Carbonate reservoirs

Carbonate reservoirs hold 60% of world's remaining oil reserves, 30% of world's daily oil production comes
from carbonate reservoirs. Most oil is left underground, on average less than 20% of available oil is recovered
– a small (1 to 2 %) increase will make a substantial impact on global hydrocarbon reserves.

Research paper 1

Publisher Society of Petroleum Engineers Language English

Content
Type Journal Paper

Title Heavy Oil From Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs

Authors Briggs, P.J., Beck, D.L., BP Exploration; Black, C.J.J., Bissell, Robert, BP Research

Journal SPE Reservoir Engineering

Preview Summary
This paper investigates the recovery mechanisms for steam injection into naturally fractured, carbonate, heavy-oil
reservoirs. Interim ideas and results of laboratory and simulation studies are presented and topics for further investigation
are suggested. Results presented and topics for further investigation are suggested. Results so far indicate that both
imbibition and internal gasdrive are effective at driving oil into the fracture network.
Introduction
Heavy oil contained in carbonate reservoirs worldwide is estimated to be 1.6 x 10(12) bbl in place. So far, this major
resource has attracted little attention from the petroleum industry and little has been produced. This probably stems from
the conceptually difficult task of recovering viscous oil from naturally fractured carbonate formations. Clearly, a means of
reducing oil viscosity, such as a thermal recovery technique, is needed to allow flow to producing wells. Steam injection is
currently the most successful thermal recovery technique available. However, steam might be expected to travel
preferentially through the fracture system and to recover little oil preferentially through the fracture system and to recover
little oil from the matrix; The chemical reactivity of the formation to the steam injectant also might be expected to cause
problems in the forms of formation damage and scale production. This paper describes recent research in identifying
pressure-cycling steam recovery strategies that could unlock this large world-wide resource. Mechanisms thought to offer
potential include imbibition, viscosity reduction (from increased temperature and CO2 dissolution), oil swelling (from
increased temperature and CO2 dissolution), gravity drainage, and internal depletion gasdrive (from flashing of solution
gas, steam condensate, and dissolved CO2). Initial experimental research studies have been both mechanistic and
fundamental in nature. High-temperature/high-pressure (HTHP) mechanistic studies are identifying the contribution to
recovery from the individual mechanisms listed above. The quantitative parameters needed to model the most significant
processes mathematically are being determined at appropriate temperature and pressure conditions. Fundamental
studies are directed toward identifying scaling rules for modeling imbibition processes. The effects of viscosity ratio,
temperature, and matrix/fracture geometry are being studied. To advance experimental research, special HTHP facilities
have been constructed. These have been designed to match reservoir conditions during cyclic steam processes. Further
experiments are planned to study the temperature dependence of these processes as the matrix heats and wettability
and rock/fluid interaction contours traverse the rock matrix. An apparatus was developed to determine the modeling
parameters, such as relative permeability and capillary pressure, under representative conditions. Effects of increasing
temperature on PV, PV compressibility, and matrix permeability are also being studied. PV compressibility, and matrix
permeability are also being studied. An apparatus also was developed to investigate displacement and depletion
processes by use of X-ray computerized tomography (CT). Novel low-density core holders with optical fiber temperature
sensors are used. Concurrently, mathematical models are being developed to capture the essential characteristics of the
recovery processes for sensitivity studies, history matching, multicycle prediction, and economic optimization. The
simulation approach to the field process that has been developed allows the main recovery mechanisms process that has
been developed allows the main recovery mechanisms to be interlinked. At this point, we have used the simulator to
investigate recovery strategies for heavy oil recovery from fractured carbonate reservoirs.
Results From Laboratory Program
HTHP Mechanistic Studies. Initial HTHP mechanistic studies ere performed with plugs cut from an outcrop block of
Permian performed with plugs cut from an outcrop block of Permian magnesian limestone (dolomite). Table 1 gives the
mineralogical composition of the sample obtained from X-ray diffraction (xRD), and Table 2 gives the physical
characteristics. Table 3 presents the properties of the live crude oil used for the studies. The experimental properties of
the live crude oil used for the studies. The experimental sequence was chosen to represent a cyclic steam process. The
clean, dry sample was saturated with 10,000 ppm NaCl after measurement of the PV, porosity, and gas permeability. The
sample was then confined in a core holder at a 1,500-psi overburden pressure. Swi was achieved by flooding with the live
crude oil with pressure. Swi was achieved by flooding with the live crude oil with a 200-psi differential pressure across the
sample and a 750-psi back-pressure. The sample was then aged for 24 hours to allow equilibration of the fluids. The
system temperature then was raised to 302 degrees F and any production from oil or rock thermal expansion was
identified by allowing a period of 4 hours to elapse before the imbibition phase began. Spontaneous imbibition
counterflow production was monitored by flowing brine across the top face of the rock sample and collecting effluent in a
separator (Fig. 1). Initial oil production (over the first 10 minutes of brine flow) was associated with thermal expansion.
The backpressure then was reduced to ambient pressure and the depletion production caused by internal gasdrive and/or
steam flashing was monitored. The blind end of the core holder then was opened and the sample was subjected to
consecutive hot-water flood and steamflood. This sequence then was repeated on a fresh sample at 482 degrees F .
Table 4 presents results of these tests. The tests at 302 degrees F indicate that thermal expansion results in minimal
recovery, imbibition plays a major role in producing oil from the matrix into the fracture network, depletion results in further
appreciable production, and forced displacement by hot water or steam appears not production, and forced displacement
by hot water or steam appears not to result in further recovery. The tests at 482 degrees F indicate that the initial high
production occurs as a result of gas evolution as the bubblepoint is breached at the high temperature, further production
occurs because of imbibition, and depletion does not result in high production because the gas-drive mechanism has
already been exploited at the higher temperature. (Note that higher production may have been masked by distillation
losses from the separator.) Note that firm conclusions cannot be drawn from the results of only two tests. Several further
data points are required.
RESEARCH PAPER 2

Publisher Society of Petroleum Engineers Language English

Document DOI
ID 89424-PA 10.2118/89424-PA

Content
Type Journal Paper

Title
Improved Oil Recovery from Carbonate Reservoirs by Chemical Stimulation
Authors
X. Xie and W.W. Weiss, SPE, Correlations Co.; Z. Tong and N.R. Morrow, SPE, U. of Wyoming

Journal SPE Journal

Volume Volume 10, Number 3 Pages pp. 276-285

Preview Summary
Oil reserves from shallow-shelf carbonate reservoirs account for 22% of the original oil in place (OOIP) of the entire U.S.
oil resource. Many of these reservoirs are naturally fractured. A pressure-pulsing technique has been used in fractured
fields to improve oil recovery. In some situations, imbibition of water can be promoted by chemical stimulation to alter the
reservoir wettability toward water-wetness such that oil is expelled at an economic rate from the rock matrix into fractures.
Shallow-shelf (i.e., Class II) carbonate reservoirs typically produce less than 10% OOIP during primary recovery and
respond poorly to water injection.
In this work, promotion of imbibition was determined for a cationic surfactant, cocoalkyltrimethyl ammonium chloride
(CAC), and a nonionic surfactant, an ethoxylated alcohol (POA). Cores from three dolomitic Class II reservoirs,
Cottonwood Creek, Dagger Draw, and Lustre, were used in the laboratory tests. After preparing core samples using the
corresponding reservoir crude oil and brine, spontaneous expulsion of oil was measured in glass imbibition cells at
elevated temperature for more than 50 core samples. When reservoir brine was used as the imbibition fluid, oil recovery
was in the range of 0 to 35% OOIP. After imbibition of reservoir brine had ceased, the cores were transferred into
surfactant solutions at or somewhat above the critical micelle concentration (CMC) to test for enhanced recovery by
further imbibition. Typically, immersion in the surfactant solution resulted in an additional recovery of 5 to 10% OOIP. The
increased recovery is mainly ascribed to increased water--wetness. The effect of acidization before surfactant treatment
was also tested and found to be detrimental to oil recovery.
Introduction
Approximately 22% of the OOIP of the entire U.S. oil reserves resides in shallow-shelf carbonate reservoirs. Most of such
reservoirs are heterogeneous and naturally fractured. Attempts to displace oil by waterflooding pose significant problems
because the fractures lead to bypassing of the rock matrix and early breakthrough. Spontaneous imbibition can be of
special importance to oil recovery from fractured reservoirs.1–3 However, spontaneous imbibition only occurs when the
pore surfaces are effectively water-wet so that water imbibes into the rock matrix and oil is expelled into the fractures. The
oil can then be flushed along the fractures toward the production wellbore
RESEARCH PAPER 3

Publisher Society of Petroleum Engineers

Content
Type Journal Paper

Title Reservoir Performance Prediction Methods Based on Fractal Geostatistics(includes associated

papers 20011 and 20158 )
Authors A.S. Emanuel, G.K. Alameda, R.A. Behrens, T.A. Hewett, Chevron Oil Field Research Co.

Journal SPE Reservoir Engineering

Preview Summary
This paper describes a method for blending fractal statistics, detailed geologic data, finite-difference simulation, and
streamtube models into a systematic approach for prediction of reservoir performance. The objective is to make accurate
predictions for large-scale projects by detailed accounting of reservoir heterogeneity with reduced history-matching effort
at a low overall cost. The method has been tested for waterflood and miscible gas injection projects with balanced
injection/production volumes. Example applications are shown for four field cases.
Introduction
Recent papers1,2 have described methods for applying the concepts of geostatistics to reservoir modeling. Ref. 2, in
particular, has shown how fractal distributions can be used to describe reservoir heterogeneity in simulation models.
These papers demonstrate that detailed descriptions of reservoir heterogeneity can improve the accuracy of fluid-flow
models. Because of computer limitations, however, increased detail limits the applicability of these methods for
performance predictions of large-scale projects.
Ref. 3 describes a hybrid finite-difference/streamtube model for calculating the performance of large-scale chemical flood
projects. The concept of the method is to use a finite-difference model to represent displacement efficiency and vertical
sweep. A stream-tube model completes the calculation for areal conformance.
The work described in this paper generalizes the hybrid model approach by incorporating fractal geostatistics to improve
the estimation of vertical sweep efficiency and an improved streamtube model formulated for more accurate calculation of
areal conformance. This paper also describes procedures for coupling these methodologies into a system for large-scale
project performance predictions and example applications of the procedures. The theoretical bases are presented in a
brief overview, with detailed explanations of the underlying principles included in the references. Example applications are
presented for three CO2 flood projects and a mature waterflood.
Procedure for Calculating Reservoir Performance
The procedure for performance calculation is based on the following steps.
1. Establish the porosity/permeability character of the reservoir from well logs and cores and determine the statistical
structure with the concept of random fractals.
2. Use a random fractal-interpolation scheme based on the fractal characteristics determined from the well logs to project
well data to the interwell region.
3. Establish fluid-flow and displacement parameters from PVT, relative permeability, and, if available, coreflood data.
4. Assemble geologic and fluid data into a highly detailed finite-difference cross-sectional model representing reservoir
flow between a typical injector/producer pair. The cross-sectional model is highly detailed in the vertical direction. This
model represents the geology on a scale much more detailed than conventional methods. The intent is to model
heterogeneity near the same level of detail for which the data are available. A typical well-log resolution or sampling
frequency of laboratory core measurement is 1 to 2 ft [0.3 to 0.6 m]. Therefore, this scale should be approached for the
grid-block size in the vertical direction.
5. Run the finite-difference model for projected flood conditions and develop a dimensionless characteristic solution that
relates phase fractional flow at the producer to PV of fluid injected.
6. Develop a streamtube model of the reservoir to represent areal conformance. The formulation of the streamtubes
should incorporate variable mobility ratios, permeability trends, no-flow boundaries, etc.
7. Couple the streamtube model with the characteristic solution to estimate field-wide project performance. Adjust gross
fluid voidage to history value to check the model against known reservoir performance. Impose planned injection rate to
forecast future performance.
Each of these steps is described in detail below.
Fractal Distributions.
Petroleum engineers have long recognized the need to represent heterogeneity in reservoir fluid-flow calculations.
Dykstra and Parsons4 described the reservoir as distinct layers of varying permeability. More recent papers have treated
permeability distributions1 and discontinuous shales.5
This work uses fractal statistics to represent reservoir heterogeneity between wells as a random fractal variation
superimposed on a smooth interpolation of correlated well-log values. The characteristics of the random fractal variation
are determined from an analysis of the well logs or core properties used as the staring points for the interpolation. This
amounts to a smooth interpolation witha superimposed texture.
Fractals are characterized by the fact that they exhibit variations at all scales of observation and have partial correlations
over all scales. Every attempt to divide such a geometry into smaller, more uniform regions results in the resolution of
even more structure or roughness; the closer you look, the more detail you see.
The variation of properties of many natural systems has been shown to be fractal in character. For instance, varve
thickness in lake sediments and the flooding cycles of the Nile River have been shown to have fractal variation. The
assumption of the method in this work is that the natural processes that created oil reservoirs yielded
porosity/permeability distributions with a fractal character.
The geometries of fractal distributions are characterized by their intermittent or “spotty” nature. This characteristic is
quantified by a parameter called the intermittency exponent, H.
Ref. 2 describes the theory and application of fractal statistics with particular reference to reservoir description.
Step 1 - Analyzing Data for Statistical structure.
To construct a heterogeneous reservoir cross-sectional model, the well-log and/or core data are analyzed for their
intermittency exponent. This can be accomplished by testing the well-log or core data for their degree of correlation using
the rescaled range (R/S) procedure.6 Log analysis using the R/S procedure typically indicates an average exponent, H, of
0.6 to 0.9. A value of H=0.5 indicates a totally random structure, while a value close to 1.0 implies a highly correlated
structure. A layered sandstone might have an H between 0.85 and 0.9.
Fractal Distributions.
Petroleum engineers have long recognized the need to represent heterogeneity in reservoir fluid-flow calculations.
Dykstra and Parsons4 described the reservoir as distinct layers of varying permeability. More recent papers have treated
permeability distributions1 and discontinuous shales.5
This work uses fractal statistics to represent reservoir heterogeneity between wells as a random fractal variation
superimposed on a smooth interpolation of correlated well-log values. The characteristics of the random fractal variation
are determined from an analysis of the well logs or core properties used as the staring points for the interpolation. This
amounts to a smooth interpolation witha superimposed texture.
Fractals are characterized by the fact that they exhibit variations at all scales of observation and have partial correlations
over all scales. Every attempt to divide such a geometry into smaller, more uniform regions results in the resolution of
even more structure or roughness; the closer you look, the more detail you see.
The variation of properties of many natural systems has been shown to be fractal in character. For instance, varve
thickness in lake sediments and the flooding cycles of the Nile River have been shown to have fractal variation. The
assumption of the method in this work is that the natural processes that created oil reservoirs yielded
porosity/permeability distributions with a fractal character.
The geometries of fractal distributions are characterized by their intermittent or “spotty” nature. This characteristic is
quantified by a parameter called the intermittency exponent, H.
Ref. 2 describes the theory and application of fractal statistics with particular reference to reservoir description.
Step 1 - Analyzing Data for Statistical structure.
To construct a heterogeneous reservoir cross-sectional model, the well-log and/or core data are analyzed for their
intermittency exponent. This can be accomplished by testing the well-log or core data for their degree of correlation using
the rescaled range (R/S) procedure.6 Log analysis using the R/S procedure typically indicates an average exponent, H, of
0.6 to 0.9. A value of H=0.5 indicates a totally random structure, while a value close to 1.0 implies a highly correlated
structure. A layered sandstone might have an H between 0.85 and 0.9.