Designing & Fabrication of Aerodynamic

Tunnel

Group Members

Muhammad Umair Zahid E1ME013R14-002

Mian M. Zakria Ayaz E1ME013R14-009
Hamza Rehman E1ME013R14-013
Muhammad Shahbaz Riaz E1ME013R14-023

Supervisor

Prof Dr. Muhammad Abdul Rahman Sheikh

Head of Department

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF BUSINESS STUDIES
LAHORE
(2014 – 2018)
 Designing & Fabrication of Aerodynamic
Tunnel

Group Members

Muhammad Umair Zahid E1ME013R14-002

Mian M. Zakria Ayaz E1ME013R14-009
Hamza Rehman E1ME013R14-013
Muhammad Shahbaz Riaz E1ME013R14-023

A Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering

Project Supervisor:

Prof Dr. Muhammad Abdul Rahman Sheikh

Head of Department

Project Supervisor Signature: ______________________

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF BUSINESS STUDIES
LAHORE
(2014 – 2018)

i
 Abstract

In order to carry out an experimentation relative to the behavior of the bodies in movement
with regards to the air, it is necessary to have. An airflow, in movement with regards to the
body whose characteristics can be controlled. The installation that allows us obtain this airflow
is the aerodynamic tunnel. In many cases, it is interesting to study the behavior of the body in
an uniform airflow, that is, with the same speed in all its points. For that reason many tunnels
provide a uniform airflow in the working section, although it is not the only possibility (there
is also, for example, tunnels of boundary layer, where the velocity profile in the cross section
varies its characteristic form, far from being uniform).

It is very old instrument but still very useful now a days. There are some software, which are
solving the problems of fluid dynamics, but they are not accurate as wind tunnel .It is still used
by some big research institutions like NASA. It has mainly two types open and close. The wind
tunnel we are designing is open type, which is usually used in laboratories etc. The wind tunnel
we are designing can perform all kind of experiments that usually a wind tunnel can perform
now days.

This wind tunnel has the frequency range of 60 Hz. It can perform low speed experiments it
has speed range of 20 m/s. Mano meter with 8 tubes is also attached to calculate aerodynamic
pressure on work piece like circular body. Anemometer is attached to measure the wind speed
at different frequencies. Drag and Lift load cells are attached to Measure drag and lift on
airfoils and other work pieces.

We have designed some objects to study aerodynamic forces acting on an object. We will
measure drag and lift forces on airfoil NACA 0012, NACA 4412 and pressure distribution on
circular body to get the required results from the designed product.

ii
 Undertaking

I certify that research work titled “Designing & Fabrication of Aerodynamic Tunnel” is my

own work. The work is not been presented elsewhere for assessment. Where material is been

used from other sources, it is been properly acknowledged / referred.

Signature of Student

Muhammad Umair Zahid

E1ME013R14-002

Signature of Student

Mian M. Zakria Ayaz

E1ME013R14-009

Signature of Student

Hamza Rehman

E1ME013R14-013

Signature of Student

Muhammad Shahbaz Riaz

E1ME013R14-023

iii
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, our unconditional thanks to God Almighty (the highest of all) for
providing us with the strength to follow this project from genesis to a meaningful revelation.
Moreover, we are heartily thankful to our supervisor, “Professor Dr. M Abdul Rahman
Sheikh” whose consistent encouragement, guidance and support from initial to the final level
enabled us to develop a thorough understanding of the project.

Lastly, we offer our humble regards and blessings to all of those who supported us in any
respect during the completion of our final year project

iv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

V: Velocity

CL: Coefficient of Lift

CD: Coefficient of Drag

ρ: Density

𝐴𝑆: Surface Area

l: Span (Airfoil Width)

c: Chord (Airfoil Length)

z Height
γ: Specific Weight
D: Drag
L: Lift
Pa: Pascal (unit of pressure)
Cp : Coefficient of pressure
P : Pressure
U : average velocity
ΔH: Pressure Drop
c : Contraction ratio
h: Height

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1 Wind tunnel .................................................................................................................................. 5

Figure 2. 2 Description of tunnel .................................................................................................................... 6

Figure 2. 3 Working section ........................................................................................................................... 7

Figure 2. 4 Fan................................................................................................................................................ 9

Figure 2. 5 Multi-manometer ......................................................................................................................... 9

Figure 4. 1: Air foil Nomenclature ............................................................................................................... 25

Figure 5. 1 Cylinder model ........................................................................................................................... 26

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 5. 1: Velocity of the Incident Current and number of Reynolds ............................ 31

Table 5. 2: Pressure coefficient on the Cylinder ................................................................. 31

Table 5. 3: Gradient of Pressures on the Cylinder. ............................................................ 32

Table 5. 4: Calculation of the Coefficient of Aerodynamic Resistance ............................. 32

Table 5. 5: Lift, Drag vs. Angle of Attack (NACA 0012) .................................................... 33

Table 5. 6: Lift, Drag vs. Angle of Attack (NACA 4412) .................................................... 33

Table 5. 7: Lift, Drag vs. Velocity (NACA 0012)................................................................. 34

Table 5. 8: Lift, Drag vs. Velocity (NACA 4412)................................................................. 34

vii
 Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................... ii

Undertaking .................................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................ iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................................. vii

Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Wind Tunnel .................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Measurement of aerodynamic forces:- .................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Working of Wind Tunnel:- ...................................................................................................................... 3

1.3.1 Pressure measurements:- .................................................................................................................. 4

1.3.2 Force and moment measurements:- ................................................................................................. 4

1.4 Classification:- ......................................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2 Description of the equipment

2.1 Description of the equipment:- ................................................................................................................. 5

2.1.1 The aerodynamic tunnel:- ................................................................................................................. 5

2.1.2 Description of the tunnel:- ................................................................................................................ 6

Working section: .................................................................................................................................... 7
Fan: ........................................................................................................................................................ 9

2.1.3 The multi-manometer:- .................................................................................................................... 9

2.1.4 Velocity control:- ............................................................................................................................ 11

CHAPTER 3 The Design
3.1 The Design:- ............................................................................................................................................ 12

3.2 Design Measurements:- .......................................................................................................................... 12

1. Settling Chamber/Contraction Cone: .................................................................................................. 12

2. Test Section........................................................................................................................................... 12

3. Diffuser Section .................................................................................................................................... 12

3.3 Materials:- .............................................................................................................................................. 13

3.4 Test Section:- .......................................................................................................................................... 13

viii
3.5 Contraction Cone:- ................................................................................................................................. 14

3.6 Diffuser Section:- .................................................................................................................................... 14

3.7 Sensors:-.................................................................................................................................................. 15

3.9 Testing:- .................................................................................................................................................. 15

CHAPTER 4 Theory
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 16

4.2 Measure of static pressure ...................................................................................................................... 18

4.3 Total pressure measure .......................................................................................................................... 19

4.4 Dynamic pressure measure ..................................................................................................................... 19

4.5 Influence of the drop of pressure in the measure error ......................................................................... 20

4.6 Measure of velocity in a nozzle ............................................................................................................... 21

4.7 Pressure coefficient in a measure point .................................................................................................. 22

4.8 Drag and Lift .......................................................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 5 Study Results

5.1 Study and Result No. 1: .......................................................................................................................... 26

Flow of a uniform current around a cylinder .......................................................................................... 26

5.1.1 Objectives......................................................................................................................................... 26

5.1.3 Explanation ...................................................................................................................................... 26

5.1.4 Execution of the practice ................................................................................................................. 28

5.1.5 Analysis of results ............................................................................................................................ 29

5.2 Study and Result No. 2: .......................................................................................................................... 33

5.3 Study and Result No. 3: .......................................................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER 6 Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 35

6.2 Recommendation .................................................................................................................................... 35

References..................................................................................................................................................... 36

ix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Wind Tunnel
A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air moving past solid
objects. A wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the object under test mounted in the middle.
Air is made to move past the object by a powerful fan system or other means. The test object, often
called a wind tunnel model, is instrumented with suitable sensors to measure aerodynamic forces,
pressure distribution, or other aerodynamic-related characteristics.

The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the early days of
aeronautic research, when many attempted to develop successful heavier-than-air flying machines.
The wind tunnel was envisioned as a means of reversing the usual paradigm: instead of the air standing
still and an object moving at speed through it, the same effect would be obtained if the object stood
still and the air moved at speed past it. In that, way a stationary observer could study the flying object
in action, and could measure the aerodynamic forces being imposed on it.

The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane. Large wind tunnels
were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing was considered of strategic importance during
the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft and missiles.

Later on, wind tunnel study came into its own: the effects of wind on man-made structures or objects
needed to be studied when buildings became tall enough to present large surfaces to the wind, and
the resulting forces had to be resisted by the building's internal structure. Determining such forces
was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings and such
tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings.

Still later, wind tunnel testing was applied to automobiles, not so much to determine aerodynamic
forces per sec but more to determine ways to reduce the power required to move the vehicle on
roadways at a given speed. In these studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a
significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting the test
results. In an actual situation, the roadway is moving relative to the vehicle but the air is stationary
relative to the roadway, but in the wind tunnel, the air is moving relative to the roadway, while the
roadway is stationary relative to the test vehicle. Some automotive-test wind tunnels have
incorporated moving belts under the test vehicle in an effort to approximate the actual condition, and
very similar devices are used in wind tunnel testing of aircraft take-off and landing configurations.

Wind tunnel testing of sporting equipment has also been prevalent over the years, including golf clubs,
golf balls, Olympic bobsleds, Olympic cyclists, and race car helmets. Helmet aerodynamics is
particularly important in open cockpit race cars (Indy car, Formula One). Excessive lift forces on the
helmet can cause considerable neck strain on the driver, and flow separation on the backside of the
helmet can cause turbulent buffeting and thus blurred vision for the driver at high speeds.

The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling on high speed digital computers has
reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing. However, CFD results are still not completely reliable
and wind tunnels are used to verify CFD predictions.

1.2 Measurement of aerodynamic forces:-

Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels. Air velocity through the test
section is determined by Bernoulli's principle. Measurement of the dynamic pressure, the static
pressure, and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow. Tufts of yarn attached
to the aerodynamic surfaces can determine the direction of airflow around a model. The direction of
airflow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of
the test model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of the test
model, and their path around the model can be photographed (see particle image velocimetry).

Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the
test model with beams, strings, or cables.

The pressure distributions across the test model have historically been measured by drilling many
small holes along the airflow path, and using multi-tube manometers to measure the pressure at each
hole. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive
paint, in which higher local pressure is indicated by lowered fluorescence of the paint at that point.
Pressure distributions can also be conveniently measured by the use of pressure-sensitive pressure
belts, a recent development in which multiple ultra-miniaturized pressure sensor modules are
integrated into a flexible strip. The strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends
signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface.

Pressure distributions on a test model can also be determined by performing a wake survey, in which
either a single pitot tube is used to obtain multiple readings downstream of the test model, or a
multiple-tube manometer is mounted downstream and all its readings are taken.

The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain the same for a scaled model. However, by
observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic
properties of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved. The choice of similarity parameters
depends on the purpose of the test, but the most important conditions to satisfy are usually:
 1. Geometric similarity: all dimensions of the object must be proportionally scaled;
2. Mach number: the ratio of the airspeed to the speed of sound should be identical for the
scaled model and the actual object (having identical Mach number in a wind tunnel and
around the actual object is -not- equal to having identical airspeeds)
3. Reynolds number: the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces should be kept. This parameter
is difficult to satisfy with a scaled model and has led to development of pressurized and
cryogenic wind tunnels in which the viscosity of the working fluid can be greatly changed to
compensate for the reduced scale of the model.
In certain particular test cases, other similarity parameters must be satisfied, such as e.g. Froude
number.

1.3 Working of Wind Tunnel:-

Air is blown or sucked through a duct equipped with a viewing port and instrumentation where models
or geometrical shapes are mounted for study. Typically the air is moved through the tunnel using a
series of fans. For very large wind tunnels several meters in diameter, a single large fan is not practical,
and so instead an array of multiple fans are used in parallel to provide sufficient airflow. Due to the
sheer volume and speed of air movement required, the fans may be powered by stationary turbofan
engines rather than electric motors.

The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade
motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test section – when it is sucking air out of the test section
downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not a factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate
measurements. The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar.
To correct this problem, closely spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the
turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the testing.

Due to the effects of viscosity, the cross-section of a wind tunnel is typically circular rather than square,
because there will be greater flow constriction in the corners of a square tunnel that can make the
flow turbulent. A circular tunnel provides a smoother flow.

The inside facing of the tunnel is typically as smooth as possible, to reduce surface drag and turbulence
that could impact the accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls induce some drag into the airflow,
and so the object being tested is usually kept near the center of the tunnel, with an empty buffer zone
between the object and the tunnel walls. There are correction factors to relate wind tunnel test results
to open-air results.

The lighting is usually embedded into the circular walls of the tunnel and shines in through windows.
If the light were mounted on the inside surface of the tunnel in a conventional manner, the light bulb
would generate turbulence as the air blows around it. Similarly, observation is usually done through
transparent portholes into the tunnel. Rather than simply being flat discs, these lighting and
observation windows may be curved to match the cross-section of the tunnel and further reduce
turbulence around the window.

Various techniques are used to study the actual airflow around the geometry and compare it with
theoretical results, which must also take into account the Reynolds number and Mach number for the
regime of operation.

1.3.1 Pressure measurements:-

Pressure across the surfaces of the model can be measured if the model includes pressure taps. This
can be useful for pressure-dominated phenomena, but this only accounts for normal forces on the
body.

1.3.2 Force and moment measurements:-

A typical lift coefficient versus angle of attack curve with the model mounted on a force balance, one
can measure lift, drag, lateral forces, yaw, roll, and pitching moments over a range of angle of attack.
This allows one to produce common curves such as lift coefficient versus angle of attack (shown). Note
that the force balance itself creates drag and potential turbulence that will affect the model and
introduce errors into the measurements. The supporting structures are therefore typically smoothly
shaped to minimize turbulence. [1.1]

1.4 Classification:-
There are many different kinds of wind tunnels. They are typically classified by the range of speeds
that are achieved in the test section, are as follows:

1. Low-speed wind tunnel

2. High speed wind tunnel
3. Subsonic and transonic wind tunnel
4. Supersonic wind tunnel
5. Hypersonic wind tunnel
 CHAPTER 2
Description of the equipment
2.1 Description of the equipment:-
2.1.1 The aerodynamic tunnel:-

In order to carry out an experimentation relative to the behaviour of the bodies in movement
with regards to the air, it is necessary to have an airflow, in movement with regards to the
body whose characteristics can be controlled. The installation that allows us obtain this airflow
is the aerodynamic tunnel.

In many cases, it is interesting to study the behaviour of the body in a uniform airflow, that is,
with the same speed in all its points. For that reason many tunnels provide a uniform airflow
in the working section, although it is not the only possibility (there is also, for example, tunnels
of boundary layer, where the velocity profile in the cross section varies its characteristic form,
far from being uniform).

Figure 2. 1 Wind tunnel

There are also many fluxes that can be considered two-dimensional. That is, the body has
symmetry on a perpendicular axis to the speed of the incident flux and, since it is uniform, if
we observe the flow in the perpendicular planes to this axis of symmetry, it is the same in all
of them. To simulate such flows in tunnel, high working sections rather than wide ones are
used.

Since all the sections of the body are equal, and the two-dimensional flow characteristics are
well represented by what happens in the intermediate section, where the anti-symmetrical
effects due to the side walls and the ends of the body are cancelled between them, it is not
necessary to have a very wide camera, and to have it high rather than wide has the advantage
that the simulated flow resembles more the real one, in which the current is not constrained to
pass between the body and the roof, being able to move freely up; the same thing occurs for
the current between the roof and the body. These tunnels are called two-dimensional tunnels.

Usually, tunnels are used with a working section whose cross section has a relation between
the height and the width closer to the unit, placing the two-dimensional pattern between two
longitudinal planes, situated vertically in the camera's middle area.
This allows using the tunnel for tests that are not two-dimensional, as well as have other added
advantages, like that the boundary layer in the walls, that now will be planes, are of smaller
thickness, and also to allow a more rational design of the tunnel. However, this is not our case.

It is also important to .take into account the flow rate in the camera. As it is known, airflow
will be qualitatively different depending on whether the speed is inferior to the local sound
speed, approximately equal, or superior.

This· leads to different tunnels designs, due not only to the flow characteristics, but also to the
mechanical stresses that the structure has to resist, to the quantity of heat that there is to vanish,
and to the power that is necessary to give to the current to maintain it in movement. It is also
important to take into account the velocity of the current in the camera.

Another important characteristic to take into account in a tunnel is whether it is an open or

closed circuit. In the first case, the tunnel is a conduct generally straight and open by both ends,
taking air from the atmosphere by one of them, and releasing it by the other. In those of closed
circuit, the conduct of the tunnel is closed, so always the same air mass circulates over and over
again by the tunnel. Those of open circuit may have more advantages in small dimension
facilities, since then they are cheaper. On the other hand, the current is of worse quality (it has
more perturbations, the speeds profile is less uniform, etc.), and tend to consume more. In big
facilities, closed circuit configuration is generally adopted, since, in these circumstances, it is
more advantageous.

Thus, the installation disposable is a small two-dimensional tunnel of open circuit and
incompressible subsonic flux (what, in the jargon of tunnels is usually called of low speed).

2.1.2 Description of the tunnel:-

We will describe the diverse tunnel sections m the same order in which the flow crosses them.
They are easy to distinguish because are separated by ribs

Figure 2. 2 Description of tunnel

Lips:

They are placed exactly in the intake section. Since the air is acquired from the atmosphere
towards a conduct of slim cross section, we will have an area of abrupt contraction, which tends
to cause detachment of the current in the internal walls of the tunnel, in its initial section.
On one hand, this elevates the drop of pressure, and on the other, and more important, it
generates interferences that will be reflected in the working section.

Haven section: It is the rectangular constant section conduct placed between the lips and the
first rib. Its function is to make the air have an area in which the flow does not suffer additional
interference s once it has entered, and to allow a good behaviour of the contraction.

Contraction:

Its function is to accelerate the current from the low velocities at the inlet to the high ones of
the working section. The admission of air from the atmosphere has to be s lower as possible,
to decrease the drop of pressure and the interferences in the admission area. However, in the
working section we have to achieve the velocity we want. By the continuity equation, as the
flow (product of the speed by the area of the transversal section) has to be constant along all
the transversal sections of the tunnel, we will accelerate the current decreasing the transversal
section.

Logically, we would not obtain any benefit if we do this decrease of section in an abrupt way;
the conduct has to be of an appropriate shape to avoid detachment take place because of the
interferences of pressure that locally happen in the walls of the inlet and outlet areas of this
contraction. The contour curve of the contraction is perfectly studied to allow this. We see that
the contraction is nothing but a nozzle, with an exigent design and a particular application.

Working section:
Located next to the contraction, it is a constant section tract in which the models to be tested
are assembled. The dimensions of the transversal section have to be big enough compared with
the pattern. This is because the current, when skirting the pattern, tends to move towards the
exterior of the section, what cannot be done because its walls are there; but in a free current,
that is the situation that is really wanted to be studied, it can move without any restriction.

Figure 2. 3 Working section

Since this effect is small for the traverse dimensions of the working section face to those of the
pattern that are bigger, it is interesting to make it this way. In our case, also, the flow is two-
dimensional. That is, it moves in vertical planes, but there are no currents towards the sidewalls.
For that reason it is not necessary for the working section to be wide, but it has to be high, since
the presence of the body moves the current up and down.

Diffuser:

At the working section outlet, we have a current of high-speed and low pressure (according to
Bernoulli's equation). We want to oust that current in the atmosphere, which is at high-pressure
and in rest. The pass of the current from the state in which is at the outlet of the working section
to that of mechanical balance with the atmosphere, if it is made freely and according to the
second principle of the thermodynamics, the ousting implies an important dissipation energy
(that should be given to the flow to maintain it).

Thus, it is interesting to approach the state of the current as much as we can to that of the
mechanical balance with the atmosphere before ousting. It is not this way just towards the
energy yield, but also because energy dissipation would take place in form of turbulence, etc.
and, finally, by effect of the viscosity, in form of heat -, and that turbulence would damage the
current quality in the working section.

Since we are interested in diminishing the speed and to increase the pressure, we can notice
that Bernoulli's equation allows converting one into the other one. For it, and according to
continuity equation, we will increase the transversal section of the conduct progressively so we
force it to decrease the speed and, according to Bernoulli, increase the pressure.

This is the function of the diffuser. It can not be completed because for it, the diffuser's outlet
section should be of infinite area, taking this way the current to rest, and also because inside of
the tunnel unavoidable drop of pressure take place, with what the sum of pressure and kinetic
energy tends to be progressively smaller as the current flows through the tunnel, instead of
remaining constant and similar to the atmospheric pressure, as would happen in an ideal case.

Also, although smaller than ousting directly from the working section, drop of pressure in the
diffuser itself are very important. This is precisely due to the fact that the pressure increases
progressively along the diffuser, and the current is forced to advance against growing pressures.

Although Bernoulli' s equation is preservative, so what we have mentioned above should not
have a special meaning, the thing is that the flow in the walls vicinities, due to the effect of the
viscosity, is no longer preservative, and what is more, advancing against growing pressures can
do the flow separate from the walls, producing the so-called discharge in jet: from a certain
section, the flow separates from the walls, and a constant section jet appears skirted by an
area of stagnant air between the jet and the walls of the diffuser; since it is a constant section,
the pressure in the jet is no longer increasing neither the speed diminishing.

A perfect diffuser implies very small wall angles, and if the inlet and outlet sections were given,
the longitude would finally be prohibitively big. For that reason, it is necessary approach to a
corrunitment solution between the longitude of the diffuser, and the elevation of the load losses
due to the fact that the longitude is not the good one.
Fan:

As we already said, it is not possible to avoid the drop of pressure inside the tunnel. We also
saw that ousting airflow out of equilibrium with the atmosphere in causes important losses.
However, to maintain the same flux the energy has to be constant, since if weren't, it would
diminish until the flow stopped completely.

Figure 2. 4 Fan
Therefore, we have to supply a quantity of energy similar to the drop of pressure. Since the
drops of pressure are decreases of pressure with regards to the ones we would have in the ideal
case, we have to supply pressure at constant pace. Thus, we have to use a fan. In the practice,
axial-flow fans are better, since they give a more uniform velocity profile in the working
section.

2.1.3 The multi-manometer:-

To measure pressures we will use a water manometer. We see that it has 20 tubes. They are all
joined to each other by the inferior collector and to the water deposit that there is in the back
zone. In the superior zone, the tubes are independent.

Figure 2. 5 Multi-manometer
As it is known by communicating glasses, in all the points located at the same height inside the
water, in the diverse tubes in the deposit, the pressure is the same. This way, if we have all the
tubes open to the atmosphere on their superior part, the water level will reach the same height
that in the deposit.

Once the upper part of each tube is connected to the region of the tunnel where we want to
measure the pressure by the silicone tube, since inside the tunnel the pressure will be smaller
than the atmospheric one (because the current is being accelerated and according to Bernoulli's
equation), what should be expected is that water ascend through the tubes.

Since the maximum pressure that can be reached is that of haven, and this, rejecting drop of
pressure; much smaller, is the atmospheric one, it cannot occurs that water level descends in
any tube below the level in the deposit.

An effect that could be observed is that, due to the volume of additional water that fills the
tubes when starting the tunnel, the water level in the deposit, and therefore in the tubes open to
the atmosphere and in those that are measuring a pressure similar to that of haven, the water
level would descend with regards to the initial one. However, the deposit has a base of
dimensions big enough to minimize this effect and to turn it almost imperceptible.

In any case, the difference of height of the water level between two points always gives us the
difference of pressure, in terms of the weight of the water column, between the two points in
which both tubes are measuring the pressure.

In a completely similar way, the difference of height of the water level between a tube that is
measuring pressure in a point and the one open to the atmosphere is similar to the manometric
pressure (or, since it will be negative, also called of vacuum) in that point, therefore, if we
know the atmospheric pressure, we will easily obtain the absolute pressure in the measure
point.

Remember that, when water ascends by a tube, it means that pressure is diminishing in the
measure point.

An inclination of approximately 30° has been given to the plane of the tubes with regards to
the horizontal one. This is to increase the sensibility of the apparatus. The differences of
pressure are always differences of height, that is, strictly ve1iical.

Let's suppose that we want to measure a difference of pressures of 0.5 mm of water. If the tubes
were in a vertical position, we would have to read in the scale a difference of 0.5 mm. But with
an inclination of 30°, as the sine of 30° is 0.5, that difference will be represented in the tubes
by a difference of 1 mm= 0.5 mm/ 0.5 of longitude of the water column, being easier to
perceive. We see that, at the same time, we are increasing the resolution of the apparatus. For
it, the real measure corresponds to one half the reading in the manometer scale.

As taking exact enough measures with a vertical manometer requires setting it through a plumb
line, here we have to make sure that it is well even.

For it, we will check that in all the tubes the level of O is reached, not existing any slope, and
that in the deposit the level of zero is simultaneously reached (what not only depends on the
filling, but also on whether there is or not an inclination in the vertical plane perpendicular to
the plane of the tubes: if so and the level of filling is the correct one, it will not be able to reach
the zero in the tubes and in the deposit simultaneously). To adjust the level of filling, a pipette
will be used, and to adjust the inclination, the legs will be regulated. The error in the inclination
angle would contribute in a very important way to the error of measure, and for that reason, it
is an aspect that should be taken on care.
It should be checked that the tubes have no kind of obstruction, because they may be bent,
because water has entered in the tubes that lead to the measure points, etc. It is also necessary
to make sure, of course, that none is broken.

It is convenient to connect the tubes to the measure points so that the order of ones and others
is correlated, since this way, when seeing the water level, one will have an immediate image
of the field of pressures that is being measuring.

2.1.4 Velocity control:-

To control the fan speed, this equipment has an inverter plus a potentiometer. The revolutions
are shown in the display (rpm). To modify the speed, change the position of the
potentiometer.[1.5]
 CHAPTER 3
The Design
3.1 The Design:-
This design is for an open-return wind tunnel as described here, which is the same style as the original
Wright Brothers wind tunnel. It has a fan at one end to draw the air in to the tunnel and to pass over
your model. Sensors are mounted to tell how the model reacts: one sensor to measure lift, one sensor
to measure drag. It is made up of three sections:

The Settling Chamber/Contraction cone. This is located at the front of the tunnel and used to force a
large volume of air through a small opening in order to increase the wind velocity. It incorporates
some egg-crate and mesh to reduce turbulence of incoming air.

The Test Section. This is where the model is mounted on the sensors. In order to allow visibility, it is
made out of acrylic.

The Diffuser/Drive Section. Located at the back of the tunnel, the diffuser keeps the air moving
smoothly and slows it down as it exits, while the drive section is where the fan is housed.

This design totals 8'-0" in length, with the settling/contraction cone being 3'-0" in length, the test
section being 3'-0" in length, and the diffuser/drive section being 4'-0" in length. Each section is built
separately and attached via springs to the test section - this way they can be pulled apart for
storage/transport.

3.2 Design Measurements:-

1. Settling Chamber/Contraction Cone:
This section forces a large volume of air through a small opening in order to increase wind velocity in
the tunnel. According to the book "Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing", the optimal area ratio from front
to back is 3:1, so the inlet will measure 33" x 33" and the outlet will measure 13" x 13". The length will
be 3'-0".

2. Test Section
This section houses the test model and the sensors to measure for lift and drag. To interface with the
Settling Chamber and Diffuser, it will be a rectangular prism measuring 13" wide and 13" high with a
length of 3'-0".

3. Diffuser Section
This section houses the fan and wind speed sensor. Again, based on information from the book above,
the drive section (large end) should be 3 to 3 times the area of the test section (small end of diffuser),
with best results if ratio is 3:1. As a result it is easy to calculate the drive section at 17" x 17" (389in3 :
144in3 is almost exactly 3:1). This section will be 4'-0" in length to give the entire tunnel a length of 8'-
0".
3.3 Materials:-
A basic list of the materials needed:

 Qty:4 – Metal sheets for Contraction Cone

 Qty:1 – Metal sheet for Diffuser section
 Qty:1 - Plexiglas Sheet - 3'-0" x 4'-0"
 Qty:1 - Fan with blade diameter of 14" and entire diameter no greater than 17", CFM rateing
between 1600 and 3000, designed for gable mounting.
 Qty:3 - Metal mesh
 Qty:1 - Aluminium Screen - approximately 36" x 48"
 Qty:1 - Personal fan
 Qty:1 – Silicon tube
 Qty:3 - Small L-Brackets
 Qty:8 - Screw eyes
 Qty:1 - Threaded rod compatible with load cell sensors
 Qty:1 - Anemometer
 Qty:1 – Manometer
 Qty:1 – Monomeric Tubes
Peripheral items include silicone caulking, nuts and bolts, screws, wood glue, staple gun.For testing,
two 5 kg load cell sensors were used with a CMF weight machine Wheatstone Bridge Sensor Interface.
Then a threaded rod was used to mount the sensors and the test model.

3.4 Test Section:-

1. Cut the large Plexiglas board into four portions measuring 1' - 0" by 3' - 0". If you can have it
cut where you bought it, great. If not, you will need a cutting tool to score along the measured
cut lines and then bend the glass to crack it along the score line.
2. Connect the sheets using silicone caulking to make a rectangular prism. Hold the pieces
together lengthwise and perpendicular so they form a right angle at the corner, apply caulking,
and hold 5-10 minutes to ensure adhesion. I did two sections separately as the silicone will
take some time to dry.
3. Once the sheets are caulked together they should be left standing on their 1'-0" edge while
they dry.
4. After each individual section has dried, attach the two sections together using the same
methods described above. Make sure to form right angles at each piece, the test section is
quite important so take your time and do it right!
5. After the entire section is dry, we will need to reinforce it to improve structural integrity. We'll
be using the L-brackets to do this. Measure the drill points on the test section where you will
be mounting the brackets - each bracket should be the same distance from the edge (I
measured 3" from the edge of the test section to the edge of the bracket, and then marked
my drill holes). Once all holes have been marked, carefully drill the holes by making a pilot
hole first for accuracy and then a proper hole to accommodate your bolt.
6. Attach the corner brackets by putting the rounded head of the bolt on the inside of the test
section and the nut on the outside. This will minimize disturbance of the airflow as well as
serve as mounting points for the springs when we connect all the sections together.
7. Once all the sheets are reinforced, you have completed the Test Section! A base will be made
later to accommodate the sensors and to facilitate interface with other sections.
3.5 Contraction Cone:-
The test section with the contraction cone build.

1. Cut your 3' x 4' Metal sheets into equal trapezoidal shapes, measuring 33" by 13" by 3'-0" long.
2. Connect the sheets to each other one by one, using welding to secure. Remember you want
them to be as flush as possible to minimize airflow disruption. I went over the outside seams
with silicone caulking to ensure air tightness.
3. Once it is sturdy, you will need to build a base to elevate the 13" x 13" section so that it is
parallel to the ground. I used metal stand.
4. Now you will need to build the settling chamber aspect. This consists of the egg crate mesh
and aluminium screen to cut turbulence of airflow entering the tunnel. I used the silicone
caulking to attach the egg crate to the outer edge of the contraction cone. As I had one piece
of egg crate mesh I had to trim it in to three pieces - take care to make each piece line up as
best as possible with the others so as not to introduce turbulence in the air flow.
5. Attach the screen approximately one inch behind the egg crate mesh. I folded the screen back
and used the staple gun to attach, and then used silicone caulking to seal and secure the
screen - remember to try to minimize any jutting objects or rough surfaces.
3.6 Diffuser Section:-
1. First, I cut a 34" x 34" steel sheet down to 17" x 17", to be the drive section where the fan will
be mounted.
2. Next, centre the fan and trace your circular cut. The fan I ordered came with a template, so
that was handy. Just make certain the fan will be mounted in the centre of the Hole.
3. Cut the circle as precisely as you can. I took my time using a jigsaw to ensure as circular a cut
as possible.
4. Fit the fan in the hole and make sure it sits well. If you need to open the hole a little more try
sanding. If you need to open the hole a lot you may need to use the jigsaw or another tool.
Once you are comfortable with the fit, secure the fan with screws. NOTE: we want the fan to
blow the air out of the diffuser section, not in to the diffuser section. Keep this in mind as you
mount the fan.
5. Next, cut your 4'-0" x 8'-0" board in to four pieces. They will need to be of equal size and
trapezoidal in shape. They should be 13" at the test section end, 17" at the drive section end,
and 3'-0" in length. SAVE YOUR SCRAP WOOD!
6. Same process as the Contraction Cone, connect the sheets together. This time is easier, as you
can use the fan/drive section at the base to mount the sheets. NOTE: you will need the power
supply for the fan to be accessible. For this, I drilled a hole at the base of the drive section big
enough for the cable to fit through, then ran the power cable out before mounting to the
diffuser sheets (visible in video at beginning of instruct able).
7. At the drive section there will be a gap due to the way the sheets will mount. This is
unavoidable, but can easily be patched with some sealant or lots of silicone. As with
contraction cone, run silicone along seam to ensure air tightness.
8. As with contraction cone, build a base so the diffuser runs along same axis as contraction and
test section. I used scrap wood to achieve this. Some measurements should be taken to ensure
you are as close to aligned as possible. The diffuser base will be a bit more difficult as both
ends will need to be raised, where the inlet of the contraction cone can rest on the floor.
9. In order to get an idea of how fast the air is moving in the test section, an economical method
is to mount a personal fan just inside the diffuser section (where it would interface with test
 section). Instead of connecting batteries, wire a Multi-meter to the fan. Later, as you are
testing your fan the Multi-meter will give you a voltage output. You can use this number to
convert to airspeed. Each fan is different so you will have to determine how to convert voltage
output to airspeed on your own ;) Our tunnel had an average wind speed of 43.5 km/hr (11.8
m/s).
3.7 Sensors:-
Now that the wind tunnel is complete, you will need to mount your sensors. You want to be very
careful and precise at this step so that your readings are accurate.

First, drill a hole in the centre of the base of your test section just large enough to accommodate the
threaded rod that will mount your test model to your 'lift' sensor. You want to make sure the rod
won't touch the test section even when the fan is in operation.

Next, determine the best way to mount your force sensors to the base of the test section. Again, I
used scrap wood to achieve this. One sensor will connect with the threaded rod going vertical in to
the test section to measure lift, and the other must be mounted at a right angle and perfectly aligned
with the threaded rod to measure drag. The image above gives you an idea of how they should be
mounted, but was not my final mounting position. You can see the threaded rod for my drag sensor is
not perfectly perpendicular. I also sanded down the sides of the threaded rod for the drag sensor so
it was smooth on the end and wouldn't catch on threads from lift sensor rod.

3.9 Testing:-
Now that we're all set up, we are ready to start testing. Before starting the wind tunnel and collecting
data, make sure:

• Wind tunnel is air tight such that air can only enter through the contraction cone and exit
through the diffuser/fan.
• All equipment is plugged in.
• Force sensors are properly calibrated.
• Model is mounted on the threaded rod in the test section.
Now plug in the fan, record data for certain lengths of time (try to stay consistent), and save your data
appropriately. Use a spreadsheet to monitor data acquisition and perform statistical analysis (average
force, standard deviation, etc.). Make sure the data makes sense (do you have negative average
drag?). If so, you can repeat the process above to test over and over again.[1.3]
 CHAPTER 4
THEORY
4.1 Introduction
In a conduct slender enough it is worth to suppose the flow almost unidimensional. That is, the
velocities profile in each traverse section of the conduct is approximately uniform. The relation
that ties the static pressure with the average velocity in each section is given by the Bernoulli's
equation:
1
p+ ρV2 = etc. Eq. (4.1)
2

If the conduct were open to the atmosphere, case of the tube of current that enters, or goes out,
from the conduct, the equation should continue being worth, and as for points very far from the
conduct, the atmosphere will be in rest and at the atmospheric pressure, we can say:
1
p + 2ρV2 = p0 Eq. (4.2)

We will call dynamic pressure to the term:

1
q= ρV2 Eq. (4.3)
2

The addition of the static and dynamic pressure is called total pressure. We can realize that this
dynamic pressure is a kinetic energy per unit of volume and, in a generic way, the pressure is
a density of energy (that is, also energy per unit of volume).

In a real flow there will be irreversible losses in the energy of the fluid particles, realizing that
a fluid particle is a closed system in adiabatic regime (under certain hypotheses that are being
admitted implicitly: ideal adiabatic incompressible flow), in accordance with the second law.

The reason for supposing an adiabatic flow in the conduct is that the time of permanency of a
fluid particle in the conduct, whose order of magnitude can be determined dividing the
characteristic length ( for example, the one of the conduct) by the velocity in a certain section,
is much smaller than the characteristic time of the heat transmission.

· Therefore, the total pressure in a transversal section of the conduct will not be similar to the
total pressure that we had at the beginning of the conduct, because, from this beginning to the
considered section, some energy has been lost. This can be expressed in terms of pressure,
through what is called drop of pressure, ΔH. Then, the Bernoulli's equation modified in this
way for a real flow in conducts will be:
1
p + 2ρV2 + ΔH = p0 Eq. (4.4)

The drop of pressure is calculated using the empirical formulas or semi empirical ones that can
be found in hydraulics manuals for the different types of conducts.

Lets consider now the continuity equation for the situation where we have an incompressible
fluid flowing inside of a conduct, as in the case of air with very inferior velocities to that of the
sound. It is obvious that through the walls of the conduct no air is entering or leaving. The fluid
only enters by one of the ends of the conduct, and it goes out by the other end.

In many cases, it can be supposed that the flow in a conduct is almost unidimensional, which
means that in a transversal section of the conduct, all the fluid particles have the same velocity,
and in the direction of the conduct in that point. Anyway, in the cases where the quasi-
unidimensional flow cannot be supposed, it is enough to consider the average velocity in each
transversal section.

If ds is a surface element of the transversal section, as small as wanted, and u is the speed
in the bari-center of such surface element. In rigor, both magnitudes are vectorial magnitudes.
In the unit of time, the volume of fluid that crosses that element is used, where the dot it is a
scalar product. Then, the mass of air that crosses such element, in the unit of time is p used
being p the density of the fluid in the considered point.

Since we are limiting to incompressible fluxes, the density will remain the same all the time
and in all the points.

The total quantity (mass) of air that goes through a transversal section, per unit of time, is
obtained by adding (integrating) the contribution of each one of the elements of the surface of
the transversal section. This magnitude is called "mass flux in the transversal section", and has
the following value:

ṁ = ρAU Eq. (4.5)

being A the area of the transversal section and U the average velocity in the transversal section.
Since we suppose incompressible flux, dividing the mass flux by the density (or by the average
density if it were not incompressible), we obtain the volume of air that crosses the transversal
section per unit of time, the flow:

Q = AU Eq. (4.6)

As we already said,· we are considering the case of the conduct in which no quantity of air can
go through the walls, so air only enters by one end and goes out by the other one. Therefore,
the quantity of air that leaves by the outlet end is equal to the one that enters by the inlet:

ρAinletUinlet = ρAoutletUoutlet Eq. (4.7)

Thus, we have applied the mass conservation principle to the region of volume defined by the
inlet and outlet section of the conduct. For having an incompressible flux and the same density
in all the points, the previous equation, called of continuity, can be simplified dividing by the
density in both members.

This way, we obtain that, for incompressible fluxes, not only the mass flow, but also the flow,
is equal in the inlet and outlet sections of the conduct. What let us write the continuity equation
for incompressible fluxes, which we will use along all the practices:

AinletUinlet = AoutletUoutlet Eq. (4.8)

It is convenient to do the following observations:

 Here, to fix ideas, we have referred to the inlet sections of a conduct. But any part of the
conduct delimited by two transversal sections chosen as one wants is also a conduct itself.
Therefore, the continuity. Equation says that the mass flux is the same between two
sections of a conduct. And if the flux is incompressible, besides the mass flux, the flow
will be equal.
 The equation of continuity can only be expressed as constancy of the flow in the case of
incompressible fluxes. If the flux is compressible (for example, case of the air at similar
or superior velocities to that of the sound), the constancy of the mass flux between two
sections, no matter which ones, will still remain, but since the density can vary from one
section to another, the flow does not have to be anymore the same from one section to
another.
4.2 Measure of static pressure
To measure the static pressure in the walls of a conduct, or of a body, it is enough to place a
tube perpendicular to the surface of the body in the point where we want to determine the
pressure, by the inside, in such a way that in the face of the, body that looks to the fluid there
will be only a remaining orifice with its surface. The tube used is generally of brass, and to it
is connected other tube, of gum, which goes to the pressure sensor, manometer, etc.

If the tube were not placed perpendicularly to the surface, the measure would be wrong.
Generally, the velocity incident on the body, from some distance of it upstream, is not parallel
to its surface.

This means that part of the dynamic pressure is being transformed in static, and vice versa. And
if the measure tube is not aligned, then, in fact we are measuring the pressure that there would
be if locally the surface would had that orientation. Thus, to make sure that the measure is
correct, it is enough with making the drill in which the tube will be placed sufficiently
perpendicular to the surface, since so

Small errors will not affect the measures. The angular deviation of the tube has to be very big
to produce an error, of more than 20°.

If we want to measure the static pressure in the heart of a fluid, for example, in a point of the
interior of a conduct, we will place what is called a static tube, that is a tube with elbow form,
being the arm of the elbow with the drill in the tip parallel to the current and with the tip facing
the incident current.

This way, it will be easy to have an outlet of the tube on a lateral wall of the conduct, at the
same time that the other part of the tube is in the longitudinal direction. In this part of the tube
aligned with the current, the tip of the tube should be sealed, and we will open orifices in its
lateral surface, at a distance far enough from the tip so that the pressure measured this way is
not perturbed too much by the repose point that will appear in this tip.

The main error source of this system is that, inside the conduct, although the principal direction
of the flow with security will be in the longitudinal direction of it, in general, there will also be
traversal components of the velocity, in this manner we hardly will be able to assure that the
vectorial velocity is exactly parallel to the surface of the measure tube.
In the two cases mentioned here, it is interesting to use always tubes with a diameter as small
as possible, since; for example, the static tube will perturb the current less than when we place
it in the heart of the flux. And if the diameter is small, we will measure a certain point with
more accuracy, and not a wide area.

4.3 Total pressure measure

If we want to measure the total pressure at one point, that is: the addition of the static and
dynamic pressures at this point, the easiest way to do it is to obligate the flux to stop in the
referred point, so that all the dynamic pressure will tum into static one.

Thus, the static pressure that we are going to have is equal to the addition of the static and
dynamic pressure that we would have had if we didn't stop the fluid, that is the pressure we
want to measure. It is enough with measuring the static pressure in the inside of the tube with
a manometer.

For it, we place an elbow shaped tube, similar to that the static one, but with an orifice in the
tip instead of at the lateral surface, being this orifice done in the tip the one that will give us
the total pressure. This is tube is called Pitot tube.

The idea is that the elbowed part of the tube stays aligned with the velocity of the flux, forming
a repose point just in the tip, where we open the orifice in such a way so that the pressures in
the inside of the tube and in the repose point are equal.

The importance of having well aligned the tube with the velocity of the current is based on that,
if the current impacts laterally, the repose point is also going to be on a side instead of at the
tip, although, again, the tolerance is big, of the order of 20°, so we do not have to worry much.

It shouldn't be thought that the air will flow by the tube, since, although it is certain that, in the
first instants of time it will flow, as soon as the pressure of the interior of the. tube is similar to
the one that wants to be measured, it will remain stationary. In fact, for this reason we can
measure the pressure having the manometer in a point far from the measure point, taking the
pressure through a rubber tube from this to that one.

4.4 Dynamic pressure measure

We see that with an elbowed tube we can measure the static pressure and also the total
one, although opening the orifice of the intakes of pressure in different parts in each case. It's
also known that the dynamic pressure is the difference between the total pressure and the static
one.

This suggests the idea of combining both devices into one, so that connecting an end of
the manometer to the static tube, and the other one to that of the total, the dynamic pressure
can be read directly. For it, we will build a ring shaped tube, being the external conduct of the
tube used for measure the static pressure, not opening its tip, while the interior part will only
be opened by the tip, and will come out by the inlet of the external tube, and it will be useful
to measure the total pressure. This device is called tube of Pitot-static.
 Obviously, as the static pressure intakes are not placed exactly in the same point as
those of dynamics, this method cannot be used if the pressure varies very drastically from one
point to another, in a longitude of an order equal or smaller than the longitude of the tube. This
means that it is necessary to choose a tube of characteristics appropriated for the flow to
measure.

Once known the dynamic pressure, if we also know the density of the air, as it is
proportional to the product of the density by the square of the velocity, we can obtain the
velocity of the air. In fact, this it is a typical application of the Pi tot-static tube to measure the
velocity of aeroplanes.

4.5 Influence of the drop of pressure in the measure error

As we see, the network for measure is constituted by conducts that take the pressure from
some points to others. Initially, before placing the measure tube in the heart of the flow, the air
will be at atmospheric pressure.

When introducing it with the flow, since the pressure to measure in it is different to the
atmospheric, the air will move through the interior of the tubes; as the pressure to measure is
inferior to the atmospheric in most of the cases, the air spreads to leave the tube towards the
flow.

This situation will go on until the interior pressure equals the measure point pressure; it is a
process that lasts only a short time, but that can have consequences in the accuracy of the
measure.

Like in every conduct through which a fluid moves, there will be, during that brief movement
stage, a certain drop of pressure. What means that, while this movement lasts, and although the
tubes have a constant section, the pressure inside the tube will be different along its interior
points.

This means that while this process occurs, in the side of the manometer, we will have a
different pressure than in the measure point or, better said, we would have certain retard
measuring the pressure of the point.

If the pressure to be measured were exactly stationary, there would be no problem. The
problem appears when it is not stationary, fluctuating along the time, and although due to the
inertia of the air we will not be able to capture most of these fluctuations1 it is also certain that
combining the effects of drop of pressure in the conducts, fluctuations in the pressure to
measure, and inertia of the air, the result will be that the medium measured value can, under
certain circumstances, be retained in a point different to that of measure.

In the practice, if the pressure to be measured is bigger than the atmospheric one, when this
situation takes place, the read value would be smaller than the real one; and if the pressure to
measure is inferior to the atmospheric one, the read value would be lightly smaller than the one
we should obtain.

In other words, an error due to hysteresis is present, being this effect of hysteresis inherent to
the measure network, becoming a measure error.
 To minimize this error and so that the accuracy of the measure does not affect us, we must
prevent use too long conducts as small diameter on them. And , of course, take care that the
conducts are not obstructed, bent, or pressed, what will hinder the flow, also causing an
erroneous measure for other reasons.

4.6 Measure of velocity in a nozzle

In the tunnel, we are interested in measuring the velocity in the test camera. We can measure
the jump of pressures between the inlet of the tunnel and the outlet of the contraction. For
example, we can estimate the average pressure in the inlet as the average of the read values on
the lateral intakes and on the bottom of such inlet section; and do the same to estimate the
average pressure in the outlet section of the contraction.

So we have a jump of pressure of:

Δp = pinlet – poutlet Eq. (4.6.1)

Taking average values for each section, we can apply Bernoulli's equation, which relates
pressure and velocity:
1 2 21
pinlet + 2ρairUinlet = poutlet + 2ρUoutlet Eq. (4.6.2)

We do not consider the drop of pressure, because it is very small against the other terms that
appear. Rearranging: and since we are interested in the outlet velocity:

2 ∆𝑝
Uinlet =√ Uinlet 2
Eq. (4.6.3)
ρair[1−( ) ]
Uoutlet

By the continuity equation, the flow that goes out by the outlet section has to be similar to the
one that enters by the inlet section, or said with other words, the product of the average speed
in a cross section by the surface area of this section has to be constant along the conduct, so:
Uinlet Ainlet
= Aoutlet Eq. (4.6.4)
Uoutlet

The relation between the inlet and outlet areas of a nozzle 1s the contraction ratio of it, that is:
Ainlet
c = Aoutlet Eq. (4.6.5)

Our tunnel is c = 8.2 The expression of the speed of the nozzle is then:

2𝑐 2 ∆𝜌
Uinlet = √𝜌 Eq. (4.6.6)
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐 2 −1

Since the fraction, where the contraction ratio appears, is very next to the unit, even more when
this contraction ratio is big, it is usual to take its valour as approximately On the other hand,
we are measuring the jump of pressures in millimetres of water, and it will be necessary to
convert it to Pascal’s:
 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ∆ℎ
Δp = Eq. (4.6.7)
1000

where Δh is the jump of pressures between the inlet and the outlet measured in millimetres of
water, g is the gravity acceleration, and P water is the density of the water. We will divide by
1000 to convert the millimetres to meters. Thus, we obtain the following expression for the
average speed at the outlet of the contraction, it's to say, in the working section:

2 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ∆ℎ
Uoutlet = √ Eq. (4.6.8)
1000 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

The use of nozzles to measure flows, according to the procedure described here, is one of the
standard procedures used in the industry.

4.7 Pressure coefficient in a measure point

Many times it is interesting to give the experimental data in an adimensional form. A reason
for this is that, if the conditions of similarity are completed between two different experiments,
although the physical size of the bodies, the speed of the fluid, etc., are different, all the
adimensionalised variables will have the same values, so it is enough to carry out a single
experiment to know the result of many real situations.

Let's suppose that we are taking data at a point in which the pressure is p and the speed is U.
We will suppose the atmospheric air entering the tunnel in rest and following an ideal process,
without drop of pressure (in the practice, we are supposing that they are worthless in front of
the differences of pressure), or other type of irreversible process.

Then, the stagnation pressure in that point is the atmospheric pressure, p0. Therefore,
according to Bernoulli's equation on the line of flow that goes by this point we can say that:
1
p + 2ρU2 = p0 Eq. (4.7.1)

We will suppose that the speed in the working section, before it notices the presence of the
body (when the velocity profile in the cross section of the working section is still uniform, and
equal in all the points)U∞. Then, if we adimensionalise the manometric pressure in the point
with the dynamic pressure in the working section, we obtain what is called the pressure
coefficient in the measure point. That is:
1
p0−p ρ U2
2 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Cp = 1 = 1 Eq. (4.7.2)
ρairU2∞ ρ U2
2 2 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∞

Therefore, given the narrow relation between speeds and pressures, shown by Bernoulli's
equation, the pressure coefficients in a point is also an indirect measure of the speed of the fluid
in this point.

The data that we are going to measure in the different practices are, on one hand, the
manometric pressure, p - p0, in surface points of several bodies, and, on the other, the speed
without having been perturbed, U∞ , in the working section.
 As units of pressure, we will use the millimetre of water column. It should not be forgotten
that it is a vertical column, since what matters is the weight of the water, that is, the force of
gravity (that is vertical), although the tubes of the Multi-manometer are slanted (the scale of
our Multi-manometer is adapted so that millimetres of vertical column are directly read).

If we call Δp to the manometric pressure ( of vacuum, that is, positive when p is smaller than
p0) measured in units of the International System, that is, Pascal, and Δh to the same physical
magnitude, but expressed in millimetres of water column (and this is the data that we read
directly in the corresponding tube of the Multi-manometer), we have the relation that already
indicated before.
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ∆ℎ
Δp = Eq. (4.7.3)
1000

On the other hand, for the speed without having been perturbed in the camera, we had:

2 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ∆ℎ∞
U∞ = √ Eq. (4.7.4)
1000 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟

being Δh∞ the jump of pressures between the inlet and the outlet of the nozzle, as it was
described in the previous section, expressed in millimetres of water.

Therefore:
∆ℎ
Cp = ∆ℎ Eq. (4.7.3)
∞
4.8 Drag and Lift

In this study, we will use a wind tunnel to explore the effect of lift and drag on an air foil. A
fluid flowing past a body, in this case an air foil has a force exerted on it. Lift is defined to be
the component of this force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. The drag
force is the opposite of lift, which is defined to be the component of the fluid-dynamic force
parallel to the flow direction. We will explore how the angle of attack changes the amount of
lift the air foil experiences. The angle of attack (α) is the angle between flow and the chord
line. The chord line is a straight line between the most forward point and most aft point of the
body. We will also study the effects of velocity on lift, if the angle of attack is kept constant
and velocity increased we would expect an increase in lift. We will measure the air foil lift as
a function of velocity. The drag coefficient (C D) and lift coefficient (CL) are functions of
dimensionless parameters such as Reynolds number (Re), Mach number (Ma), Froude number
(Fr) and relative roughness of the surface (ε/l). The lift and drag coefficients are mostly
dependent on the shape of the air foil, NACA 0012 is a symmetrical air foil and NACA 4412
is a non-symmetrical air foil.

The shapes play a huge role on the amount of lift and drag generated and will be seen in this
experiment. In order to be able to use equations (1),(2) and (3) the velocity needs to be known.
This is done by using a pitot-static tube which will be able to make a pressure gradient
measurement and then by using the Bernoulli's equation calculate velocity.

Notation

V: Velocity

CL: Coefficient of Lift

CD: Coefficient of Drag ρ: Density

𝐴𝑆: Surface Area

l: Span (Air foil Width)

c: Chord (Air foil Length)

z: Height

γ: Specific Weight
The lift is a function of dynamic pressure, surface area and lift coefficient as shown in Equation
(4.8.1).
1
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝑠 𝐶𝑙 Eq. (4.8.1)
2

The drag is a function of dynamic pressure, surface area and drag coefficient as shown in
Equation (4.82).
1
𝐷= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐴𝑠 𝐶𝑑 Eq. (4.8.2)
2

Dynamic Pressure is shown in Equation (4.8.3).

1
𝑃𝑑 = 𝜌𝑉 2 Eq. (4.8.3)
2

Surface Area (As) is a function of the chord and span and is shown in Equation (4.8.4).

𝐴𝑆 = 𝑐𝑙 Eq. (4.8.4)

Figure 4. 1: Air foil Nomenclature

Bernoulli's Equation is a function of pressure, density, velocity and specific weight and is
shown in Equation (4.8.5).

1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑉12 + 𝛾𝑧1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑉22 + 𝛾𝑧2 Eq. (4.8.5)
2 2

Assuming if z1 = z2, meaning the heights are at the same level then the equation can be written
as Equation (4.8.6) which then can be rearranged into Equation (4.8.7) which is the velocity
along the streamline.

1
∆𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉 2 Eq. (4.8.6)
2

2∆𝑃
𝑉= √ Eq. (4.8.7)
𝜌
 CHAPTER 5
Study Results
5.1 Study and Result No. 1:
Flow of a uniform current around a cylinder

Figure 5. 1 Cylinder model

5.1.1 Objectives
• To determine the form of the field of pressures around a cylinder on which a
perpendicular to the axis current impacts.
• To determine, by the detachment type, if the boundary layer finally becomes turbulent or
remains laminar.
• To determine the coefficient of resistance of the cylinder, for the described situation of
flow.
• To relate all the above. Mentioned with the Reynolds's number.
5.1.3 Explanation
A cylinder, supposing it with the axis m a horizontal plane, 1s a symmetrical body regarded
to its horizontal meridian plane, as regarded to any meridian plane. Therefore, the flow of a
perpendicularly incident to its axis horizontal current , since it also has that symmetry, will be
symmetrical with regards to the same plane; thus, the current existing on the surface of the
cylinder is the same above and below. This means that net vertical forces will not appear on
the cylinder.

If we calculated the flow by potential theory, we would also obtain a symmetrical flow with
regards to the vertical meridian plane. In particular, we would have a haven point in the front
part and, just in the diametrically opposite point, another haven point.

In an haven point, the velocity of the current finally becomes null, and since Bernoulli's
equation must complete for all the lines of current, being in this case:
1
𝑝+ 𝜌𝑈 2 = 𝑝0 Eq. (5.1)
2

where p0 is the atmospheric pressure, we would have two points of maximum pressure: just the
most advanced and most retarded points at the surface of the cylinder.

When the current moves above the surface for going from the front to the bottom points, in
a beginning it would diminish until reaching the minimum of pressure at 90° that it will be also,
according to Bernoulli's equation, the point of maximum velocity, what represents a favourable
gradient of pressures and therefore, the real current will quite resemble to this, since the
boundary layer will remain thin and stuck. But from that point the pressure will increase again
and then the boundary layer faces to an adverse gradient.

Since the fields of pressures would be exactly symmetrical in the front and in the back part,
horizontal forces would not appear on the cylinder. But making calculations by potential theory
implies to assume some hypothesis, in particular that the fluid lacks of viscosity.

However, we know that this is not this way, but exists an area next to the body in which is
unavoidable considering the viscosity of the fluid: this region is in just the boundary layer. We
also know that the boundary layers come off easily when they face an adverse gradient of
pressures, so, in fact, this detachment will take place approximately in a point between the 90°
and the posterior point.

Once the current has come off, from that point is formed a trail in which the pressure remains
approximately constant, being the point of maximum pressure no longer reached.

Therefore, the symmetry is broken with regards to the vertical meridian plane, and the pressure
in the posterior part of the body is smaller than in the anterior 'part, with the cylinder pushed
backwards by the air as the net result, that is, a resistance aerodynamic force appears.

The fact of the current coming off will perturb the field of pressures in the area where no
detachment exists, being modified with regards to what is obtained through potential theory
(since it continues being applicable where there is no detachment), although in a small amount
and practically just in the closer area to the detachment point.

The aerodynamic resistance produced this way is only part of the total aerodynamic resistance,
and it is called resistance of form or of pressure, for obvious reasons. The other component of
the aerodynamic resistance is the friction resistance, more directly related with the viscosity of
the fluid and the micro geometry of the body's surface, which makes a friction take place
between the fluid and the body, friction that, as always, acts in the opposite direction to the
relative movement of the bodies in contact, that is: drags back the cylinder, and forwards ( then
slows them down) the layers of fluid closer to the body.

However, the resistance of form, in bodies of non-aerodynamic shape, called blunt bodies, is
also much more important than the friction resistance. (In the bodies of aerodynamic form,
since the detachment of the boundary layer is avoided or minimized, the resistance of form is
very small, and that of friction is very important).

The boundary layer on the cylinder remains laminar if the number of Reynolds is low enough,
that is, if the product of the velocity by the diameter of the cylinder is small.

As it is also required that interferences take place in the laminar boundary layer so that it
becomes turbulent, and these interferences come from the ruggedness of the body, it is required
that the body is flat enough so that the boundary layer remains laminar.

A laminar boundary layer is of low energy, and its capacity to face the adverse gradients of
pressure is practically null, so it will come off in the point of minimum pressure, just at 90° .
This causes a low pressures wide area in the posterior side of the body, then a very high
resistance of form.

If the number of Reynolds is high enough as to make the boundary layer become quickly
turbulent, at least before arriving to the point of minimum pressure, since the turbulent
boundary layers have certain capacity to face the adverse gradients of pressure, the point where
the detachment takes place will be retarded, and two things will happen:

• The area that includes the trail on the posterior surface of the cylinder becomes less
extensive.
• The pressure in the trail that, as we said, 1s constant, becomes higher.
For both reasons, the resistance of form in this case is much smaller that when the boundary
layer is laminar, and since most part of the total aerodynamic resistance is resistance of form,
the result is that the aerodynamic resistance diminishes.

Since, given a number of Reynolds, it is feasible to induce the transition of laminar boundary
layer to turbulent destabilising this laminar boundary layer by interference, and the simplest,
and very effective form, of causing those interference is by increasing the ruggedness of the
body's surface, it is very frequent that the surfaces of the blunt bodies ( cylinders, spheres, etc.)
are made rough on purpose in order to diminish its aerodynamic resistance. A typical example
is that of the golf balls.

Another effect of the detachment of the layer limit, is that the trail is not formed by a current
in rest, or in a uniform flow, but by whirlwind that come off altematingly from the superior and
inferior part of the cylinder, that is, from the points where the boundary layer is coming off.
However, so that the whirlwind can come off, the field of velocities on the cylinder should be
modified so that a law of conservation known as law of Bjerkness-Kelvin is completed. Every
time a whirlwind comes off, the field of velocities on the cylinder is modified in a small
amount, and therefore that of pressures, being the most important effect that the symmetry with
regards to the horizontal meridian plane breaks, and vertical direction forces appear.

Also, when it comes off from the top, the modification is such that the resulting force goes
down and on the other way around, when the whirlwind comes off from the bottom, so on the
cylinder appears alternated forces, up and down, on the cylinder.

The own whirlwinds of the trail, although their effect attenuates as they move away, they do
not quit acting on the cylinder, contributing to the oscillating load, not being only the
whirlwinds that come off in a given instant . This can give place to important dynamic loads in
some structures! Originating problems of vibrations or failure by fatigue.

5.1.4 Execution of the practice

After assembling the pattern of the circular cylinder and the Multi-manometer according to
the prescribed procedure, the following steps will be carried out:

• Determination of velocity in working section. Determination of the number of Reynolds

A fundamental parameter in the rehearsal is the n° of Reynolds, since the fundamental
characteristics of the flow depend on it. To know it, we need to ensure the average velocity in
the working section, that is, the velocity of the incident current not perturbed by the cylinder.
The procedure described in the chapter of Measures of Pressure will be followed, in the section
where is described how to measure the velocity of the flow in a nozzle, filling in Table 5.1:
Velocity of the Incident Current and n° of Reynolds.

The n° of Reynolds relative to the diameter of the cylinder, D, will be given by:
𝑈∞ 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = Eq. (5.2)
𝑣

Since we know that the diameter of the cylinder is D = 50 mm, and (it is the kinematic viscosity
of the air, (1,5 x 10- 5 m2/s), we have all the data to calculate it. Calculated then° of Reynolds,
we will write it down, also, in Table 5.1.

• Field of pressures on the cylinder

There are two very characteristic points in the cylinder that are the anterior diametrical point,
and its opposite, the posterior one, both haven points for the ideal current. For that reason, we
will distinguish, when writing down the data, between the superior and the inferior semi-
cylinder in which the cylinder is divided by the mentioned diameter.

It interests us to give the position in terms of the angular position of the measure points, being
it a natural parameter for a cylinder, and already adimensional. Also, as the anterior and
posterior diametrical points belong at the same time to the superior semi-cylinder and the
inferior, we will write them down in both cases.

We will start to count the angles from the anterior diametrical point, in order to give this the
positions in the direction of the flow. That is, the anterior point will correspond to 0 ° , and the
posterior one to 180° .

If h0 is the height of the water column, in millimetres of water, of the tubes opened to the
atmosphere, and if h0 is the height of the column of the tube of the intake of pressure that is in
the angular position θ, whether of the superior half-cylinder, or of the inferior one, we will
calculate the pressure coefficient according to the procedure described in the chapter dedicated
to the Measures of Pressure. With the results, we will fill in Table 5.2: Pressure Coefficient on
the Cylinder.

• Determination of the gradient of pressures on the cylinder

We will determine the gradient of pressures (in terms of gradient of the pressures coefficient)
in the intermediate points between consecutive intakes of pressure.

For it, we apply numeric derivation, as it is described in the chapter of Measure of Pressures,
we will use as element of adimensional longitude Δs = Δθ, being Δθ the separation between
consecutive intakes, similar to the separation between intermediate points, expressed in
radians, having a value Δθ =π/6. With it, we will fill in Table 5.3: Gradient of Pressures. Keep
in mind that the gradient is calculated in the intermediate points between consecutive intakes.

5.1.5 Analysis of results

• Type of detached boundary layer
As we know, at low velocities, when the boundary layer comes off, it still laminar, but at high
numbers of Reynolds, the boundary layer has already become turbulent before arriving to the
adverse gradients area, and the detachment point is considerably slowed down, diminishing
this way the aerodynamic form resistance.

When the detachment is laminar, the detachment point is very close to the point of maximum
velocity, at about 90° , while when it is turbulent, it has an or der of about 120° . Therefore, the
width of the trail is about of 180° in the first case, and about of 120 in the second.

Since, from the detached area, the pressures coefficient on the surface of the cylinder stays
sensibly constant (then the gradient of pressures is practically null), we can determine, by
interpolation, the position of this point. Write down the result, for each half-cylinder, in
Table6.3.2.4: Detachment of the Boundary layer, indicating the type of boundary layer
removed.

Since the detachment is originated by the adverse gradient of pressures, we will also determine
the area of adverse gradient of pressures which corresponds to the area where the gradient of
Cp is negative, writing down the result in Table 5.4.

• Characteristic points of the field of pressures

• Besides the detachment points that we have already obtained, it 1s also important:
• The anterior haven point that corresponds to a maximum of pressures, thus, to a minimum
of Cp, as well as we have defined it.
• The points of maximum velocity in both semi-cylinders that, according to Bernoulli's
equation, correspond to minimum of pressure points, then to maximum of Cp points.
We can locate these points by determining where the gradient of pressures is annulled. In the
haven point it is necessary to be careful because the circumference has to be roved in the same
direction for both semi-cylinders, so the values obtained in one of them should be changed. We
will write down the position of these three points in Table 6.3.2.5.Characteristic Points.

• Resistance coefficient
We need to project the slopes of forces on the muss, and take the horizontal· component, which
is the resistance. To obtain the resistance coefficient directly, C0, we will use adimensionalised
variables. As in Cp we have the pressure with negative sign, we must change the coefficients
of pressure's sign. For it, we will fill in Table 5.4: Calculation of the Coefficient of
Aerodynamic Resistance. As we know the front area of the cylinder, SF, and the dynamic

pressure, we can calculate the aerodynamic force that we have on the cylinder,
 H inlet = 30 mm water

H outlet = 10 mm water

h∞ =h inlet -h outlet = 20 mm water

U∞ = 15 m/s

1 2 30 Pa
𝑞= 𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑈∞
2
Re = 2

Table 5. 1: Velocity of the Incident Current and number of Reynolds

ho = mm of water

Superior semi-cylinder Inferior semi-cylinder

θ hθ Cp he Cp
(mm water) (mm water)
o° 5 0.05 5 0.05

45° 7.5 0.1 2.5 0.025

90° 10 0.15 1 0.01

135° 7.5 0.1 2.5 0.025

180° 5 0.005 5 0.05

Table 5. 2: Pressure coefficient on the Cylinder

 Superior semi- Inferior semi-
cylinder cylinder
θ ΔCp ΔCp

15° 0.05 0.05

45° 0.1 0.025

75° 0.15 0.01

105° 0.1 0.025

135° 0.005 0.05

Table 5. 3: Gradient of Pressures on the Cylinder.

Superior semi- Inferior semi-

cylinder cylinder
θ - Cp ΔSF/ SF - Cp ΔSF/SF

35° 0.05 0.05

45° 0.1 0.025

75° 0.15 0.01

105° 0.1 0.025

135° 0.005 0.05

Cp 0.2

RESISTANCE 0.1

Table 5. 4: Calculation of the Coefficient of Aerodynamic Resistance

5.2 Study and Result No. 2:
There will be two air foils used in this study air foil NACA 0012 and NACA 4412. The
Second study will be to change the angle of attack of the air foil at constant velocity and
record lift and drag measurements. The measurements need to be recorded to Table 5.5
and 5.6, which will be used for calculation later. The lift coefficient of an air foil is directly
related to the angle of attack. Increasing the angle of attack is associated with increasing
the lift coefficient up to the maximum lift coefficient after which the coefficient
decreases. The angle that produces the maximum lift is called the “critical angle of
attack” or “stall angle of attack” if the angle is increased past the stall angle then a
decrease in the lift coefficient will occur. The critical angle of attack is typically around
15º for many air foils.

The VFD will be set at 35.0Hz for this study.

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 (𝛼) 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑁) 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 (𝑁)

0 0 0

5 0.25 0.10

10 0.5 0.20

15 0.75 0.30

20 0.98 0.40

25 1.20 0.50

30 1.40 0.60

Table 5. 5: Lift, Drag vs. Angle of Attack (NACA 0012)

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 (𝛼) 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑁) 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 (𝑁)

0 0 0

5 0.30 0.15

10 0.42 0.24

15 0.70 0.33

20 0.81 0.40

25 0.97 0.55

30 1.10 0.68

Table 5. 6: Lift, Drag vs. Angle of Attack (NACA 4412)

5.3 Study and Result No. 3:
The Third study will be to change the velocity while keeping the angle of attack constant. The
air foil will be kept at an angle of attack of 10° and velocity will be ramped from 1 m/s to 15
m/s, measurements of lift and drag will be recorded to Table 5.7 and Table 5.8.

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠) 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧) 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑁) Drag (N)

1 4.9 0 0

2 8.5 0.30 0.15

4 15.6 0.42 0.24

6 22.7 0.70 0.33

8 29.8 0.81 0.40

10 36.9 0.97 0.55

12 44.1 1.10 0.68

14 50.0 1.25 0.79

Table 5. 7: Lift, Drag vs. Velocity (NACA 0012)

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚/𝑠) 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐻𝑧) 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑁) Drag (N)

1 4.9 0 0

2 8.5 0.25 0.10

4 15.6 0.5 0.20

6 22.7 0.75 0.30

8 29.8 0.98 0.40

10 36.9 1.20 0.50

12 44.1 1.40 0.60

14 50.0 1.80 0.70

Table 5. 8: Lift, Drag vs. Velocity (NACA 4412)

 CHAPTER 6
Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1 Conclusion
Aerodynamic Tunnel we built can perform lower pressure level experiments to give students
know how about the work of this machine. It can find drag and lift on any design model it can
give more accurate results than C.F.D. More improvements can be made on this equipment by
creating more drag and lift models and pressure distribution model. Now it is easy for the
students to try their designed products in air pressure environment. In this machine, we have
two drag and lift models and one pressure distribution model. It has the range of 50 Hz so it
can be used for the lab experiments easily. Experiments we performed showed us how air acts
on circular body. With this equipment, the phenomenon of drag and lift can be easily
understood. It shows why the design of air foil matters good designed air foil can have less
drag and good lift. The air foil we used shows tremendous difference with little difference in
their design. The circular body we used showed us how much pressure is applied on different
sides of the body facing one and rear of the body. The interesting thing is the pressure is also
applied on the rear face.

6.2 Recommendation
The examination shows that the aerodynamic forces, i.e. lift and drag are hardly impacted by
active airflow. Experiment show that vacuum can increase both lift and drag. The same graphs
indicate that the lift and drag forces decrease with increasing overpressure. This fact can be
proven by the values of the coefficients of these two forces . Importantly, the most beneficial
case would be to increase the lift force while reducing the aerodynamic drag force, if these
solutions were applied in aviation. These results motivate to a more thorough examination of
this phenomenon on the air foil upper surface. Any further analysis should be carried out for a
larger model and a wider range of airflow velocities.
 References

Web Links:
[1.1]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_tunnel

[1.2]https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=14&cad=rja&ua
ct=8&ved=2ahUKEwjHspW_muvfAhWLXRUIHRf0AxYQFjANegQIDBAB&url=https%3
A%2F%2Fwww.grc.nasa.gov%2Fwww%2Fk12%2Fairplane%2Ftuntest.html&usg=AOvVa
w1qvaW45PUqhOvauKyAbLgN^ Going with the flow, Aerospace Engineering &
Manufacturing, March 2009, pp. 27-28 Society of Automotive Engineers

[1.3]https://www.instructables.com/id/DIY-Subsonic-Wind-Tunnel-LiftDrag-Testing-for-
RLoo/

Books and Articles:

[1.4] Lissaman, P. B. S. (1 January 1983). "Low-Reynolds-Number Air foils". Annual Review
of Fluid Mechanics. 15 (1): 223–239. Bibcode:1983AnRFM..15..223L. CiteSeerX
10.1.1.506.1131. doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.15.010183.001255.

[1.5] James Wilson, ed., Mathematical Tracts of the late Benjamin Robins, Est; … (London,
England: J. Nurse, 1761), vol. 1, "An account of the experiments, relating to the resistance of
the air, exhibited at different times before the Royal Society, in the year 1746." ; see pp. 202-
203.

[1.6] J.A.D. Ackroyd (2011) "Sir George Cayley: The Invention of the Aero plane near
Scarborough at the Time of Trafalgar," Journal of Aeronautical History, 1 : 130–181 ; see pp.
147-149 and 166. Available on-line at: Royal Aeronautical Society

[1.7] Bjorn Fehr (27 October 2017). "Bjorn's Corner: Aircraft drag reduction, Part 2". Lee ham.