parallel observation
in her study of how an Iroquois, Dr. Oronhyatekha, used his material culture collection
to reject and negotiate the views of dominant society which designate Native peoples at
a low rung on the social ladder (1996:501-503).
27. Bracken (1997) writes at length about the etymology of this term and the con-
fused Euro-American understandings of it.
580 CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
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