ECTE202 Circuits and Systems

Autumn Session 2018

Wollongong Campus

Week 3
Dr Jeff Moscrop
Email: jeffm@uow.edu.au
Room: 35.G40

Course Outline - Section 1

✤ DC Circuits (Weeks 1-7)

✤ Review of fundamental quantities, concepts and basic laws - Week 1;
✤ Node Analysis and fundamental Mesh Analysis - Week 2;
✤ Further Mesh Analysis, Superposition, Thévenin and Norton’s Theorems,
and Source Transformations, Intro to Energy Storage Elements - This Week;
✤ Energy Storage Elements (capacitors and inductors) and first order circuits -
Week 4;
✤ Second Order Circuits, source-free series and parallel circuits, step-responses -
Week 5;
✤ General second order circuits - Week 6;
✤ Revision and mid-session exam - Week 7;

✤ Note that the main objective of this course is the development of circuit theory skills. This
cannot be achieved by just reading - it requires sustained problem solving exercises.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 2

This Week:

Mesh Analysis and Circuit Theorems

Mesh analysis with dependent and independent current sources, method of super-mesh, linearity property of
circuits, superposition, source transformations (dependent and independent), Thévenin’s theorem with
dependent sources, Norton’s theorem with dependent sources, maximum power transfer theorem, Revision of
current and voltage expressions for capacitors and inductors.

Chapters 3, 4 and 6 of Text.

Mesh Analysis with CS

✤ Determine i1, i2 and i3 in the following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 4

Mesh Analysis with CS
✤ Determine I0 in the following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 5

Mesh Analysis with CCCS

✤ Determine v0 and i0 in the following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 6

Mesh Analysis with VCCS
✤ Determine vx in the following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 7

Linear Circuit Theorems

✤ Circuit Theorems:
✤ Linearity property
✤ Superposition
✤ Source Transformations
✤ Thévenin’s Theorem
✤ Norton’s Theorem
✤ Maximum Power Transfer

Circuits and Systems Week 3 8

Linearity Property

✤ A linear network is any network that consists of components that

have a linear relationship between voltage and current.
✤ Linearity is a combination of
✤ homogeneity and
✤ additivity.
✤ Homogeneity can be illustrated by the relationship:
v = iR () kiR = kv
✤ Additivity can be illustrated by the relationship:

✤ If v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R, then:

v = (i1 + i2 ) R = i1 R + i2 R = v1 + v2
Circuits and Systems Week 3 9

Superposition Principle

✤ The superposition principle tells us that the voltage across or the current
through an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages
across or the currents through that element due to each independent
source acting on its own.
✤ Thus, the superposition principle enables analysis in the case of multiple
independent sources by calculating the contribution from each
independent source separately.
✤ There are two things to keep in mind:
✤ When considering one independent source at a time, all other
independent sources must be turned off. i.e. replace each voltage
source by a short circuit and each current source by an open circuit.
✤ Dependent sources and variables must be left intact.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 10

Steps to Apply the Superposition Principle

✤ The methodology is:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one. Find the
desired voltage or current due to that one active source,
using standard circuit analysis techniques.
2. Repeat Step 1 for each of the independent sources.
3. Find the total by algebraically adding all of the
contributions form the independent sources.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 11

Further notes on Superposition

✤ Superposition generally requires more work!

✤ It helps reduce complex circuits to simpler ones for easy
analysis.

✤ It is not applicable to the effect on power due to each source:

✤ i.e. the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the square
of the voltage or current.
✤ If power is required, you must first solve for the total
current or voltage relating to the element of concern.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 12

Superposition Example
✤ Determine vx in the following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 13

Source Transformations
✤ Source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series
with resistor R with a current source is in parallel with the resistor R, or vice
versa.
✤ Source transformations are not possible for ideal sources.

✤ vs = isR or is = vs/R
✤ Source transformations can also be performed on dependent sources using the
same approach.
✤ Be careful transforming parts of the circuit that include dependent variables
though.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 14

Source Transformation Example

✤ Use source transformation to find ix in the following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 15

Thévenin’s Theorem

✤ Thévenin’s Theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be

replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source, VTh
in series with a resistor, RTh, where VTh is the open circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are removed.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 16

Thévenin’s Theorem Method

✤ RTh is the input resistance at the terminals with all independent sources
turned off (short circuit the voltage sources and open circuit the current
sources).
✤ To determine the Thévenin resistance, we need to consider two cases:
✤ If there are no dependent sources, turn off all independent sources
and RTh is the input resistance.
✤ If there are dependent sources, turn off all independent sources, then
apply a voltage, vo, at the terminals and determine the resulting, io.
✤ RTh = vo/io
✤ Alternatively, one can insert a current source at the terminals, io, and
find the terminal voltage, vo.
✤ Use 1 volt or 1 amp for simplicity.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 17

Note on Thévenin’s Theorem

✤ It is possible for RTh to be a negative value!!

✤ This implies that the equivalent circuit is supplying rather than

consuming power.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 18

Thévenin Example
✤ Determine the Thévenin equivalent circuit between terminals a and b in the
following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 19

Norton’s Theorem
✤ Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source, IN in parallel with
a resistor RN, where IN is the short circuit current through the terminals
and RN is the input resistance at the terminals with all independent
sources turned off.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 20

Norton’s Theorem

✤ The value of RN is determined in the same way as that of RTh

✤ To find the Norton current, short circuit the terminals and determine
the current flowing in the short circuit. This is the Norton current.

✤ IN = VTh/RTh
✤ If any two of the three quantities are known, the third may be
calculated.
Circuits and Systems Week 3 21

Norton Example
✤ Determine the Norton equivalent circuit between terminals a and b in the
following circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 22

Maximum Power Transfer

✤ You should recall from ENGG104 that “maximum power is

transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Thévenin resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh)”.

✤ In addition, the relationship:

VT2h
pmax =
4RT h

holds true when RL = RTh

✤ One last example ……

Circuits and Systems Week 3 23

Maximum Power Transfer Example

✤ Determine RL that draws the maximum power from the following
circuit:

Circuits and Systems Week 3 24

Energy Storage Elements

✤ The energy storage elements to be considered in this part of the

course are capacitors and inductors.

✤ These components are passive, linear circuit elements, capable of

storing energy which can be retrieved.
✤ The use of energy storage elements in a circuit gives us the
ability to analyse and design more practical circuits compared to
those with solely resistors.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 25

Capacitor Revision
✤ A capacitor is a passive element designed to store
energy in its electric field.
✤ A basic capacitor consists of two conducting
plates separated by an insulator.
✤ A voltage v is applied to the plates resulting in an
accumulation of charge q proportional to the
capacitance of the device.

✤ q = Cv

✤ Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of the capacitor to the
voltage difference between the two plates.

✤ The units for capacitance are the Farad (F).

✤ Capacitance is largely determined by the physical dimensions of the device.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 26

Capacitor Voltage and Current Equations
✤ The current-voltage relationship is given by:
dv
i=C
dt
✤ The voltage-current relationship is given by:
Z t Z t
1 1
v= idt, or v = idt + v (t0 )
C 1 C t0

✤ v(t0) is the voltage across the capacitor at t = 0.

✤ The energy stored by the capacitor is:

1 2
w= Cv
2

Circuits and Systems Week 3 27

Capacitor Properties

✤ A capacitor is open circuit to DC. i.e. no current flows once it has

charged to q = Cv.
✤ The voltage on a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
✤ Real capacitors have shunt resistances, but we will only consider
ideal devices in our analyses (fine for most practical applications).

✤ An ideal capacitor returns all stored energy to the circuit - i.e. no

losses.
Circuits and Systems Week 3 28
Capacitor Example
✤ Determine the voltage across a 2 µF capacitor if the current through it
is i(t) = 6e-3000t mA. Assume v(0) = 0.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 29

Series and Parallel Capacitors

✤ The equivalent capacitance of N parallel connected capacitors is

the sum of the individual capacitances. i.e.

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + CN

✤ The equivalent capacitance of N series connected capacitors is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances. i.e.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
Ceq C1 C2 C3 CN

Circuits and Systems Week 3 30

Inductor Revision

✤ An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field.

✤ A basic inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

✤ If a current is allowed to pass through the inductor, the voltage across the
inductor is given by:
di
v=L
dt
✤ L is called the inductance of the inductor and is measured in the units of Henrys
(H).
✤ Inductance is a property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the change
of current flowing through it.
✤ The inductance depends on the physical properties of the inductor; number of
turns, cross-sectional area, length and permeability of the core (air or otherwise).

Circuits and Systems Week 3 31

Inductor Voltage and Current Equations

✤ The current-voltage relationship is given by:
Z t Z t
1 1
i= v(t)dt, or i= v(t)dt + i(t0 )
L 1 L t0

✤ Where i(t0) is the total current for -∞ < t < t0.

✤ The energy stored in an inductor is given by:

1
w = Li2
2

Circuits and Systems Week 3 32

Inductor Properties

✤ An inductor acts like a short-circuit to DC.

✤ The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
✤ Practical inductors have a series resistance and a shunt capacitance
term.

✤ An ideal inductor doesn’t dissipate energy - all energy is

returned to the circuit.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 33

Inductor Example
✤ The current through a 0.1 H inductor is i(t) = 10te-5t A. Find (i) the
voltage across the inductor and (ii) the energy stored in it.

Circuits and Systems Week 3 34

Series and Parallel Inductors

✤ The equivalent inductance of series connected inductors is the

sum of the individual inductances. i.e.
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + LN

✤ The equivalent inductance of parallel connected inductors is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
inductances. i.e.

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ... +
Leq L1 L2 L3 LN

Circuits and Systems Week 3 35

Summary
Relation Resistor (R) Capacitor (C) Inductor (L)
v - i: v = iR

i - v: i = v/R

p or w:

Series: Req = R1 + R2 Leq = L1 + L2

Parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2

At DC: Same Open Cct Short Cct

Circuit Variable that
Cannot Change Abruptly N/A v i
Circuits and Systems Week 3 36