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NUCLEOTIDES ( ´ ω ` )
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DNA RNA
Pentose Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
➔ Replication is semi-conservative
◆ New strands are formed from the template strand
◆ Original strand divides, free nucleotides are added to template strand
◆ Two strands are formed with 50% of the original DNA
◆ Depends on complementary base pairing
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➔ Steps:
1. Starts with the unwinding of the DNA strands by the enzyme HELICASE
○ Creates a replication fork
2. The enzyme PRIMASE creates an RNA primer to mark the starting point
of the replication
3. The enzyme DNA POLYMERASE then adds DNA bases in the 5’ to 3’
direction
○ This process is continuous in the leading strand
○ The lagging strand cannot be replicated in the 5’ to 3’ direction as it
is going in the other direction
■ This strand is replicated non-continuously:
● PRIMASE adds an RNA primer to indicate start point
● DNA POLYMERASE fills in the gaps between the
RNA primers, these short strands are called
OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS
● EXONUCLEASE ENZYMES then removes all RNA
primers and DNA POLYMERASE then fills in the
gaps left behind
4. After the replication of both strands are completed, DNA LIGASE then
seals the new DNA strands together to make the helix
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Overview of enzymes:
Enzyme Function
To allow for more efficient understanding please watch this video: death is
inevitable any form of resistance is futile
GENES (・∀・)ノ
➔ Transcription
◆ The synthesis of mRNA copied from DNA base sequences by RNA
polymerase
◆ Occurs along the antisense strand
◆ Free nucleotides exist in the cell which line up opposite their
complementary base partner
◆ Transcription occurs in a 5’ → 3’ direction
◆ Nucleosomes control transcription
➔ Overview of transcription:
1. Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter and causes the
unwinding and separating of the DNA strands
2. Elongation: RNA polymerase moves along the coding sequence,
synthesising RNA in a 5’ → 3’ direction
3. Termination: When RNA polymerase reaches the terminator, both the
enzyme and nascent RNA strand detach and the DNA rewinds
4. In eukaryotic cells, the mRNA undergoes post-transcriptional modification:
a. Capping by adding a methyl group to the 5’-end to protect it against
degradation by exonucleases
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DNA TRANSLATION
➔ Ribosome:
◆ Made up of:
● Protein (for stability)
● Ribosomal RNA (for catalytic activity)
◆ Consists of:
● Small subunit - contains an mRNA binding site
● Large subunit - contains three tRNA binding sites:
○ an aminoacyl (A) site, a peptidyl (P) site and an exit (E) site
◆ Can be found free floating in cytosol or bound to rough ER
◆ Differ in size according to prokaryotes (70S) and eukaryotes (80S)
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➔ Steps:
1. Initiation
a. Involves the assembly of the three components that carry out the
process (mRNA, tRNA, ribosome)
b. First, the small ribosomal subunit binds to the 5’-end of the mRNA
2. Elongation
a. A second tRNA molecule pairs with the next codon in the ribosomal
A site
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4. Termination
a. Involves the disassembly of the components and the release of a
polypeptide chain
b. Elongation and translocation continue in a repeating cycle until the
➔ The genetic code converts base sequences on mRNA into an amino acid
sequence
➔ Codon = sequence of three bases
➔ There are 64 possible codons
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2. 8 Cell Respiration
➔ Structure
ENERGY CONVERSION ( )
Anaerobic Aerobic
➔ Aerobic respiration:
◆ Pyruvate is transported to the mitochondria for further breakdown
(complete oxidation)
➔ Anaerobic respiration (fermentation):
◆ Pyruvate is not broken down any further (incomplete oxidation)
◆ Remains in cytosol and is converted to lactic acid (animals) or ethanol +
CO2 (plants and yeast)
◆ Reduced hydrogen carriers are oxidised via aerobic respiration to restore
available stocks of NAD+
◆ In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis will quickly deplete available stocks
For more complete info regarding cycle of krebs please do watch this very nice
video: krebby patty secret formula
ATP synthase
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Here is video for most efficient understanding comrades: electron bzz bzz chain
2. 9 Photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (⊃。•́‿•̀。)⊃━✿✿✿✿✿✿
PIGMENTS ( ’ω’)旦~~
➔ Chlorophyll:
◆ Green pigment found in photosynthetic organisms
◆ Responsible for light absorption
◆ Absorbs most strongly blue, reflects most strongly green
➔ Absorption spectrum
◆ Indicates wavelengths of light absorbed by each pigment
➔ Action spectrum
◆ Indicates overall rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength of light
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➔ Reaction Steps
◆ L
ight Dependent (Step 1)
RuBP (5 × 3C = 3 × 5C)
d. Requires energy derived from the hydrolysis of ATP
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CHLOROPLAST ☆*:.。.o(≧▽≦)o.。.:*☆