FCAT Benchmark

CHEMISTRY

SC.A.1.4.3
The student knows that a change from one phase of matter to
another involves a gain or loss of energy.
 Phase changes
 Heat of fusion
Gizmos: Calorimetry Lab Phase Changes

 the sate of matter of a substance is determined by the

motion of its particles and the strength of the attraction
between the particles
Solid Liquid Gas
 Particles move more quickly when they have more kinetic energy.
 not all the particles in a sample of matter have the same amount of energy
 temperature is the average kinetic energy of a substance
 thermal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of all the particles in a sample of matter
 heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a warmer object to a cooler object is
 when a substance is heated it gains thermal energy and the particles move faster
 matter changes from one state to another when thermal energy is gained or lost
 heat of fusion is the amount of energy required to change 1kg of a substance from a solid to a liquid (melting
point)

increasing energy>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<decreasing energy

During Phase change you can either

absorb or release energy.
SC.A.1.4.4
The student experiments and determines that the rates of reaction among atoms and molecules depend on the
concentration, pressure, and temperature of the reactants and the presence or absence of catalysts.
 Catalyst
 Pressure as a catalyst
 Reaction rate
 Surface area and rate of diffusion
 Concentration
 Factors Affecting Rate of Reactions
Gizmo: Collision Theory

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Chemical formula – tells you what elements are in a compound and how many atoms of each
C6H12O6

2. Chemical reaction- the process of making or breaking the chemical bonds that link atoms and changing
one substance into a different one
3. Chemical equation- convenient way of summarizing a chemical reaction
C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O

a. Reactants- the substances that take part in a chemical reaction

b. Products- the substances that are formed as a result of a chemical reaction

4. Metabolism- all the thousands of chemical reactions that take place in each cell

Activation energy- the amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction

Endothermic reactions- absorb energy

Exothermic reactions-give off energy

Factors that affect chemical reactions

1) Temperature- increasing the temperature makes atoms move faster increasing the rate of chemical reaction

2) Concentration- increasing the concentration of enzyme or substrates (reactants) increases the speed of
chemical reactions

3) Pressure- increasing the pressure brings the atoms closer together increasing the rate of chemical reactions

4) pH- acidity/alkalinity- enzymes only work in narrow ranges of pH

5) Catalysts (enzymes)- a substance that increases the speed of a chemical reaction by lowering the activation
energy.
Enzyme- a protein that works as a biological catalyst

 Substrate- the molecule on which the enzyme acts

(reactant)
 Active site- the part of the enzyme that attaches to the
substrate
 Enzymes work by reducing the activation energy needed to
start a chemical reaction
 The key to an enzyme’s activity is its shape. An enzyme is a protein with folds that create pockets or
crevices that precisely fit the substrate
 Enzymes:
a. Provide a surface for the reaction to take place
b. Puts stress on a bond to break it
c. Brings substrates close together in the right orientation for new bonds to fo
SC.A.2.4.5
The student knows that elements are arranged into groups and families based on similarities in electron structure, and that
their physical and chemical properties can be predicted.
 Electron configuration
 Periodic Trends
 Periodic table
Gizmos: Element Builder Electron Configuration Covalent Bonds

The Modern Periodic Table

Atomic number
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
• In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged according to atomic number.
• Atomic number increases by one as you move from element to element across a row.
• Number of protons equals number of electrons
Atomic mass equals protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Isotopes- atoms of an element with differing number of neutrons

Electron orbital/shells/energy levels

• electrons are arranged in orbitals around the nucleus
• electrons are added to orbitals until they are full
• when an orbital is full a new orbital begins to fill
• 1st orbital can hold up to two electrons
• 2nd and 3rd orbitals can hold up to 8 electrons in four pairs of 2

Groups/ families-each vertical column in the periodic table

• All the atoms in a family have the same number of electrons in the outermost electron shell or valence
electrons
• For elements in Groups 1 and 2, the group number equals the number of valence electrons
• For elements in Groups 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18, the second digit in the group number is equal
to the number of valence electrons.
• The number of valence electrons in the outermost shell determines the chemical characteristics and
behavior of an element
• Because elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons, they have
similar properties.

• Noble gases- the elements in the last group of each period are inert(do not react) because they have full
outer orbital (8 valence e-)
Periods- each horizontal row in the periodic table
• each period starts with a new electron shell

13 14 15 16 17
Physical States and Classes of the Elements
Metals
 The majority of the elements are metals. They occupy the entire left side and center of the periodic
table.
• Metals are elements that have luster, conduct heat and electricity, and usually bend without breaking.
• All metals except mercury are solids at room temperature;
Metalloids
• Metalloids are located in the “staircase” along the boundary between metals and nonmetals.
• Metalloids have characteristics of both metals and nonmetals
• A semiconductor is an element that does not conduct electricity as well as a metal, but does conduct
slightly better than a nonmetal.
Nonmetals
• Nonmetals occupy the upper-right-hand corner. Most nonmetals don’t conduct electricity, are much
poorer conductors of heat than metals, and are brittle when solid.
• Many are gases at room temperature; those that are solids lack the luster of metals.
• With the exception of carbon, nonmetals have five, six, seven, or eight valence electrons.

Ionic bonding- electrons are gained or lost (transferred)

 Between a metal and a nonmetal
o Groups 1, 2, 3 (metals) tend to give up their valence electrons to form positive ions (cations).
o Groups 5, 6, 7 (nonmetals) tend to gain electrons to form negative ions (anions).

Covalent bonding - electrons are shared

 Between nonmetals and nonmetals
ENERGY
SC.B.1.4.1
The student understands how knowledge of energy is fundamental to all the scientific disciplines (e.g. the
energy required for biological processes in living organisms and the energy required for the building, erosion,
and rebuilding of the Earth).,

Energy- the ability to do work (exert a force over some distance)

Types of Energy

1. Chemical: that part of the energy in a substance that can be released by a chemical reaction

2. Light: The only form of energy that you can see directly.

3. Radiant Energy: comes from the sun in electromagnetic light waves.

4. Heat: The energy of a material due to the random motion of its particles. Also called thermal energy.
The word "heat" is used when energy is transferred from one substance to another.

5. Nuclear: Nuclear Energy is heat produced by nuclear fission. It is seen as a long term alternative to
fossil fuels for power stations.

6. Sound: The energy that you can hear that travels in vibrating waves through the air.

7. Electrical: Energy of electrical charges as a result of their position or motion.

8. Mechanical: Energy an object has because of its motion

(KE) or position (PE). ME = KE = PE.

9. Kinetic Energy: Comes from motion. Mathematical

Formula: KE=1/2 mv2 (m= mass, v= speed)

10. Potential Energy: energy of position. PE = mgh (m=

mass, g= gravitational acceleration 9.81m/s2, h= height)

The Energy Pyramid:

 Radiant energy from the sun is captured Trophic level IV

by the green plants (producers in trophic
level I) transformed into chemical energy
through photosynthesis and passed on Trophic level III
through the various trophic levels.
 The flow of energy is unidirectional i.e., Trophic level II
non-cyclic.
Trophic level I
 Only 10% is passed from one trophic
level to the next
 The rest is lost in the form of heat at every stage in the atmosphere.
PHYSICS
SC.C.1.4.1
The student knows that all motion is relative to whatever frame of reference is chosen and that there is no
absolute frame of reference from which to observe all motion. (Also assessesC.1.4.2 and C.2.4.6) acceleration

RELATIVE MOTION & ACCELERATION

Speed (m/s) = distance (d)/time(t)

Standing frame of reference: same direction (+) add; Opposite direction (-) subtract

Moving: same direction (-) subtract opposite direction: (+) add

Acceleration = (final velocity or speed – initial velocity or

SC.C.2.4.1
The student knows that acceleration due to gravitational force is proportional to mass and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the objects.SC.C.2.4.1

GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
FORCE A quality that tends to produce movement or acceleration of a body on the
direction of its application; a push or pull.

Gravity - a force of attraction between two masses.

1- Gravitational force of Earth on an object (falling)

F= mg F= weight (N) m= mass

g= gravitational acceleration of Earth = 9.81m/s 2

2- Horizontal motion of a moving object (not gravity)

F=MA force = mass x acceleration

3- Gravitational attraction between 2 objects both

exerting the same attraction

Gravitational Force: F= m1 m2/(d)2

m= masses of objects d= distance b/w the 2 objects

EARTH SPACE
S.C.D.1.4.1
The student knows how climatic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of many factors (Earth's topography,
its rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy where the atmosphere interfaces with lands
and oceans, and wind and ocean currents).

Climate- weather pattern of an area over long period of time (mainly affected by temperature and rainfall)

Factors that affect climate

 Temperature- because the earth is a sphere sunlight hits the earth at different angles hits most directly
at the equator so these regions are warmer
o Because of the tilt of the earth different areas get different amounts of sunlight at different
times of the year creating seasons
o Seasons are more pronounced farther away from the equator
o When the area, north of south hemisphere is tilted towards the sun it is summer, the days are
longer and it is warmer
o When an area is tilted away from the sun it is winter, days are shorter and temperatures are lower
 Latitude- distance from the equator
o Equator is 0, as you move away latitude increases and temperature decreases
 Distance from bodies of water- ocean breeze causes cooler summers and milder winters
 Mountains- affect rainfall patterns
o As moist air from the coast rises it cools and falls as rain or snow
o The side of the mountain near the body of water gets plentiful precipitation
o Rain shadow- on the other side of the mountains the air is dry
 Altitude- height above sea level . As altitude increases temperature decreases creating climate
zones similar to those created by latitude

S.C.D.1.4.2
The student knows that the solid crust of Earth consists of slow-moving, separate plates that float on a denser,
molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other, changing the Earth's surface in many ways
(e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing earthquake and volcanic activity, and forming undersea
mountains that can become ocean islands).
The Earth is composed of five layers.

 The crust is solid, while the mantle is like melted

plastic.

 Because the mantle is plastic-like and very hot, it

can bend, flow, and move.

 The Earth’s crust is solid but is broken into a

number of large tectonic plates plus a number of
smaller ones.

 The tectonic plates are located right on top of the

mantle.

 Because the mantle can bend, flow, and move, the

tectonic plates can also bend and move. Caused by
convection currents.

PLATE TECTONICS
1) Divergent Boundary – moving apart (away from each other)
a) Continental – continental plate
i) Creates rift valleys on land. Example: east African rift valley
b) Oceanic- oceanic plate
i) Creates ridges in ocean (under water, volcanic mountains). Example: mid-Atlantic ridge
c) Shallow earthquakes
2) Convergent Boundary – moving towards each other
a) There are three types of convergent boundaries.
b) oceanic – oceanic
i) denser plate moves under the other subduction zone
ii) deep ocean trenches, island arcs with volcanoes
c) oceanic –continental
i) The denser ocean floor moves underneath the continental crust. This is called a subduction zone.
ii) The ocean crust is forced down, and subjected to very high pressure and temperature, destroying the crust &
turning it back into molten rock. Creating composite volcanoes, trenches and large earthquakes that can
produce tsunamis.
d) continental-continental
i) plates are about the same density highly deformed and folded rock is forced upward creating mountain
ranges, Mt Everest
3) Transform Fault Boundary – moving past each other
a) Transform-Fault Boundaries move laterally.
b) When pressure builds and releases, we experience a strong Earthquake.
c) One of the most active Transform-Fault boundaries is the San Andreas Fault in California.
4)

Hot spots
a) Volcanoes that form in the middle of a plate are called “hot spot”.
b) Most volcanoes form along plate boundaries
c) Occur when the oceanic plate moves over a “hot spot”, magma pushes through the lithosphere forming volcanic
mountains. Examples of a “hot spot” are the Hawaiian Islands.
SC.D.2.4.1
The student understands the interconnectedness of the systems on Earth and the quality of life. (Also assesses
SC.G.2.4.4)

Threats to ecosystem that can cause erosion

Threats to ecosystem

Logging Overgrazing Irrigation Oil extract

Rainforest Grassland Desserts Tundra’s

 Air pollution affects the following:

 Global Warming is the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature.
 Cuased mainly by Carbon Dioxide
 One result of air pollution is global warming.
 Humans cause global warming by burning the fossil fuels.
 Levels of carbon dioxide are also increased by deforestation and cement production.

 Ozone Depletion is the depletion of the layer that exists in the atmosphere and absorbs
ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
 Caused by CFC’s

 Acid Precipitation is precipitation with a pH of less than 5.0
SC.E.1.4.1
The student understands the relationships between events on Earth and the movements of the Earth, its moon,
the other planets, and the Sun. (Also assesses SC.E.1.4.2 and SC.E.1.4.3)

Day/night: caused by the east to west rotation of Earth every 24h

Seasons
 Caused by
a) tilt of the Earth on imaginary axis (23.5o from vertical)
i) Daylight hours changes depending on time of year
ii) Sunlight strikes the Earth at different angles
b) revolution around the sun (365 days)
i) Revolutionary path (orbit) around the sun is an elliptical
ii) The point at which the Earth is closest is called its perihelion & aphelion is pt farthest away
iii) Revolutionary distance does not cause the seasons. . It is the way the Earth revolves
around the sun that affects the angle of the Earth to the Sun
Equinox- when the sun is directly overhead at the
equator
 Equal daylight and nighttime hours (12h).
 occurs twice a year (spring and autumn)
Solstice- point at which the Sun is at its greatest
distance north or south of the equator (see pic )
 Longest day (summer June 21) shortest day
(winter December 21)
 Occurs twice a year when the Earth’s axis is
pointed toward the sun or away from the sun.

Moon phases – differences in the appearance of the moon Waxing --------------------------------------------->

due to change in position relative to the Earth & Sun. New Crescent First quarter Gibbous
 Moon rotates east to west around its axis and revolves
around the Earth in 27.3 days
 One Moon rotation = 1 revolution around Earth
therefore same side of the Moon always faces Earth
 Waxing- the sunlit part of the moon gets larger
Full Gibbous Third quarter Crescent
 Waning- the sunlit part of the moon gets smaller

Eclipses
1. Solar Eclipse – Moon passes between the Earth and the
Sun covering the Sun and casting a shadow on Earth.
a. Only occur during a new moon phase. Waning --------------------------------------------->
b. Happen in the daytime
2. Lunar Eclipse- Earth is between the Sun and Moon, blocking sunlight and casting a shadow on the moon.
a. Only occur during a full moon.
b. Happen at nighttime.
Umbra – darkest shadow penumbra- lightest shadow

Tides – huge wave produced by gravitational pull among Earth, Moon, Sun (height= 1-2 m, length= 1000+ km)
 High tide- top of wave reaches shore
 Low tide – trough of the wave approaches the shore & water recedes
1. Spring tides- Sun, Earth, Moon in straight line
 a. High tides are higher than normal, low tides are lower than normal
2. Neap tides – Sun, Earth, & Moon form a right angle
a. High & low tides are weak
BIOLOGY
SC.F.1.4.1
The student knows that the body processes involve specific biochemical reactions governed by biochemical
principles. (Also assesses SC.F.1.4.3 andSC.F.1.4.5)
Enzymes see SC.A.1.4.4

Photosynthesis

H2O + CO2 + ENERGY (sunlight)--------------------- C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2

Cellular respiration

C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 -------------------------- H2O + CO2 + ENERGY (ATP)

Concentration gradients Cell membrane functions

Organic compounds always contain carbon and hydrogen.

• Inorganic compounds typically lack carbon.

• Carbon can share 4 electrons or make 4 bonds
• Macromolecules are polymers consisting of many small repeating molecules.
• The smaller molecules are called monomers.

Carbohydrates (sugars and starches)

• Units sugars made of C, H, and O with a ratio of (C1H2O1)
• Functions structure and as energy sources.
• Kinds
1. Sugars
• Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides
• Polymers of glucose
2. Starch- how plants store energy
3. Glycogen- how animals store energy
4. Cellulose – structural function in plants

Lipids (fats, oils, steroids)

 Nonpolar and insoluble in water.

1. Simple lipids
 Units- fatty acids made of C, H, and O.
 Functions components of cell membranes.
 Kinds
1. fats or triglycerides contain glycerol and fatty acids;
 Unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds in the fatty acids.
2. Complex lipids
 Functions cell membranes phospholipids
3. Steroids
• Made of Four carbon rings
• Part of membranes.
Proteins
• Units - amino acids.
 • Function- cell structure and function.
• Kinds
1. Muscle tissue-
2. Enzymes - proteins that speed chemical reactions.
3. Transporter - proteins move chemicals across membranes.
Nucleic Acids
• Units - nucleotides.
• Nucleotides consist of a:
• Pentose sugar Phosphate group Nitrogen-containing base (purine or pyrimidine)
• Kinds
1. DNA RNA

MOVEMENT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE

• Concentration is the amount of solute in a solvent
• Concentration gradient:
– more solute in 1 part of a solvent than
another
Diffusion- movement of molecules from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration
Osmosis- movement of water across a semipermeable
membrane

Passive transport- movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy down a
concentration gradient
Diffusion – through membrane
Facilitated diffusion- through carrier proteins
Active transport- transport of substances across the membrane requiring
energy and going against the concentration gradient
SC.F.2.4.3
The student understands the mechanisms of change (e.g., mutation and natural selection) that lead to adaptations
in a species and their ability to survive naturally in changing conditions and to increase species diversity. (Also
assesses SC.D.1.4.4 and SC.F.1.4.2)

Evolution- the process of change over time as a result of natural selection.

Genetic equilibrium – genetic makeup is the same, population is not evolving

(impossible in nature)

Evolution can occur due to the following:

1. Natural Selection- change in population caused by the reproduction and survival
of organisms with favorable variations (better adaptation).
 Variations passed to the next generation.
 There are three types of natural selection;
a) Stabilizing selection- favors average individuals in a population (common
traits)
b) Directional selection – favors one of the extreme variations of a trait
c) Disruptive selection- favors any of the extreme variations of a trait.

2. Mutation-
 Can be caused by environmental factors (radiation, chemicals) or by chance.

Evidence of evolution:
1. Fossils & where they are found
2. Anatomy of organisms- organisms evolved from a common ancestor
a. Homologous structures: body structures similar in arrangement, function, or
both.
i. Does not always mean that the species are related ex: whale forelimb, bird wing

b. Analogous structures: structures that did not evolve from a common ancestor but are similar
in function:
i. The wing of a butterfly and the wings of birds are similar in function but not in
structure and they do not have a common origin.
   Mitosis Meiosis
Haploid – 1 set of chromosomes
–Example: the humans have 23 different Results in 2 Diploid Cells (2N) 4 Haploid Cells (N)
chromosomes (n=23).
Diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes
-Human diploid cells, have 46 chromosomes Cells are Genetically Identical Genetically Different
(2n=46).

Homologous – same chromosomes that each came Occurs in Somatic (Body) Sex Cells
from the opposite sex parent Cells
Occurs in Somatic (Body) Sex Cells
chromatids - identical copies
Cells
Mitosis: Purpose is to preserve chromosome number.
Meiosis: Purpose is to create haploid gametes (sperm and egg), and to create new genotype combinations
 A process of reduction division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the
separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.

The Cell Cycle

1. Interphase
a. G1
b. S DNA is Replicated
c. G2
2. Mitosis – division of the nucleus and chromosomes
a. prophase- preparation
b. metaphase- middle
c. anaphase- apart
d. telophase- terminate
3. cytokinesis- division of the cell and cytoplasm

 Meiosis usually involves 2 distinct stages

 Meiosis I
 Meiosis II

DNA AND RNA

• DNA is composed of nucleotides and is shaped like a double helix.
• A nucleotide has three parts: a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous
base.
• Bases always form complementary base pairs:
 adenine binds with thymine, and
 cytosine binds with guanine.

Replication - Complementary base pairing enables DNA to replicate, or

copy itself.

DNA Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine

Deoxyribose Phosphate
RNA Adenine Guanine Cytosine Uracil Ribose Phosphate

Genes, sections of DNA that code for a specific trait, are linked together on chromosomes.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
protein synthesis- process of manufacturing proteins
• Protein synthesis occurs in two stages: transcription and translation.
• Transcription is the process by which information is copied from
DNA into a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Translation is the process by which the information from nucleic
acids is coded for amino acids.

 messenger RNA- carries coded instructions for protein synthesis

 ribosomal RNA- makes up the ribosome with other proteins
 transfer RNA- brings amino acids to the ribosome in the correct
order to build new proteins
 codon- section of three bases in mRNA that code for an amino acid
 anticodon- section of three bases in tRNA that code for an amino acid

MUTATIONS
• A random change in an organism’s DNA is a mutation.
 A mutation can be beneficial, but it is usually harmful to or has no effect on the organism

DNA à mRNA à ribosomes + tRNA + amino acids =

proteins

INHERITANCE
 genetics, the scientific study of heredity
 Since sexual reproducing organisms have two
parents, then they have two forms of the same gene
– one from each parent
 alternate forms of genes are called alleles

 If both alleles from each parent are the same, then it

is said to be homozygous (dominant or recessive)
 If they are different, then it is said to be
heterozygous
 An individual’s genetic make-up is known as the
genotype
 The physical characteristics resulting from an
individual’s genetic make-up is known as the
phenotype.

Dominant genes-In cases in which

two or more forms (alleles) of the
gene for a single trait exist, some
forms of the gene may be dominant and others may be recessive.
 The dominant gene is the one that is expressed.
Incomplete dominance- effect of 2 alleles are combined
 Heterozygous phenotype is blend between the two homozygous phenotypes
o ex: red + white flowers = pink
Co-dominance- both traits are fully expressed
o ex: AB blood type

NATURAL SELECTION
 Natural selection; is the mechanisms for evolution.
 is the process by which individuals with inherited characteristics well-suited to
the environment leave more offspring on average than do other individuals.
 Genetic Variation is the source of Natural Selection

1. DNA is the blue-print for building ALL living things on planet Earth
2. DNA sequences are changed by random mutations,
radiation, viruses, chemicals, sexual reproduction, migration, geological events, etc.
Mutation: change in an organisms DNA, replaces an allele with a new version.
3. As a result there is variation within populations of a species.
4. Those individuals of a particular species with a phenotype (as a result of their genotype) that is more fit
to survive in a given environment has a better chance to reproduce.
5. Those individuals who reproduce more pass-on their genes at a higher frequency than those who do
not.
6. As time passes, populations change through time….they evolve!

 Evolution is the process of change over time as a result of natural selection

 Evolutionary fitness: contribution of an individual (phenotype) to the next generation. Reproductive
success.
SC.G.1.4.1
The student knows of the great diversity and interdependence of living things. (Also assesses SC.G.1.4.2)

Ecology- the science that studies living things and how they interact with their environment
Biotic factors- living things in the environment
Abiotic factors- nonliving things in an environment: Soil, rain, temperature, light, wind, latitude

Levels of organization .

1. Individuals- one organism BIOSPHERE

2. Population- all the individuals of a single species in an area Biomes
3. Community- all the populations that live and interact with each
other in one environment biotic, and abiotic
Ecosystem-

4. Ecosystem- all the populations and the abiotic factors in an area Community - Biotic
5. Biomes- large areas of similar ecosystems with similar climate,
rainfall, temperature etc. and the plants and animals that are adapted Population
to these conditions
6. Biosphere- the regions of the earth that support life. From the depths Organisms
of the ocean to about 8 km into the atmosphere Cells

Chemical
Habitat- the type of environment in which a species lives and which it is
adapted to

Energy flow through food chains

All organisms contain energy.

1) Producers (autotrophs) get energy from the sun.

a) Photo synthesizers: Produce energy from the sun. (Ex: plants algae)
self feeders.
2) Consumers (heterotrophs) get energy from other organisms
a) 3 common types of consumers
i) Herbivores – eat only plants
ii) Carnivores – eat other animals (meat)
iii) Omnivores – eat plants and animals (everything)

How the food pyramid is arranged:

 Tertiary: Least amount of energy
 Secondary consumer: has more energy then the tertiary, usually consists of carnivores
 Primary consumers: have more energy then the secondary but are typically herbivores
 Producers: the most energy and usually
receive their energy from the sun.
 Every step up looses energy. ONLY 10%
goes into each level. 90% of the energy is
used by organisms life process.
 Food Webs consist of many overlapping food
chains.

Biodiversity is the variety of life in an

ecosystem
When many species contribute to the survival of many others, this makes the ecosystem stable.
SC.G.2.4.2
The student knows that changes in a component of an ecosystem will have unpredictable effects on the entire
system but that the components of the system tend to react in a way that will restore the ecosystem to its
original condition. (Also assesses SC.B.1.4.5 and SC.G.2.4.5)

Succession
Ecological succession- process through which a series of new communities in an ecosystem gradually replace
existing ones

Causes:

 Natural disturbances: earthquakes, floods fires, volcanic eruptions etc.

 Human activities: mining, logging, construction, farming, abandoned land

Primary succession- the series of changes during the process in which a new community arises in an area
where none
existed before
Ex. area
where there has
been a volcanic
eruption an
there is no soil
or life

Secondary succession- the series of changes in the development of a new community in a previously occupied
habitat that has been cleared of living things by a disturbance but in which soil remains.
Ex. Abandoned farmland, forest fire

Pioneer

community- first organisms to occupy an area during succession

Climax community- the final organisms that become established in an ecosystem that encounter little
ecological succession
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
SC.H.1.4.1
The student knows that investigations are conducted to explore new phenomena, to check on previous results, to
test how well a theory predicts and to compare different theories. (Also assesses SC.H.1.2.1, SC.H.1.2.2,
SC.H.2.4.2, SC.E.2.4.6, and SC.E.2.4.7)
SC.H.2.4.1
The student knows that scientists assume that the universe is a vast system in which basic rules exist that may
range from very simple to extremely complex, but that scientists operate on the belief that the rules can be
discovered by careful, systematic study.
 Experimental design
 Data Analysis
 Drawing conclusions
 Hypothesis
 Communicating results
 Repetition
 Scientific theories

The scientific Method:

 Is a way of going about to figure things
out.
 Science is an ONGOING process.

Steps to the scientific method.

1. Ask question
2. Gather info
3. Form a hypothesis
4. Set controlled experiment
5. Record/analyze results
6. Draw conclusion
7. Repeat

Theory: a well tested explanation that unifies a

broad range of observations

Write down procedure step by step and always

include a material list. Include quantity.

Manipulating / independent variable: variable

that changes

Responding / dependent variable: variable that is

observed

Control is the group that represents the standards.

Constants: materials that are kept the same/repeated throughout test groups

Data: information gathered

SC.H.3.4.2
The student knows that technological problems often create a demand for new scientific knowledge and that
new technologies make it possible for scientists to extend their research in a way that advances science. (Also
assesses SC.H.3.4.5 and SC.H.3.4.6)
 Applications of new technology
 Research technologies

Models- represent an idea, object or event that cannot be submitted to experimentation.

 Simulate very large/small phenomena ex hurricanes, DNA, stars, planets, and cells

Technology – application of science to improve the quality of life.

 Gene therapy
 Artificial valves
 Electronics
 robotics