Contents

Page no.

1. Abstract …………………………………..(2)
2. Metallography Introduction ……………...( 3)
3. Quantitative Metallography Introduction…(4)
4. Quantitative Metallography Applications...(7)
5. Quantitative Metallography Methods …….(8)
 Comparison Method …………………………….(8)
 Measurement Method…………………………..(9)

6. Quantitative Metallography Equipments ...(18)

7. Summary………………………………….(19)
8. References ………………………………..(21)
9. External Links…………………………….(22)

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Abstract

WHEN MAKING A QUALITATIVE EXAMINATION OF A

MICROSTRUCTURE, the interpretation of the structure is to a high
degree based on the knowledge and experience of the observer. In
quantitative metallography/materialography the constituents in the
microstructure are measured to provide more reliable data for
materials engineering and quality control purposes. Typical
microstructural measurements include the length, width, and area of
features or the relative amount of a structure or phase. The
application of stereological principles enables two-dimensional
measurement data extracted from metallographic/materialographic
specimens to provide accurate information about three-dimensional
structures increasing the usefulness and importance of quantitative
microstructural analysis. It can be tedious to implement quantitative
methods. Digital image analysis equipment and software have been
developed as tools to automate the collection and reporting of
quantitative data.

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Metallography

Metallography is the study of the physical structure and

components of metals, typically using microscopy.

Ceramic and polymeric materials may also be prepared

using metallographic techniques, hence the
terms ceramography, plastography and, collectively,
materialography.

A micrograph of bronze revealing a cast dendritic

structure

In some cases, the metallographic structure is

Larg enough to be seen with the unaided eye.

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Quantitative metallography
Quantitative Metallography involves determination of specific
characteristics of a microstructure by making quantitative
measurements on micrographs or metallographic images.Quantities
so measured include volume concentration of phases, grain size,
particle size and surface area to volume ratio of micro constituents.

A number of techniques exist to quantitatively analyze

metallographic specimens. These techniques are valuable in the
research and production of all metals and alloys and non-metallic
or composite materials.

Microstructural quantification is performed on a prepared, two-

dimensional plane through the three-dimensional part or component.
Measurements may involve simple metrology techniques, e.g., the
measurement of the thickness of a surface coating, or the apparent
diameter of a discrete second-phase particle, (for
example, spheroidal graphite in ductile iron). Measurement may also
require application of stereology to assess matrix and second-phase
structures. Stereology is the field of taking 0-, 1- or 2-dimensional
measurements on the two-dimensional sectioning plane and
estimating the amount, size, shape or distribution of the
microstructure in three dimensions. These measurements may be
made using manual procedures with the aid of templates overlaying
the microstructure, or with automated image analyzers. In all cases,

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adequate sampling must be made to obtain a proper statistical basis
for the measurement. Efforts to eliminate bias are required.

An image of the microstructures of ductile cast iron.

Some of the most basic measurements include determination of

the volume fraction of a phase or constituent, measurement of
the grain size in polycrystalline metals and alloys, measurement of
the size and size distribution of particles, assessment of the shape of
particles, and spacing between particles.

Standards organizations, including ASTM International's Committee

E-4 on Metallography and some other national and international
organizations, have developed standard test methods describing how
to characterize microstructures quantitatively.

For example, the amount of a phase or constituent, that is, its volume
fraction, is defined in ASTM E 562; manual grain size measurements
are described in ASTM E 112 (equiaxed grain structures with a
single size distribution) and E 1182 (specimens with a bi-modal grain
size distribution); while ASTM E 1382 describes how any grain size
type or condition can be measured using image analysis methods.
Characterization of nonmetallic inclusions using standard charts is
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described in ASTM E 45 (historically, E 45 covered only manual
chart methods and an image analysis method for making such chart
measurements was described in ASTM E 1122. The image analysis
methods are currently being incorporated into E 45). A stereological
method for characterizing discrete second-phase particles, such as
nonmetallic inclusions, carbides, graphite, etc., is presented in ASTM
E 1245.

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Quantitative Metallography
Applications :-

 Grain size measurement

 Inclusion rating
 Determination of porosity in sintered carbides
 Classification of graphite structure in Cast irons.

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QUANTITATIVE METALLOGRAPHY
Methods:

 There are two methods used in quantitative metallography

1)- Comparison method

2)- Measurement method

Comparison Method
It is a quickest method for routine analysis

In this method, the microstructure image or micrograph is compared

with series of Standard charts. In Microscopes, facilities are provided
for inserting standard templates which are reproduced simultaneously
with the object, thus making for easy and rapid comparison. The
standard charts and templates have been issued by ASTM, ISO & SIS
for,

• Grain size measurement

• Inclusion rating

• Determination of porosity in sintered carbides

• Classification of graphite structure in Cast irons.

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Measurement Methods

# Microscopic measurements can be made either,

• On the virtual image in the microscope

• On the micrograph

• On the ground glass screen

# Advanced microscope with image analyzing facilities give fully

automatic quantitative measurements.

# The measuring methods are,

• By comparison with charts or templates

• By means of square grid

- Measuring ways are,

 Measuring the area of each individual particle or grain.

Then measured areas are divided by the square of the
linear magnification.

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  Drawing straight lines on the image projected on the
ground glass screen or micrograph .The average grain size
is the total length of the lines divided by number of grains
intercepts and by the linear magnification.

- Determination of Particle size and Number

-Comparison method

 When determining particle size and size distribution

of powders, inclusion etc., the area, diameter or
length of each individual particle is measured
 The standard reference template is placed over the
image projected on the microscope ground glass
screen or micrograph.
 Each particle is then classified in accordance with
such templates.


- Determination of Particle size and Number

 Comparison method, Graphite Shape comparison as per ASTM A247

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 - Determination of Particle
size and Number
- Linear analysis
• Drawing straight lines on the image or micrograph ,the length of all
intercepts for a certain phase are summated.

• The Ratio between the summated length and the total length of the
lines is equal to the volume fraction which occupies the structure.

- Point counting method (ASTM E 562)

• A standard grid containing large number of points is placed on
the image or micrograph
.• The number of points which coincide with the phase ,in
comparison with the total number of grid points gives the
surface proportion (or volume fraction) of the phase.

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 • For accuracy, large number of grid points must be used.

 Determination of Particle size and Number

 Point counting method (ASTM E 562)

• The grid consists of 100 points

• 7 “points” were inside the constituent of interest. So, the point fraction is
calculated as:

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 _ Determination of Grain size :
 Comparison method

 It is the simplest method in determining grain size

 For spherical, equiaxed grains standard charts are available

from ASTM (ASTM E 112)

 For Elongated grains reference charts also available ,but usually

other methods like Planimetric and intercepts methods are used

 A round , polished and etched specimen surface is compared

with standard charts and templates.

 Comparison method ASTM E112 Plate II ,Rating of Grain size of

Austenitic Twinned alloy

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   Comparison method ASTM E112 Plate III, Rating of Austenitic Grain
size of copper alloy

- Planimetric method (Jeffries method)

 In this method a Circle or rectangle of known area is drawn on
the image on the ground glass screen or micrograph.

 A magnification should be selected such that at least 50 grains

are thus enclosed

 In counting, half the number of grains which are cut the

confining lines is added to number of grains inside the area

 The average grain area=Total surface area / ( No .of grains x

surface magnification (M2) )

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  The Root of this value is designated as the average grain size.

 For elongated grains, determination should be made in three

section surfaces which right angles to each other. The number of
grains per cubic millimeter is N = 0.7 (n1 x n2 x n3) ^ ½ where,
n1, n2, n3 are three planes of intersection

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 - Determination of Grain size
- Planimetric method (Jeffries method)

 n1= number of grains completely inside the test circle

 n2= number of grains intercepting the circle

 f = Jeffries multiplier; f = magnification^ 2/circle area

 Magnification 100X

 NA = Average Grain area

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 - Determination of Grain size
- Intercept method

• It is simple and rapid than Planimetric method

.• In this method, the number of grains which are cut by straight
lines are measured
.• The total length of the straight line is divided by the No. of
grains cut by the lines and by the linear magnification.
• The total length of the straight line drawn should cut at least
50 grains.
• In elongated grains, measurement is carried out in three
directions at right angles & one is parallel to elongated
direction. The Number of grains/Cmm is N = 0.7 (n1xn2xn3)

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Quantitative Metallography Equipments :

1- Stereomicroscope Nikon SMZ-2T

with fibre optic illumination and digital photography (Nikon Coolpix 4500)

2- Optical Microscope ZEISS - Axioplan 2, with digital photography ZEISS

AxioCam ICc3

3- Quantitative Image Analysis PAQI

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Summary

The metallographic examination constitutes simply a planar section

view of a three dimensional structure. It is not enough to recognize
this fact; one must also understand how shape in a three dimensional
construction can degenerate into traces in random planar section. In
fact, one must be able by mental visual skill to recreate from slices of
hard boiled egg, the oblate ellipsoid when they came. For example,
an inclusion, or porosity can appear to be different when observed in
different planer section and the assessment of volume will be
qualitative and only quantitative to the extent of visual judgement.
Actual quantitative evaluation of inclusion and porosity, their shape
and size distribution are very important for predicting the mechanical

properties of the metals and alloys. Similarly, the grain size is

another important factor in the hardenability of steels, ductility of
brass and in the ductile-brittle transition of alloys. The amount of
ferrite in stainless steels is a factor in their foregeability. The average
flake size of graphite is a control parameter in the strength of gray
cast iron. These are only a few instances where numerical limits to
metallographic parameters are practical factors in quality or
production control. Since we can not obtain large number of
specimens to get correct three dimensional picture, quantitative
analysis is an appropriate alternative. Two factors must be assumed
in all such quantitative studies. The planar section or sections be

Page 19 of 22
representative of the whole. In the matter of arriving at average
values for dimensions of distributed particles one must have a
knowledge of the actual or approximate shape of the particles. Few
particles are actually perfectly spherical. but this is a mathematical
convenience.

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References

 Metallurgical Microscopy by Helfrid Modin &Sten modin

 Standards for Metallography by George F.Vander Voort,
Director, Research &Technology Buehler Ltd.

 "Metallographic and Materialographic Specimen Preparation,

Light Microscopy, Image Analysis and Hardness Testing",
Kay Geels in collaboration with Struers A/S, ASTM
International 2006.
 Metallography and Microstructures, Vol. 9, ASM Handbook,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2005.
 Metallography: Principles and Practice, G.F. Vander Voort,
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1999.
 Vol. 03.01 of the ASTM Standards covers standards devoted to
metallography (and mechanical property testing)
 G. Petzow, Metallographic Etching, 2nd Ed., ASM
International, 1999.
 Metalog Guide, L. Bjerregaard, K. Geels, B. Ottesen, M.
Rückert, Struers A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2000.

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External links

 HKDH Bhadeshia An Introduction to Sample Preparation for

Metallography, Cambridge University.
 Video on metallography Metallography Part I - Macroscopic
Techniques, Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences.

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