Journal of

Low Power Electronics

and Applications

Article
Ray Tracing Modeling of Electromagnetic Propagation
for On-Chip Wireless Optical Communications
Franco Fuschini 1, * , Marina Barbiroli 1 , Marco Zoli 1 , Gaetano Bellanca 2 , Giovanna Calò 3 ,
Paolo Bassi 1 and Vincenzo Petruzzelli 3
1 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Eng. “G. Marconi”, University of Bologna,
40136 Bologna, Italy; marina.barbiroli@unibo.it (M.B.); marco.zoli5@unibo.it (M.Z.);
paolo.bassi@unibo.it (P.B.)
2 Department of Engineering, University of Ferrara, 44122 Ferrara, Italy; gaetano.bellanca@unife.it
3 Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Polytechnic of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy;
giovanna.calo@poliba.it (G.C.); vincenzo.petruzzelli@poliba.it (V.P.)
* Correspondence: franco.fuschini@unibo.it; Tel.: +39-051-209-3437




Received: 13 September 2018; Accepted: 12 October 2018; Published: 17 October 2018


Abstract: Multi-core processors are likely to be a point of no return to meet the unending demand
for increasing computational power. Nevertheless, the physical interconnection of many cores
might currently represent the bottleneck toward kilo-core architectures. Optical wireless networks
on-chip are therefore being considered as promising solutions to overcome the technological limits
of wired interconnects. In this work, the spatial properties of the on-chip wireless channel are
investigated through a ray tracing approach applied to a layered representation of the chip structure,
highlighting the relationship between path loss, antenna positions and radiation properties.

Keywords: electromagnetic propagation; ray tracing; optical wireless network on chip

1. Introduction
The computation hunger affecting technological progress has fostered the development of
multi-core architectures, where data processing is simultaneously carried out by several processors
(or cores) embedded in the same processor die, thus dramatically reducing the computational effort.
Since mutual interactions among the cores are necessary, they must be effectively interconnected.
To this aim, traditional bus architectures have been replaced by networks on chip (NoC), where the
processor chip includes electrical wires and routers besides cores and cache banks [1,2]. Nonetheless,
interconnect issues such as layout complexity, high latency, and power consumption are far from being
completely solved, to the extent that they might seriously thwart further evolution towards kilo-core
architectures [3]. In particular, electrical wires undergo propagation delays and losses which do not
scale down at the same rate as transistors, and they can hardly support the high data-rate required by
core-to-core communications [2,4].
These issues can be partly tackled by optical networks on chip (ONoC) [4,5], which take advantage
of optical interconnects to provide high-speed communications (also exploiting wavelength division
multiplexing) with lower propagation delays and weaker propagation losses. Nonetheless, on-chip
integration of optical sources still undergoes several technological limitations [5], e.g., related to the
laser efficiency, which reduces as the chip temperature rises up and is in general quite low. On the
other hand, off-chip lasers are more efficient but their coupling to the chip introduces additional
losses [4] and poses additional issues related to the mechanical interconnection between the source and
the die. Furthermore, important optical devices like micro-rings require extra-power expenditure to
compensate for the resonant wavelength shift due to manufacturing geometric inaccuracies [4]. Finally,

J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39; doi:10.3390/jlpea8040039 www.mdpi.com/journal/jlpea

J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 2 of 16

interfacing the optical network with the electrical circuitry of the cores entails some electro-optical
conversion with negative effects on both energy loss/consumption and networking delays [4].
It is also worth mentioning that both electrical and optical NoC may suffer from unwanted and
unpredictable cross-talk effects (especially at waveguide crossing and switching stages), which are
expected to be harsher as the number of cores increases and the network layout becomes more complex.
Three-dimensional circuit integration may space out interconnections, thus alleviating the cross-talk
risk, but complicating the manufacturing process.
In this framework, wireless networks on-chip (WiNoC) have therefore attracted increasing
consideration [1,3,6] as an effective solution to provide low-latency communications and to get rid of
the interconnect routing and layout complexity when a large number of cores must be arranged into
the processor integrated circuit (IC) [3]. Because of the current limitations on antenna technologies,
WiNoC are often investigated up to the millimeter/sub-THz bands, where on-chip antenna integration
may still represent a challenge and propagation is likely to occur in near field, and possible mutual
coupling might therefore arise reducing the communication efficiency [7].
Therefore, optical wireless networks on chip (OWiNoC) have been recently proposed [8], aiming at
preserving the main advantages of WiNoC (low latency, simpler network layout) but fostering far-field
propagation and facilitating the antenna integration process. Moreover, relying on wireless optical
communications can be particularly beneficial to envisage hybrid wired/wireless optical networks,
because the same wavelength propagating on optical waveguides could be directly exploited for
wireless connections without any further electro-optical conversion [8].
In spite of the existing studies carried out on WiNoC, quite little consideration has been seriously
devoted to wireless channel modeling [5,9,10], and hardly ever at optical frequencies [11]. In this
work, the OWiNoC propagation channel is specifically investigated by means of a ray tracing (RT)
approach, which is expected to be quite reliable at so large frequencies and is also inherently fit to track
the multipath nature of the on-chip wireless channel. In References [9,11], the analysis is basically
limited to the frequency response of the channel, whereas prediction of the spatial field distribution
limited to few wavelengths is provided in Reference [10]. Conversely, the primary goal of this study
is the assessment of the far-field spatial fading (which is expected to be a serious impairment in the
optical frequency range) and of the maximum communication distance for different chip structures.
Moreover, the impact of the antenna position and radiation properties is here discussed to some extent
in several reference cases, whereas oversimplified radiators in a single case study are considered in
References [10,11].
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides some general background about on-chip
wireless propagation, whereas Section 3 deals with the physical structure of an IC and its representation
as a multi-layered medium. The RT model for on-chip propagation analysis is presented in Section 4.
Results of the RT simulations are discussed in Section 5, and some conclusions are finally drawn
in Section 6.

2. Background on Propagation Mechanisms and Optical WiNoC Requirements

Increasing the communication frequency in WiNoC can ease the antenna integration efforts,
but also raises some propagation issues to be aware of. The communication range is always affected
by the communication frequency, since greater isotropic attenuation is experienced at larger frequency
as a general trend. In free space condition, the antenna gain can be easily related to the distance
corresponding to the minimum required power at the receiver for a satisfactory communication by
means of the Friis equation: s
PRX,min 4π · d
G= · (1)
PTX λ
where the same antennas are supposed at both link ends for the sake of simplicity, PRX,min and PTX are
the receiver sensitivity and the overall transmitted power, respectively, d is the link distance and λ is
 PRX,min 4π ⋅ d
G= ⋅ (1)
PTX λ

where the same antennas are supposed at both link ends for the sake of simplicity, PRX,min and PTX are
J.the
Lowreceiver
Power Electron. Appl. 2018,
sensitivity and8, the
39 overall transmitted power, respectively, d is the link distance and
3 ofλ16
is
the wavelength of the wireless signal in the propagation medium. For instance, an antenna gain
equal
the to nearly of
wavelength 30the
dB wireless
is needed to convey
signal in the apropagation
power PRX,min = −25 dBm
medium. to the distance
For instance, d = 1 gain
an antenna mm under
equal
free space conditions and assuming P TX = 0 dBm and λ = 1 μm.
to nearly 30 dB is needed to convey a power PRX,min = −25 dBm to the distance d = 1 mm under free
spaceIn spite of and
conditions the assuming
tiny wavelength,
PTX = 0 dBm the and
design
λ = 1ofµm.highly directive optical antennas is not a
straightforward task, because the integration
In spite of the tiny wavelength, the design of highly need poses seriousdirective
constrains on theantennas
optical size of theison-chip
not a
devices. For instance, the plasmonic antennas proposed in References
straightforward task, because the integration need poses serious constrains on the size of [8,12] exhibit a gain always
the on-chip
lower than
devices. 10 dB, whereas
For instance, it is increased
the plasmonic to about 20
antennas proposed dB by the[8,12]
in References dielectric
exhibit solution discussed
a gain always in
lower
Reference [13], though at the expense of a quite larger antenna size. Owing to the
than 10 dB, whereas it is increased to about 20 dB by the dielectric solution discussed in Reference [13], current limitation
on optical
though at theantenna
expense gain, propagation
of a quite larger antennaconditions bettertothan
size. Owing in freelimitation
the current space would be therefore
on optical antenna
extremely beneficial to the optical wireless communications. Whether
gain, propagation conditions better than in free space would be therefore extremely beneficial and to what extent thistomay
the
occur in
optical the on-chip
wireless wireless channel
communications. is investigated
Whether and to what in extent
the following
this may sections.
occur inInthethis regard,wireless
on-chip surface
electromagnetic
channel waves in
is investigated are
thesometimes
following referred
sections. to
Inas anregard,
this effective means
surface to improve propagation
electromagnetic waves are
conditions compared to free space [2,14,15]. Although electromagnetic
sometimes referred to as an effective means to improve propagation conditions compared propagation is usually
to freea
three-dimensional phenomenon, i.e., spatial waves spring out of the
space [2,14,15]. Although electromagnetic propagation is usually a three-dimensional phenomenon, transmitting antenna and
spread
i.e., over
spatial the full
waves space
spring outinteracting with the items
of the transmitting antennaall around,
and spreadsurface
overwaves
the fullmight
spacebe triggered
interacting
with the items all around, surface waves might be triggered under particular circumstances and spatial
under particular circumstances and travel close to the chip surface (and therefore in two travel
dimensions) between different cores (Figure 1). Since the surface wave is
close to the chip surface (and therefore in two spatial dimensions) between different cores (Figure 1).confined at the planar
interface,
Since its wavefronts
the surface undergo at
wave is confined a smaller
the planarspatial broadening
interface, compared
its wavefronts to a spatial
undergo a smallerwave, and
spatial
therefore the corresponding path loss would increase proportionally to
broadening compared to a spatial wave, and therefore the corresponding path loss would increasethe link distance d instead of
d as in free space
2
proportionally [2].link distance d instead of d2 as in free space [2].
to the

Figure 1. Sketch of the spatial and surface wave concepts.

Figure 1. Sketch of the spatial and surface wave concepts.
In order to take full advantage of surface propagation, surface waves only should be excited.
In order toefficiency
The launching take full ofadvantage
a surfaceofwavesurface propagation,
is often defined surface waves
as the ratio only should
between be excited.
the surface and
Theoverall
the launching efficiency
radiated power of[16].
a surface
Design wave is often defined
of effective surface as the antennas
wave ratio between the surface
has been and for
dealt with the
overall
quite radiated
a long time:power [16]. Design
investigations of effective
carried out on surface wave
different antennas
surface wavehas been dealt
launchers with for quite
in Reference [17]
a long time:
pointed investigations
out that carried
efficiency nearly out on
equal different
to 100% couldsurface wave
be easily launchers
achieved in Reference
in theory, but not[17] pointed
as much in
out that Moreover,
practice. efficiency nearly equal
theoretical to 100%
analysis could
in the be easilyband
mm-wave achieved in theory, that
[10] highlighted but not as much
the role played in
practice.
by Moreover,propagation
spatial/surface theoretical analysis
is greatlyinaffected
the mm-wave band [10]
by frequency, highlighted
material that and
properties, the role played
position of
by spatial/surface
the antennas within propagation
the on-chipiswireless
greatly affected
channel.byFinally,
frequency, material
surface waveproperties,
interconnects andrepresent
position ofa
sort of emerging solution currently under investigation mainly at millimeter frequencies [2], and noa
the antennas within the on-chip wireless channel. Finally, surface wave interconnects represent
sort of emerging
significant studiessolution
have so currently
far addressedunder investigation
design challengesmainly at millimeter
for integrated frequencies
surface [2], and no
wave launchers in
significant
the studies have so far addressed design challenges for integrated surface wave launchers in
optical range.
the optical
Soothing range.
the debate on whether optical WiNoC should better rely on spatial or surface propagation
is far Soothing
beyond the the debate
scope onwork.
of this whether Here,optical
possibleWiNoC
surfaceshould better effects
propagation rely on arespatial
simply or surface
neglected
propagation
at the momentisand far the
beyondmainthegoalscope
is theofinvestigation
this work. Here,
of thepossible surface propagation
fading properties of the on-chipeffects are
spatial
radio channel.

3. General Description of the Multi-Core Chip Structure

As a matter of fact, wireless propagation is quite sensitive to the properties of the environment
where it takes place. Therefore, the first step for the electromagnetic characterization of the wireless
 simply neglected at the moment and the main goal is the investigation of the fading properties of the
on-chip spatial radio channel.

3. General Description of the Multi-Core Chip Structure

As a Electron.
J. Low Power matter Appl.
of fact,
2018,wireless
8, 39 propagation is quite sensitive to the properties of the environment 4 of 16
where it takes place. Therefore, the first step for the electromagnetic characterization of the wireless
channel always consists of its physical description. A very detailed and precise representation
channel
usually always
yields consists
a deeper of its physical
insight butdescription.
is often limitedA very detailed and precise
to the specific caserepresentation usually
under investigation.
yields a deeper insight but is often limited to the specific case under investigation.
Conversely, limiting the description of the scenario to the features mainly affecting electromagnetic Conversely,
limiting the description
propagation may resultof inthe scenariostill
prediction to the features
reliable mainly
in many affecting
different electromagnetic
cases, provided that propagation
they share
may result in prediction still reliable in many different cases, provided
the same macro structure. According to the latter approach, this section aims at identifying that they share the same
some
macro structure. According to the latter approach, this section
common characteristics underlying any multi-core IC, in order to define some reference aims at identifying some common
input
characteristics
layouts for theunderlying
ray tracing any multi-core
propagation IC, in order
analysis carriedtoout
define some reference
in Section 5. input layouts for the
ray tracing propagation analysis carried out in Section 5.
With reference to the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology, an IC is
alwaysWith reference
achieved to the
from complementary
a silicon wafer, andmetal-oxide
is made of asemiconductor (CMOS)with
silicon layer covered technology,
a thinneranfilmIC isof
always achieved from a silicon wafer, and is made of a silicon layer covered with
silicon dioxide (or silica) in the first stage of manufacturing [18]. In spite of the further technological a thinner film of
silicon dioxide
processes (or silica)
aimed in the first the
at deploying stageelectronic
of manufacturing
circuitry[18]. In spite
(e.g., of the further
devices—like technological
transistors—and
processes aimedonto
interconnects) at deploying
the wafer, thethe
electronic
on-chipcircuitry
wireless(e.g., devices—like
channel transistors—and
is still often represented as interconnects)
the layered
onto
dielectric structure sketched in Figure 2 [19]. The transmitter (TX) and the receiver (RX) arestructure
the wafer, the on-chip wireless channel is still often represented as the layered dielectric assumed
sketched in Figure
buried inside the SiO2 [19]. Theherein
2 layer transmitter
[11], but (TX)theyand the receiver
could (RX)
also lie on itsare
topassumed buried
[9,10]. The upper inside
mediumthe
SiO 2 layer
above SiOherein
2 might [11],
be but they
air in thecould also lie
simplest case on[10,11]
its top or
[9,10]. The upper
a different medium material
passivation above SiO 2 might
(e.g., be
silicon
air in the simplest
nitride) [20]. case [10,11] or a different passivation material (e.g., silicon nitride) [20].

Figure 2. On-chip radio channel as a layered medium.

Figure 2. On-chip radio channel as a layered medium.
It is worth mentioning that a pattern of some metallization layers is often inserted within the
It is region
dielectric worth mentioning
[18], either for thatthea pattern of some metallization
interconnection layers is
of the upper circuit often inserted
elements withinthe
or increasing the
dielectric region [18], either for the interconnection of the upper circuit elements
reliability of the manufacturing process. The metallization can extend over the whole chip area, i.e., or increasing the
itreliability of the manufacturing
is not necessarily limited to the process.
circuitryThe metallization
regions. can extend
Moreover, a ground over the whole
plane between chipthearea, i.e.,
silicon
it is not necessarily
substrate limitedlayer
and the insulating to the circuitry
might regions.
be helpful Moreover,
to prevent a ground
unwanted plane between
electromagnetic the silicon
interference
substrate and the insulating
between the antennas and the circuitry [20]. layer might be helpful to prevent unwanted electromagnetic
interference between
Finally, the presence the of
antennas
the packageand the circuitry
housing [20].
of the IC can be also taken into account through the
Finally,of
introduction the presence
further of respectively
layers the package below
housing andofabove
the ICthecansilicon
be also andtaken into account through
the air/passivation slabs.
the introduction of further layers respectively below and above
Although packages can be made of several different materials (e.g., ceramic or plastic),the silicon and the air/passivation
the analysis is
slabs.
here Although
limited to thepackages
plastic case canforbethe
made
sake of
of several different
simplicity. Since thematerials (e.g., ceramic
IC sometimes lies on aor plastic),
metal groundthe
analysis is here limited to the plastic case for the sake of simplicity. Since
acting as heat spreader [21], the bottom layer can be set of plastic or metal as a further option. the IC sometimes lies on a
metal ground acting as heat spreader [21], the bottom layer can be set of
In summary, the on-chip wireless channel is here sketched according to the following layeredplastic or metal as a further
option. (Figure 3):
structures
In summary, the on-chip wireless channel is here sketched according to the following layered
• structures
Unpacked,(Figure
where3): a plane silica slab including the transmitting and the receiving antennas is
• bounded
Unpacked,bywhere
two different
a planemediasilica on theincluding
slab upper andthe on transmitting
the lower sideand (Figure
the 3a). The upper
receiving regionis
antennas
can be either
bounded by air
twoordifferent
a differentmediapassivation material,
on the upper andwhere
on thethe former
lower sidecase stands
(Figure 3a).forThe
possible
upper
situations with a refraction index in the superstrate lower than in the SiO
region can be either air or a different passivation material, where the former case stands 2 . The lower zone can befor
silicon or metal—in the latter case accounting for possible metallization layers inside the SiO2 or
between the SiO2 and the Si regions.
• Packed: where two additional layers are added at the bottom and on the top of the previous stack
(Figure 3b). Either plastic or metal can be considered for the bottom region, whereas plastic is the
only option for the top half-space.
stage of the investigation, so that spatial wave propagation consists of multiple reflections occurring
in the vertical plane (xz in Figure 3). The electromagnetic properties of the materials are taken into
account through their refraction indexes (n coefficients in Figure 3), whose reference values in the
optical range are listed in Table 1 together with the thickness considered for the different layers. Real
values are assumed for the refraction indexes (i.e., the lossy materials have not been considered so
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 5 of 16
far).

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Layered structures for the unpacked (a) and the packed (b) cases.

Each interface between different

Table media
1. Major inputisparameters
supposed forperfectly flat and infinitely wide at this stage
the RT simulator.
of the investigation, so that spatial wave propagation consists of multiple reflections occurring in the
Parameter
vertical plane (xz in Figure 3). The electromagnetic propertiesValue of the materials are taken into account
Δh (n coefficients
through their refraction indexes thin: 6 μm; inmedium:
Figure 3),10 μm; thick:
whose 14 μm
reference values in the optical range
Δh up 2 μm
are listed in Table 1 together with the thickness considered for the different layers. Real values are
assumed for the refractionΔh down
indexes 625 μm
(i.e., the lossy materials have not been considered so far).
n0 1.44 (SiO2)
ntop 1. Major input parameters
Table 1.5 (plastic)
for the RT simulator.
nup 1 (Air) or 2 (passivation)
Parameter
ndown 3.47 (Si, perfectValue
metal otherwise)
n∆h
bottom thin:(plastic,
1.5 6 µm; medium: 10 µm; otherwise)
perfect metal thick: 14 µm
∆hup 2 µm
∆hdown 625 µm
Although the proposedn layouts are rather simplified compared to a real IC structure, they are
1.44 (SiO2 )
0
nonetheless expected to nfittopthe need of providing1.5 a (plastic)
reliable insight into the main properties of
on-chip propagation, which
nupin the end is the primary
1 (Air) orgoal of this study.
2 (passivation)
ndown 3.47 (Si, perfect metal otherwise)
nbottom
4. Ray Tracing Propagation Modeling in1.5 (plastic, perfect metal otherwise)
OWiNoC
Channel modeling for OWiNoC can effectively rely on RT simulators, whose accuracy is known
Although the proposed layouts are rather simplified compared to a real IC structure, they are
to improve at large frequency as a general trend.
nonetheless expected to fit the need of providing a reliable insight into the main properties of on-chip
Furthermore, the description of the multi-core IC as a multi-layered structure with perfectly
propagation, which in the end is the primary goal of this study.
smooth, infinitely wide interfaces makes the ray tracing tasks easier, since the rays always lie in the
4. Ray Tracing Propagation Modeling in OWiNoC
Channel modeling for OWiNoC can effectively rely on RT simulators, whose accuracy is known
to improve at large frequency as a general trend.
Furthermore, the description of the multi-core IC as a multi-layered structure with perfectly
smooth, infinitely wide interfaces makes the ray tracing tasks easier, since the rays always lie in the
same plane and the field computation turns out to be simpler compared to a non-layered structure,
as explained in the following sub-sections for the unpacked and packed cases, respectively.
 J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

same plane and the field computation turns out to be simpler compared to a non-layered structure,
J.as
Low Power Electron.
explained Appl.
in the 2018, 8, 39
sub-sections for the unpacked and packed cases, respectively. 6 of 16
following

4.1. Unpacked Case

4.1. Unpacked Case
Wave propagation consists of multiple reflections occurring within the SiO2 slab, as sketched in
Wave propagation consists of multiple reflections occurring within the SiO2 slab, as sketched in
Figure 4. Therefore, the electromagnetic field radiated to the RX after m bounces (m = 2 reflections
Figure 4. Therefore, the electromagnetic field radiated to the RX after m bounces (m = 2 reflections are
are for instance shown in Figure 4a) can be expressed as:
for instance shown in Figure 4a) can be expressed as:
  e − jβrm
E m = →E0m ⋅e−jβrm
→ ⋅Π , m≥0 (2)
· Πmm, m ≥ 0
rrmm
E m = E 0m · (2)

beingββ==2π/λ
being 2π/λ the
the wave
wavenumber,
number,rrmm the
the overall
overalllength
lengthof ofthe
theray,
ray,ΠΠmmthe
theproduct
productofofthe
themmreflection
reflection
coefficients,and
coefficients, andEE0m thethe TX
TX antenna
antenna “emitted
“emitted field”
field” in
inthe
thedirection
directionofofdeparture
departureofofthe
theray.
ray.ItItisis
0m
worth noting that Π 0 = 1, since the direct ray undergoes no reflections. Moreover, the same reflection
worth noting that Π0 = 1, since the direct ray undergoes no reflections. Moreover, the same reflection
ordermm> >0 0isisalways
order always shared
shared byby a couple
a couple of rays
of rays (as sketched
(as sketched in Figure
in Figure 4a),former
4a), the the former having
having the
the first
first reflection on the upper interface (and referred to as “up” in the following), the
reflection on the upper interface (and referred to as “up” in the following), the latter on the lower one latter on the
lower
(and one (andbyidentified
identified the label by the label
“down” “down” herein).
herein).

(a) (b)
Figure4.4.RT
Figure RTpropagation
propagationinin layered representation
layered of of
representation an an
integrated circuit:
integrated examples
circuit: of optical
examples raysrays
of optical in
the unpacked
in the (a) and
unpacked in the
(a) and in packed (b) case.
the packed (b) case.

ItItisisworth
worthmentioning
mentioningthatthatthe
thepath
pathlength
lengthrmrmcan
canbe
beregarded
regardedasasthe
thedistance
distancebetween
betweenthe theRX
RX
and
and an “mth virtual transmitter” (VTX), which is the ”mirror” image of the TX (if m = 1) or of thethe
an “mth virtual transmitter” (VTX), which is the “mirror” image of the TX (if m = 1) or of (m
(m − 1)th
− 1)th VTX VTX (otherwise)
(otherwise) withwith respect
respect to the
to the reflecting
reflecting plane
plane (image
(image principle)
principle) [22].
[22]. ForFor instance,
instance, the
the
VTX VTX associated
associated with
with thethedouble
doublereflected
reflected“up-ray”
“up-ray”isis included
included in
in Figure
Figure 4a.
4a. According
According to tothe
the
considered
consideredreference
referencesystem,
system,the thefollowing
followingclosed-form
closed-formanalytical
analyticalexpressions
expressionscan
canbe
beeasily
easilyachieved
achieved
for
forthe
theVTXsVTXslocations
locationsininthe
theunpacked
unpackedcase:
case:


( )
(  
⋅ lower
: m: ·m h
m even − −hhigher
h lower h higher++zzTX
zVTX z=m,up = 
m,up m even TX (3)
(3)
VTX m odd : (m + 1) · h − (m − 1) · hlower−−z zTX
m odd : (m + 1) ⋅ hhigher
 higher − (m − 1) ⋅ h lower TX
 
( )
(
m even
m even : m :· mh⋅ higher − −hlower
hlower ++ zzTX
zm,down =
VTX zm,down  hhigher TX (4)
m= 
odd : ( m + 1 ) lower (m − 1) · hhigher − zTX
· h − (4)
VTX
( ) (
m odd : m + 1 ⋅ hlower − m − 1 ⋅ hhigher − zTX )
where zTX is the z-coordinate of the TX and hhigher and hlower are represented in Figures 3 and 4a.
where
ThezTX
evaluation of the Πm of
is the z-coordinate the TX
factor and hhigher(2)
in Equation and hlower are
requires therepresented
computationinofFigure 3 and reflection
the Fresnel Figure 4a.
The evaluation of the m factor of
Πtherefore in the
Equation 2,up/down
coefficients at the interfaces, and angles of(2) requiresof the
incidence computation
the rays (θinc ofinthe Fresnel
Figure 4a).
2,up/down
reflection coefficients at the interfaces, and therefore of the angles of incidence of the rays ( θinc
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 7 of 16

By means of simple geometrical considerations, the incidence angles can be related to the positions of
both the RX and the VTX as follows:
 
m,up/down xRX
θinc = arctg  
m,up/down 
(5)
zRX − zVTX 

As a general rule, the larger the link distance (e.g., the xRX value) and/or the lower the number of
undergone reflections, the “more grazing” the rays become, and therefore the greater the amount of
reflected power. Since the reflection phenomenon also depends on the material properties (refraction
index), the computation of Πm entails the assessment of the reflection coefficients at both the interfaces,
which must be then properly multiplied taking into account the exact number of reflections occurring
at the upper and at the lower boundaries. By definition, reflection coefficients always have an
amplitude ≤1, meaning that depending on the materials and the incidence condition the power
impinging on the upper and on the lower boundaries may be either constrained in the silica layer
(total reflection) or leaked in the non-confined regions.
Finally, the emitted field is computed as:
v  
u
u η · PTX · g m,up/down
→up/down TX θd
 
m,up/down
· e−jβ
t
E 0m = · p̂TX θd (6)
2πn0
 
m,up/down m,up/down
where η = 120π, gTX (θd ) and p̂TX θd are the transmitting antenna gain and
polarization vector in the directions of departure of the up/down rays, respectively (as outlined
in Figure 4a). The following formulas can be exploited for the computation of Equation (6):
m,up m,up
θd = θinc , θm,down
d = π − θm,down
inc (7)

Both the antenna gain pattern and the polarization vector in the propagation plane must be
provided as input files to the RT engine; they may be indifferently achieved from numerical simulation
of specific antenna layouts, or from simpler, ready-to-use analytical model representative of wider
classes of antennas (e.g., isotropic, omnidirectional, directive, etc.).
Since the Fresnel reflection coefficients are available only for the transverse electric (TE) and
magnetic (TM) polarizations (corresponding respectively to the φ̂ and θ̂ directions in the considered
reference system), the polarization vector and therefore the emitted field must be decomposed into
its TE and TM components, and the corresponding field components should be then independently
evaluated according to Equation (2).
Once the rays have been tracked and the fields impinging on the RX have been computed,
the overall received power can be achieved as [22]:

→down 2
r 
  →  Mrefl r  up  r
m,up →
           
λ2 m,up
PRX = ·  gRX θ0a · p̂RX θ0a · E 0 + ∑ gRX θa · p̂RX θa E m + gRX θm,down · p̂ θ m,down
E (8)
 
8πη a RX a m 
 m=1 

→ m,up/down
being θa 0 the direction of arrival at the RX of the direct field E 0 , θa the angle of arrival at the
RX of the up/down rays after n reflections, Mrefl the maximum number of allowed bounces, gRX and
p̂RX are the antenna gain and the polarization vector of the receiving antenna. The angle of arrival can
be computed as: ( m,up/down
m,up/down θd (m even)
θa = m,up/down (9)
π − θd (m odd)
Since Equations (2)–(10) represent a set of rather simple, closed-form expressions, rays tracking
turns out to be quite fast, with computation time of few minutes for simulations accounting for a
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 8 of 16

number of reflections up to some hundreds. Commercial RT tools would hardly be as much effective,
because they are not specifically conceived for multi-layer scenarios, and therefore they have to
rely on more general but also computationally heavier ray tracing algorithms. Besides, full wave
models (e.g., Finite-Difference Time-Domain methods (FDTD)) are not even worthy of consideration,
since they simply cannot handle far-field analysis in inhomogeneous media. Finally, the resort to
modal representation of the field seems also not appropriate, because in spite of the layered structures
here considered, propagation is however wireless and therefore not necessarily confined in one guiding
layer, as shown and discussed in Section 5.

4.2. Packed Case

If the materials bounding the silica slab also have finite thickness, additional rays rise within
the layered structure, which can still undergo multiple reflections inside a layer but also propagate
among the different layers exploiting transmission at the interfaces (Figure 4b). Tracking such a huge
multitude of rays would heavily increase the computational burden of the model, also because it
would not simply consist of the closed-form, analytical formulas which hold in the Unpacked case.
In order to trade off prediction accuracy against computational effort, propagation above
and below the SiO2 layer in the packed case is here heuristically modeled by means of the “total
layer reflection coefficient” proposed in Reference [23]. As a ray sprung from the TX impinges
on the upper/lower interface, it is partly reflected and partly transmitted beyond the boundary,
where it triggers a multiple bounce mechanism. Each time the bouncing ray hits back the silica
slab, transmission takes place, spilling some field into the SiO2 layer. All these contributions add
up coherently in such a way that the total field resulting from the multiple bounce phenomenon can
be expressed through the following “enhanced” reflection coefficient to be applied directly to the
impinging ray (see Reference [23] for details):

Γen = Γ + T · T0 · ∑ i∞=1 (Ξi · ∆i · Λi · Σi ) (10)

where the involved coefficients have the following meaning:

• Γ is the standard Fresnel reflection coefficient at the interface;

• T and T0 are the outward and the inward transmission coefficients at the silica slab boundaries;
• Ξi is the product of the reflection coefficients related to the rays bouncing in the upper/lower layer;
• ∆i accounts for the phase shifts and propagation delays associated with the bouncing effect;
• Λi and Σi take into account the attenuation experienced by the rays bouncing inside the
layers, respectively associated with the possible material losses (actually not considered here,
where lossless materials are supposed) and with the spatial spreading of the wavefronts. It is worth
mentioning that Σi is actually not included in the original formula provided in Reference [23],
and it has been here introduced to cope with the lack of respect for the plane wave and layer
thinness conditions assumed in Reference [23].

In the end, propagation in the packed case can be modeled as for the unpacked case, provided
that the Fresnel reflection coefficients are replaced by the enhanced formulation.

5. Simulation Results and Discussion

This section includes the outcomes of the RT model described in the previous section applied to
the layered representations of the multi-core IC structure outlined in Section 3.

5.1. RT Input Data

In order to start the RT engine, the geometrical and electromagnetic description of both the
propagation scenario (Table 1) and the TX/RX antenna characteristics must be provided as input data.
The simulation frequency is 193.5 THz, corresponding to a wavelength of 1.55 µm (in vacuum) and
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 9 of 16
threshold of the incoming signal. The maximum reflection order is set to 300 reflections, both on
upper and lower layers.
therefore
As farincluded
as theinantennas
the conventional
radiationC-band for optical
properties telecommunications.
are concerned, either an The emitted
isotropic or power
a simpleby
the TX is 0 dBm and the RX sensitivity has been set to − 25 dBm, as reasonable
directive pattern has been supposed. The directive case consists of a simple single-lobe pattern detection threshold
of the incoming
always steered in signal.
the x The maximum
direction (Figure reflection order is set
4). In particular, thetoradiation
300 reflections,
intensityboth on upper and
is proportional to
lower layers.
cos (αx), being αx < 90 deg. the angle between the direction of departure of the generic optical ray
k

As farout
springing as the
fromantennas
the Tx radiation
antenna and properties are concerned,
the x axis. The antenna either
gainanGisotropic or a simple
can be easily tuneddirective
through
pattern has been supposed. The directive case consists of a simple single-lobe
the k coefficient, according to the formula G = 2∙(k + 1). Since the rays always belong to the vertical pattern always
steered in the x direction (Figure 4). In particular, the radiation intensity is proportional to cos k (α ),
plane, the RT simulator must be actually fed by a discrete representation of the radiation diagram xin
being x < 90 as
the xzαplane, deg. the angle
sketched between
in Figure thedifferent
5 for directionG ofvalues.
departure
Theofpolarization
the generic optical raythe
vector in springing
same planeout
from
mustthe Tx antenna
be also provided, andinthe x axis.
order The antenna
to account gain
for the G can be easily
polarimetric tuned of
properties through the k coefficient,
the antenna. The same
according to the formula G = 2 · (k + 1). Since the rays always
antennas with TE polarization are assumed at the link ends for the sake of simplicity,belong to the vertical plane,pointing
the RT
simulator
toward each must be actually
other’s (Figurefed 4). by a discrete representation of the radiation diagram in the xz plane,
as sketched
Although analytical descriptionGofvalues.
in Figure 5 for different The polarization
the antennas vector inflexibility,
provides extreme the same plane
since as must
manybe
also provided, in order to account for the polarimetric properties of the antenna.
radiation patterns as necessary can be easily achieved with negligible computation effort, any other The same antennas
with TE polarization
radiation pattern—e.g., are assumed
based onat the link ends
numerical for the sake
simulation of ofspecific
simplicity, pointing
antenna toward each
layout—can be
other’s (Figure 4).
investigated, provided that the required information is encoded in the correct format.

Figure 5. Examples of antenna radiation patterns resulting for different gain values.
Figure 5. Examples of antenna radiation patterns resulting for different gain values.
Although analytical description of the antennas provides extreme flexibility, since as many
In order
radiation to distinguish
patterns thecan
as necessary different possible
be easily cases,
achieved each
with simulation
negligible is labeledeffort,
computation by means of an
any other
acronym encoded as follows:
radiation pattern—e.g., based on numerical simulation of specific antenna layout—can be investigated,
provided
• that the
Unpacked required
cases: information is encoded
U_Δstring_XY_GdB in the correct
, where Δstring format.
sets the width of the silica layer (possible
In order“thin”,
values: to distinguish
“medium”,the “thick”,
differentsee
possible cases,
Table 1), each
X and simulation
Y are is labeled
characters by means
identifying the topofand
an
acronym encoded as follows:
the down media (X = “A”—Air—or “P”—Passivation -, and Y = “S”—Silicon—or “M”—Metal)
• and GdB iscases:
Unpacked the antennas gain value. where
U_∆string_XY_GdB, For instance,
∆string the
setssimulation
the width ofcarried out layer
the silica with (possible
isotropic
radiators
values: within
“thin”, a 10 μm SiO
“medium”, 2 slab bounded by air and silicon at the upper and lower interfaces
“thick”, see Table 1), X and Y are characters identifying the top and the
is referred to as “U_medium_AS_0”;
down media (X = “A”—Air—or “P”—Passivation, and Y = “S”—Silicon—or “M”—Metal) and
• Packed
GdB cases:
is the P_Δstring_XYZ_GdB
antennas gain value. For, instance,
where Δstring, X, Y and carried
the simulation GdB keep
outtheir
withmeaning
isotropicand Z is a
radiators
furthera character
within 10 µm SiOsetting the material for the bottom layer (possible values: “P”—Plastic—or
2 slab bounded by air and silicon at the upper and lower interfaces is referred
“M”—metal). Therefore,
to as “U_medium_AS_0”; adding a plastic package to the previous example would correspond to
the label “P_medium_ASP_0”.
• Packed cases: P_∆string_XYZ_GdB, where ∆string, X, Y and GdB keep their meaning and Z is
a further character setting the material for the bottom layer (possible values: “P”—Plastic—or
“M”—metal). Therefore, adding a plastic package to the previous example would correspond to
the label “P_medium_ASP_0”.
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 10 of 16
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

5.2.
5.2. RT
RTSimulation
SimulationResults
Results
Several RT
Several RT simulations
simulationshave havebeen
been runrunaiming
aimingat the computation
at the computation of theoflink
thePath
linkGain
Path(PG)
Gainunder
(PG)
different simulation conditions. Path gain is defined as the ratio between
under different simulation conditions. Path gain is defined as the ratio between the power captured the power captured by the
receiving
by antenna
the receiving and the
antenna andpower radiated
the power by thebytransmitting
radiated the transmittingone [22]. It therefore
one [22]. represents
It therefore the
represents
reciprocal (the opposite, in dB unit) of the propagation losses, i.e., of the attenuation
the reciprocal (the opposite, in dB unit) of the propagation losses, i.e., of the attenuation experienced experienced by
the optical wireless signal as it propagates from the transmitting to the receiving
by the optical wireless signal as it propagates from the transmitting to the receiving antenna. Other antenna. Other losses
may further
losses impairimpair
may further the communication
the communication (e.g., coupling losseslosses
(e.g., coupling occurring withinwithin
occurring the circuits), but they
the circuits), but
are not considered in this study.
they are not considered in this study.
PGisisplotted
PG plottedversus
versusthe thelink
linkdistance
distance (µm)
(μm) inin Figure
Figure 6, 6,
forfor different
different materials
materials combinations
combinations in
in the
the unpacked
unpacked case case and assuming
and assuming isotropic
isotropic radiators.
radiators. The TX The andTXtheandRX the RX
are are placed
placed in thein the middle
middle of the
of the SiO 2
SiO2 slab with slab with medium thickness. The free space power is also
medium thickness. The free space power is also drawn (black straight line), drawn (black straight line),as
as reference. Two “breakpoints” can be highlighted as a general trend, the
reference. Two “breakpoints” can be highlighted as a general trend, the former corresponding to the former corresponding to
the distance
distance wherewhere
the the
PG PG rises
rises upup from
from thethe free-spaceline
free-space line(rise
(risepoint—P
point—Prr),),thethe latter
latter representing
representing the the
farther distance where the PG drops below the free space curve (fall point—Pff). Three zones
farther distance where the PG drops below the free space curve (fall point—P ). Three zones can
can bebe
identified accordingly:
identified accordingly:
•• Free
FreeSpace
SpaceZone:
Zone:before
beforePPrr TX TX and
and RX
RX are
are quite
quite close
close each
each other
other and
and propagation
propagation is is dominated
dominatedby by
the
the direct path, since the reflected rays are much longer (in relative terms) and undergoalmost
direct path, since the reflected rays are much longer (in relative terms) and undergo almost
normal
normalincidence
incidenceatatthe the interfaces,
interfaces,which
whichcorresponds
corresponds to the greatest
to the reflection
greatest loss. loss.
reflection Although this
Although
zone is quite limited to the near field region in the isotropic case, where
this zone is quite limited to the near field region in the isotropic case, where RT accuracy is RT accuracy is likely
to be poor,
likely to beit nevertheless extends into
poor, it nevertheless the far-field
extends into theregion for region
far-field increasing for antenna
increasing directivity
antenna
(as explained
directivity (asinexplained
the followingin theFigure 6); Figure 6);
following
•• Premium
PremiumZone: Zone:a anoticeable
noticeable power
power gain occurs
gain between
occurs between Pr and Pf compared
Pr and Pf compared to thetofree
thespace case,
free space
likely
case, due
likely to due
a sorttoofaguiding
sort of effect,
guidingwhich setswhich
effect, up within
sets the
up silica
within layer.
the Multipath
silica layer.composition
Multipath
iscomposition
constructiveison average, and
constructive on first triggers
average, andoscillations
first triggers of oscillations
the PG, finding of thethen
PG,a finding
regular then
slopea
with no fades
regular slopein most
with nooffades
the cases represented
in most in Figure
of the cases 6. The in
represented spatial
Figure average
6. Theofspatial
the PGaverage
decay inof
this
the zone
PG decay as 1/dinαthis
, α <zone
2. as 1/dα, α < 2.
•• FallZone:
Fall Zone: beyond
beyond PPff thethe coherent
coherent composition
composition of of the
the reflected
reflected paths
paths turns
turns out
out to
tohave
haveintensity
intensity
similar to
similar to the
thedirect
directcontribution,
contribution,but butopposite
oppositephase.
phase. Therefore,
Therefore, the the overall
overall received
received power
power
collapses down at a rate worse than free space, as it happens in the
collapses down at a rate worse than free space, as it happens in the well-known 2-rays model well-known 2-rays model
often referred
often referred to to inin mobile
mobile wireless
wireless communication
communication when when the the ground
ground presence
presence isis taken
taken into
into
account[22].
account [22].

Figure6.6.Path
Figure Pathgain
gainvs.vs. TX-RX
TX-RX distance
distance in the
in the unpacked
unpacked casecase
withwith medium
medium thickness
thickness of theof the layer,
silica silica
layer, different
different substrate
substrate and superstrate,
and superstrate, and assuming
and assuming isotropic
isotropic radiators.
radiators.
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 11 of 16
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

As clearly shown in Figure 6, this general analysis does not fully explain the U_medium_AM_0
case, where
where thethe super-
super- and
andthe thesubstrate
substrateare aremade
madeofofair airand
andmetal,
metal, respectively.
respectively. SinceSincenupn<upn0<, the
n0 ,
reflected
the raysrays
reflected areare
totally
totallyreflected
reflected at at
the
theSiOSiO2-Air
2 -Air interface
interfaceasassoon
soonasasthe
theincidence
incidence angles
angles exceeds
the “critical angle” [22], as well as total reflection occurs at the SiO SiO22-Metal interface regardless of the
condition.The
incidence condition. Thepropagating
propagating power
power is therefore
is therefore constrained
constrained insideinside
the SiOthe2 slab, 2 slab,
SiOthe guidingthe
guiding
effect effect
never never
stops oncestops once
it sets upitand
setstheuppremium
and the premium zone infinitely
zone infinitely extendsPbeyond
extends beyond r. Pr.
The actual breakpoint distances are affected by several factors, like the gain (G) of of the
the antennas,
antennas,
TX/RX within
the position of the TX/RX within the SiO22 layer
the SiO layer and
and its its thickness.
thickness. TheThe dependence
dependence on the gain values
sketchedininFigure
is sketched Figure 7. particular,
7. In In particular, f is basically
Pf is Pbasically unaffected
unaffected up to Gup to dB,
= 25 G =then
25 itdB, then
starts it starts
decreasing
decreasing
with a slopewith a slope increasingly
increasingly steep. Conversely,
steep. Conversely, Pr rises up P r rises
for up for increasing
increasing gain values, gain
quite values,
slowlyquiteup
slowly
to aboutup 20todB,
about
and20 dB,much
then and then
moremuch quickly more quickly
beyond 30 beyond 30 dB. Therefore,
dB. Therefore, the premium thezonepremium
shrinkszoneas
shrinks
the as thebecome
antennas antennas become
more more directive,
directive, to the extent to thethatextent that it completely
it completely vanishes vanishes
as soon as asGsoon as G
exceeds
exceeds
the valuethe value corresponding
corresponding to Pr = Pfto = Pfcase,
. InPrthis . In this
the case, the Free
Free Space Space
zone zoneflows
directly directly
intoflows into
the Fall the
zone,
Fall zone,
and and propagation
propagation conditionsconditions are never
are never better thanbetter
thosethan those experienced
experienced in free space.
in free space.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. P
Prr and
and PPff distances vs. TX/RX
distances vs. TX/RX antenna
antenna gain.
gain. Unpacked
Unpacked case
case with
with medium
medium thickness
thickness of the
of the
silica slab and silicon underneath.
silica slab and silicon underneath.

This behavior may be explained by the impact of the antennas radiation pattern on the intensity
of the multipath contributions. As a matter of fact, increasing the directivity boosts the amplitude of
the direct path, to the detriment of the reflected ones. Therefore, the widening of the free-space zone
(corresponding to the larger Prr value) for increasing gain is not surprising, since it exactly represents
distance range
the distance rangewhere
wherepropagation
propagationisisprimarily
primarilyruled
ruled bybythethe direct
direct ray.ray. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the larger
larger the
the directivity,
directivity, the poorer
the poorer the powerthe power gain attained
gain attained over the over the free
free space space case,
reference reference
becausecase, because
weakening
weakening
the intensitythe intensity
of the of the
reflected raysreflected
impairs theraysmultipath
impairs the multipathinterference
constructive constructivetheinterference
guiding effect the
guiding
relies on.effect reliestoon.
This leads theThis leads to reduction
progressive the progressive
of Pf atreduction of Pf at
large G values. Inlarge G values.
summary, In summary,
the more directive
more directive
the antennas, the antennas,
the stronger the signalthe stronger
intensitythe signal intensity
conveyed at the RXconveyed at the
by the direct RXthus
ray, by the direct
dumping
ray, thus dumping
multipath fading, butmultipath
the lower fading,
the furtherbut received
the lower the further
power adding up received power adding
in the premium up in the
zone because of
premium zone because of the guiding effect. Therefore, the optimal gain value
the guiding effect. Therefore, the optimal gain value should trade off the two aspects against each other. should trade off the
two aspects
Figure 8against
shows each other.
the sensitivity of the breakpoints to both the antennas placement within the silica
layerFigure
and its8thickness.
shows theItsensitivity
is clear that of the
the thickness
breakpoints to both athe
represents antennas
crucial placement
element, since Pwithin the
f increases
silica about
from layer 1mm
and its to thickness.
nearly 20mm It ismoving
clear that
fromthe
thethickness
thin to the represents
thick case.a A crucial
similarelement, sincefor
trend holds Pf
increases
P from
r , although toabout 1mm
a lesser to nearly
extent. 20mm moving
In contrast, oppositefrom theare
effects thintriggered
to the thick case. A similar
by shifting trend
the antennas
holds for
within r, although
thePslab, with Pr to a lesser
clearly extent. and
increasing In contrast,
instead P opposite
f slightlyeffects
decreasingare triggered by shifting
as the TX/RX approachthe
antennas
the upward/downward with Pr clearly
within the slab,boundaries. increasing
Therefore, theand instead
thicker Pf slightly
the silica layer,decreasing
the wider the as the TX/RX
premium
approach
zone, the upward/downward
whereas the closer the antennas boundaries. Therefore,
to the interfaces, the the thicker
shorter the silica layer, the wider the
it becomes.
premium zone, whereas the closer the antennas to the interfaces, the shorter it becomes.
Although the results in Figure 8 refer to the unpacked case with passivation material and silicon
respectively filling the super- and the substrate, the highlighted trends still hold in the other cases.
 The package impact on the wireless channel characteristics is investigated in Figure 9, where
the PG is plotted against the link distance with (continuous lines) and without (dotted lines)
package. It can be first noted that the general trends previously highlighted in the unpacked case still
hold when the package is also taken into account, since the two breakpoints and the corresponding
three zones can be again identified after all. Moreover, larger Pf values are still detected when the
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 12 of 16
superstrate is made of air, likely because the total reflection effect occurs at the SiO2-Air interface
regardless of the upper layers.
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

The package impact on the wireless channel characteristics is investigated in Figure 9, where
the PG is plotted against the link distance with (continuous lines) and without (dotted lines)
package. It can be first noted that the general trends previously highlighted in the unpacked case still
hold when the package is also taken into account, since the two breakpoints and the corresponding
three zones can be again identified after all. Moreover, larger Pf values are still detected when the
superstrate is made of air, likely because the total reflection effect occurs at the SiO2-Air interface
regardless of the upper layers.

(a) ( b)
Figure8. 8. Sensitivity
Figure Sensitivity of the
the rise
rise(a)
(a)and
andthethe
fallfall
(b) (b) points
points to silica
to the the silica slab thickness
slab thickness and theand the
antenna
antenna placement.
placement. Isotropic,
Isotropic, unpacked unpacked
case withcase with passivation
passivation and siliconand silicon
filling filling and
the super- the the
super- and
substrate,
therespectively.
substrate, respectively.

Although the results in Figure 8 refer to the unpacked case with passivation material and silicon
respectively filling the super- and the substrate, the highlighted trends still hold in the other cases.
The package impact on the wireless channel characteristics is investigated in Figure 9, where the
PG is plotted against the link distance with (continuous lines) and without (dotted lines) package.
It can be first noted that the
(a) general trends previously highlighted in the unpacked ( b) case still hold when
the package is also taken into account, since the two breakpoints and the corresponding three zones
can beFigure
again8.identified
Sensitivity of the rise (a) and the fall (b) points to the silica slab thickness and the antenna
after all. Moreover, larger Pf values are still detected when the superstrate is
placement. Isotropic, unpacked case with passivation and silicon filling the super- and the substrate,
made of air, likely because the total reflection effect occurs at the SiO2 -Air interface regardless of the
respectively.
upper layers.
(a) ( b)
Figure 9. Comparison between unpacked and packed arrangements, for medium thickness of the
silica layer and isotropic radiators. The superstrate is filled with air (a) or with a passivation material
(b).

The introduction of the package is fundamentally transparent as far as propagation issues are
concerned if the unpacked die behaves as a full guiding structure (U_medium_AM_0 basically
coincident with P_medium_AMM_0 in Figure 9a). In the other cases, a plastic package seems to
affect the total PG to a lesser extent than it does when (partly) made of metal, because the presence of
metal underneath the(asilicon ) bulk can enable total reflection mechanisms (b) which are not triggered
otherwise. Similarly, the presence of a plastic layer on the top of the layered stack more significantly
Figure9.9.Comparison
Figure Comparisonbetween
between unpacked
unpacked andand packed
packed arrangements,
arrangements, for medium
for medium thickness
thickness of the of the
silica
affects the RT outcomes when the layer underneath is filled with the passivation material, since it
silicaand
layer layer and isotropic
isotropic radiators.
radiators. The superstrate
The superstrate is fillediswith
filledair
with
(a) air (a) ora with
or with a passivation
passivation material
material (b).
restores
(b).
the conditions for total reflection at the plastic-passivation interface, which are not fulfilled
at the SiO 2-passivation
The introduction of boundary.
the package is fundamentally transparent as far as propagation issues are
TheInintroduction
concerned summary,
if the
the unpacked
of thepackage
die seems
behaves
package asmore
a fullimportant
is fundamentally guiding every time
structure
transparent farits presence enforces
as(U_medium_AM_0
as propagation total
basically
issues are
reflection
coincident
concerned with phenomena not
if theP_medium_AMM_0 occurring
unpacked die behaves at the
in Figureinner interfaces.
9a). guiding
as a full In the other cases,(U_medium_AM_0
structure a plastic package seems to
basically
affect Thetotal
the
coincident maximum
with to acommunication
PGP_medium_AMM_0
lesser extent than range
in it does
Figure ) is evaluated
(dmaxwhen
9a). In(partly)
the otherin Figure
made a10plastic
of metal,
cases, forbecause
different antenna
the
package seemsgain
presence to
ofand
metalpacked layouts.
underneath In
the this study,
silicon bulk d
can simply
maxenable corresponds
total reflection to the link
mechanisms distance
affect the total PG to a lesser extent than it does when (partly) made of metal, because the presence of which where
are not the received
triggered
power
otherwise.
metal equals thethe
Similarly,
underneath RX sensitivity
thesilicon bulkof(here
presence set tolayer
a plastic
can enable −25 dBm,
totalon the Table 1)
theafter
top ofmechanisms
reflection the signal
layered stack
whichmorefluctuations due to
significantly
are not triggered
multipath
affects the RT
otherwise. fading
Similarly,have
outcomes been spatially
thewhen the of
presence layer averaged.layerCompared
underneath
a plastic onisthe
filled to the
topwith
of thethe reference
passivation
layered freemore
stack spacesignificantly
material,case, where
since it
restores the RT
affects the conditions
outcomesforwhen
total reflection
the layerat the plastic-passivation
underneath is filled withinterface, which are
the passivation not fulfilled
material, sinceatit
the SiO2 -passivation
restores boundary.
the conditions for total reflection at the plastic-passivation interface, which are not fulfilled
InSiO
at the summary, the package
2-passivation seems more important every time its presence enforces total reflection
boundary.
phenomena not occurring
In summary, at the inner
the package interfaces.
seems more important every time its presence enforces total
reflection phenomena not occurring at the inner interfaces.
The maximum communication range (dmax) is evaluated in Figure 10 for different antenna gain
and packed layouts. In this study, dmax simply corresponds to the link distance where the received
power equals the RX sensitivity (here set to −25 dBm, Table 1) after the signal fluctuations due to
multipath fading have been spatially averaged. Compared to the reference free space case, where
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 13 of 16

The maximum communication range (dmax ) is evaluated in Figure 10 for different antenna gain
and packed layouts. In this study, dmax simply corresponds to the link distance where the received
power equals the RX sensitivity (here set to −25 dBm, Table 1) after the signal fluctuations due to
multipath
J. Low Powerfading have
Electron. Appl.been
2018, spatially
8, x FOR PEERaveraged.
REVIEWCompared to the reference free space case, where d 13max
of 16
linearly increases with G, the layered structures behave rather differently. If the gain is too low,
a dlarge amount
max linearly of power
increases is G,
with lostthe
because
layeredofstructures
the largebehave
refraction losses
rather undergone
differently. If thebygain
theisrays
too far
low,
from total
a large reflection
amount conditions
of power is lost in most cases.
because Increasing
of the large the antenna
refraction gain is therefore
losses undergone by the rays beneficial
far from
and thereflection
total curve rises up to a peak,
conditions in most clearly
cases.visible in Figure
Increasing 10a. Thereafter
the antenna the trendbeneficial
gain is therefore is reversed andandthe
dmax
curve starts
risesdecreasing
up to a peak, as G keepsvisible
clearly on increasing.
in Figure 10a.As already
Thereafterdiscussed,
the trendthe guiding and
is reversed effectdmax
taking
starts
place in the premium
decreasing as G keeps zoneonisincreasing.
impaired by Asexcessive
already directivity
discussed, levels. As theeffect
the guiding premiumtakingzone shrinks
place in the
back,
premiumthe communication
zone is impaired range by steadily
excessivedrops towards
directivity the free
levels. space
As the situation,
premium zonethat is attained
shrinks back, as the
soon as the premium
communication rangezone disappears
steadily (Pr = Pfthe
drops towards ). Then, propagation
free space situation,conditions are always
that is attained as soon worse
as the
than free-space
premium zoneasdisappears
far as the d value
r = P
(Pmax is concerned.
f). Then, propagation Therefore, very
conditions arelarge gainworse
always valuesthanare free-space
not only
useless,
as far as but
theeven
dmaxharmful, and the optimal
value is concerned. directivity
Therefore, corresponds
very large gain valuesto the
arepeak of the
not only link distance
useless, but even
curve.
harmful, Although
and thethe peak directivity
optimal position is corresponds
affected by the silica
to the peaklayer thickness
of the (Figure
link distance 10a)Although
curve. and by the the
peak position
different materialiscombinations
affected by the silica10b),
(Figure layerthethickness
outlined (Figure 10a) andholds
general analysis by the
fordifferent
the wholematerial
set of
combinations
considered (Figure 10b), the outlined general analysis holds for the whole set of considered cases.
cases.

(a) ( b)
Figure
Figure 10.10. Link
Link distance
distance vs. antenna
vs. antenna gain gain forpacked
for the the packed scenario
scenario and placed
and middle middleTX/RX.
placed (a)
TX/RX.
Plastic(a)
package, up-layer passivation,
Plastic package, different thickness
up-layer passivation, (b) comparison
different thickness between different
(b) comparison betweenpacked layouts,
different packed
medium
layouts,thickness.
medium thickness.

AsAslong asas
long the
theguiding
guidingmechanism
mechanismcan bebe
can relied on,on,
relied dmax
dmax= =1 1mm
mmcancanbebeachieved
achievedwith
withGGequal
equaltoto
about 20 dB, that is approximately 10 dB less than the free space requirement.
about 20 dB, that is approximately 10 dB less than the free space requirement.

5.3.
5.3.Preliminary
PreliminaryValidation
ValidationofofResults
Results
AsAsgeometrical
geometricaloptics
opticsisis anan asymptotic theory, reliable
asymptotic theory, reliable predictions
predictionsshould
shouldbe beexpected
expectedwhen when RT
RT is run at optical frequencies. Nevertheless, several factors might impair the RT
is run at optical frequencies. Nevertheless, several factors might impair the RT actual accuracy, e.g., actual accuracy,
e.g., related
related to surface
to surface propagation
propagation phenomena
phenomena and/or
and/or near-field
near-field coupling
coupling effects,
effects, which
which has has
not not
been
been
taken into account by the ray approach. Further numerical approximations may comefrom
taken into account by the ray approach. Further numerical approximations may come from
unavoidable
unavoidable interpolation
interpolationof theofantenna radiation diagram,
the antenna radiationas diagram,
the rays direction
as theof raysdeparture/arrival
direction of
dodeparture/arrival
not exactly coincide with
do not the samples
exactly coincidestored
with inthethe corresponding
samples stored ininput file.
the corresponding input file.
Because
Becauseofofthe
themany
manydifficulties
difficultiesinincarrying
carryingout outon-chip
on-chipwireless
wirelessmeasurements
measurementsininthe theoptical
optical
bands, experimental data to compare with the RT simulations are currently not
bands, experimental data to compare with the RT simulations are currently not available. Therefore, available. Therefore,
RTRTpredictions
predictions have
have been
been checked
checked against
against aa full-wave,
full-wave,FDTDFDTDsimulator
simulatorininthe
theunpacked
unpackedcase caseand
andfor
for
some different thickness of the layers. Since the full-wave simulation requires a specific
some different thickness of the layers. Since the full-wave simulation requires a specific antenna antenna layout,
results
layout, inresults
Figurein11Figure
compare the field distribution
11 compare generatedgenerated
the field distribution along thealong
axis ofthethe SiO
axis layer
of2 the by2 layer
SiO the
optical antenna described in Reference [8]. The distance range is limited to about
by the optical antenna described in Reference [8]. The distance range is limited to about 100 μm 100 µm to keep theto
computational burden affecting FDTD simulation under
keep the computational burden affecting FDTD simulation under control. control.
The overall mean error and error standard deviation amount to −0.7 dB and 2.2 dB, respectively.
Overall, the agreement is quite satisfactory, given that RT accuracy for path-loss modeling in
outdoor, cellular systems usually correspond to a prediction error standard deviation of several dBs
even in the best cases.
Anyway, further and deeper investigations are needed to fully assess the reliability of the
proposed RT approach for on-chip propagation modeling.
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 14 of 16
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16

(a) ( b)
Figure11.11.Comparison
Figure Comparison between
between RTRTandand FDTD
FDTD prediction
prediction of field
of the the field distribution
distribution alongalong the of
the axis axis
theof
the silica
silica layer.layer. Thickness
Thickness of theof the silica
silica layer layer
equalequal
to 3.5 to
µm3.5(a)μm
and(a)4 and 4 μm (b).
µm (b).

The overall mean error and error standard deviation amount to −0.7 dB and 2.2 dB, respectively.
6. Conclusions
Overall, the agreement is quite satisfactory, given that RT accuracy for path-loss modeling in outdoor,
Optical wireless networks on-chip can provide effective interconnection of cores in chip
cellular systems usually correspond to a prediction error standard deviation of several dBs even in the
multiprocessor in terms of latency, layout complexity, and antenna integration. Nevertheless,
best cases.
inter-core communications might be thwarted by propagation losses (particularly heavy in the
Anyway, further and deeper investigations are needed to fully assess the reliability of the proposed
optical range) and/or by possible multipath effects. Characterizing the wireless channel is therefore
RT approach for on-chip propagation modeling.
important to predict the actual reliability of the communications and/or to design technical solutions
6.toConclusions
increase the system robustness to propagation impairments. Investigations on the main properties
of on-chip wireless optical propagation have been carried out in this work through a ray tracing
Optical wireless networks on-chip can provide effective interconnection of cores in chip
approach applied to a layered representation of the chip structure, with the transmitter and the
multiprocessor in terms of latency, layout complexity, and antenna integration. Nevertheless, inter-core
receiver included in the same silica layer.
communications might be thwarted by propagation losses (particularly heavy in the optical range)
Results have highlighted the presence of three major spatial regions, namely free-space,
and/or by possible multipath effects. Characterizing the wireless channel is therefore important to
premium, and fall zone, with different path-loss characteristics. At short distance, multipath is
predict the actual reliability of the communications and/or to design technical solutions to increase
primarily ruled by the direct path, and the spatial average of the received power decays with
the system robustness to propagation impairments. Investigations on the main properties of on-chip
distance as in free space. Then, the reflected rays become stronger and interfere constructively, thus
wireless optical propagation have been carried out in this work through a ray tracing approach applied
triggering some kind of guiding effect, which results in a power gain with respect to free space.
to a layered representation of the chip structure, with the transmitter and the receiver included in the
Finally, multipath interference turns round, and the received power decreases with distance at a rate
same silica layer.
steeper than free space. The size of the premium zone depends on several factors, like the antenna
Results have highlighted the presence of three major spatial regions, namely free-space, premium,
directivity, and position, the thickness of the layers and the materials they are made of. As a general
and fall zone, with different path-loss characteristics. At short distance, multipath is primarily ruled
trend, it extends for thicker silica layer, whereas it shrinks as the antennas approach the layer
by the direct path, and the spatial average of the received power decays with distance as in free space.
boundaries or become more directive. As a consequence, the communication range peaks at the
Then, the reflected rays become stronger and interfere constructively, thus triggering some kind of
antenna gain value corresponding to the optimal trade-off between the power directly conveyed at
guiding effect,by
the receiver which resultspath
the direct in aand
power thegain with respect
additional to free carried
extra-power space. Finally, multipath
by the guided interference
reflected paths.
turns round,
The presence of a package around the die affects the propagation characteristics to The
and the received power decreases with distance at a rate steeper than free space. size
a limited
ofextent,
the premium zone depends on several factors, like the antenna directivity, and
and it seems more important every time its presence enforces total reflection phenomena not position, the thickness
ofoccurring
the layersotherwise.
and the materials they are made of. As a general trend, it extends for thicker silica layer,
whereas it shrinks as thehighlighting
Finally, it is worth antennas approach that the the layer boundaries
development or propagation
of reliable become moremodels
directive. As a
represents
consequence, the communication range peaks at the antenna gain value corresponding
a basic, valuable asset for the effective design of the whole network on chip, e.g., it may enable the to the optimal
trade-off
assessment between the power directly
of interference conveyed
issues always at theinreceiver
arising presence by of
themultiple
direct path and the
wireless additional
links. In fact,
extra-power carried by the guided reflected paths.
propagation awareness is ultimately necessary to estimate the signal-to-interference ratios, which
are The
alwayspresence
somehow of a related
package to around
the overall the performance
die affects the of propagation characteristics to
the wireless communication a limited
system.
extent, and it seems more important every time its presence enforces total reflection phenomena not
occurring otherwise. Conceptualization: F.F., M.B., and G.B.; Methodology: F.F., M.B., and G.B.; Software:
Author Contributions:
F.F.,Finally,
M.B., andit is worth highlighting
M.Z.; Validation: that
F.F., the and
M.B., development
M.Z.; Dataof Curation:
reliable propagation models
F.F., M.B., M.Z., G.B.,represents
and G.C.;
a Writing—Original
basic, valuable asset Draft for the effective
Preparation: design
F.F., M.B., andofM.Z.;
the whole network on
Writing—Review chip, e.g.,
& Editing: F.F., it mayM.Z.,
M.B., enable
G.B.,
G.C.,
the P.B., and V.P.;
assessment Supervision: issues
of interference F.F., P.B., and V.P.
always arising in presence of multiple wireless links. In fact,
propagation
Funding: This awareness
research was is ultimately
funded by the necessary to estimate
Italian Ministry the signal-to-interference
of Education, ratios,(MIUR)
University and Research whichinare
the
always somehow related to the overall performance of the wireless communication
framework of the PRIN 2015 “Wireless Networks through on-chip Optical Technology—WiNOT” Project system.
(20155EA8BC-PE7).

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 15 of 16

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: F.F., M.B., and G.B.; Methodology: F.F., M.B., and G.B.; Software: F.F.,
M.B., and M.Z.; Validation: F.F., M.B., and M.Z.; Data Curation: F.F., M.B., M.Z., G.B., and G.C.; Writing—Original
Draft Preparation: F.F., M.B., and M.Z.; Writing—Review & Editing: F.F., M.B., M.Z., G.B., G.C., P.B., and V.P.;
Supervision: F.F., P.B., and V.P.
Funding: This research was funded by the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) in
the framework of the PRIN 2015 “Wireless Networks through on-chip Optical Technology—WiNOT” Project
(20155EA8BC-PE7).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Abdal, S.; Iannazzo, M.; Nemirovsky, M.; Cabellos-Aparicio, A.; Lee, H.; Alarcon, E. On the Area and
Energy Scalability of Wireless Network-on-Chip: A Model-Based Benchmarked Design Space Exploration.
IEEE Trans. Netw. 2015, 23, 1501–1513. [CrossRef]
2. Karkar, A.; Mak, T.; Tong, K.-F.; Yakovlev, A. A Survey of Emerging Interconnects for On-Chip Efficient
Multicast and Broadcast in ManyCores. IEEE Circuits Syst. Mag. 2016, 16, 58–72. [CrossRef]
3. Deb, S.; Ganguly, A.; Ppande, P.P.; Belzer, B.; Heo, D. Wireless NoC as Interconnection Backbone for Multicore
Chips: Prmises and Challenges. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Circuits Syst. 2012, 2, 228–238. [CrossRef]
4. Werner, S.; Navaridas, J.; Lujan, M. A Survey on Optical Network-on-Chip Architectures. ACM Comput. Surv.
2017, 50, 89. [CrossRef]
5. Haurylau, M.; Chen, G.; Chen, H.; Zhang, J.; Nelson, N.A.; Albonesi, D.H.; Friedman, E.G.; Fauchet, P.M.
On-Chip Optical Interconnect Roadmap: Challenges and Critical Directions. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum
Electron. 2006, 12, 1699–17055. [CrossRef]
6. Matolak, D.W.; Kodi, A.; Kaya, S.; Di Tomaso, D.; Laha, S.; Rayess, W. Wireless Networks-on-Chips:
Architecture, Wireless Channel, and Devices. IEEE Wirel. Commun. 2012, 19, 58–65. [CrossRef]
7. Matolak, D.W.; Kaya, S. Channel Modeling for Wireless Networks-on-Chips. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2013, 51,
180–186. [CrossRef]
8. Bellanca, G.; Calò, G.; Kaplan, A.E.; Bassi, P.; Petruzzelli, V. Integrated Vivaldi plasmonic antenna for wireless
on-chip optical communications. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 16214–16227. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Zhang, Y.P.; Chen, Z.M.; Sui, M. Propagation Mechanisms of Radio Waves over Intra-Chip Channels With
Integrated Antennas: Frequency-Domain Measurements and Time Domain Analysis. IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag. 2007, 55, 2900–2906. [CrossRef]
10. Yan, L.; Hanson, G.W. Wave Propagation Mechanisms for Intra-Chip Communications. IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag. 2009, 57, 2715–2724. [CrossRef]
11. Nafari, M.; Feng, L.; Jornet, J.M. On-chip Wireless Optical Channel Modeling for Massive Multi-core
Computing Architectures. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking
Conference (WCNC), San Francisco, CA, USA, 19–22 March 2017.
12. Yang, Y.; Li, Q.; Qiu, M. Broadband nanophotonic wireless links and networks using on-chip integrated
plasmonic antennas. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 19490. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Garcia-Meca, C.; Lechago, S.; Brimont, A.; Griol, A.; Mas, S.; Sanchez, L.; Bellieres, L.; Losilla, N.S.; Martì, J.
On-chip wireless silicon photonics: From reconfigurable interconnects to lab-on-chip devices. Light Sci. Appl.
2017, 6, e17053. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Wu, Z. Electromagnetic Surface Waves. In Encyclopedia of RF and Microwave Engineering; Wiley and Sons:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2005; pp. 1270–1280.
15. Barlow, H.M.; Cullen, A.L. Surface Waves. Proc. IEEE Part III 1953, 100, 329–341. [CrossRef]
16. Collin, R.E. Surface Waveguides. In Field Theory of Guided Waves, 2nd ed.; Wiley-IEEE Press: New York, NY,
USA, 1990; pp. 697–748, ISBN 978-0879422370.
17. Rich, J.C. The launching of a plane surface wave. Proc. IEE Part B Radio Electron. Eng. 1955, 102, 237–246.
[CrossRef]
18. Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic, B. Digital Integrated Circuits: A Design Perspective, 2nd ed.; Pearson:
London, UK, 2002; pp. 41–69, ISBN 978-0130909961.
19. Deng, T.; Zhang, Y.P. On-Chip Antennas. In Handbook of Antenna Technologies; Springer: Singapore, 2016;
pp. 1565–1584, ISBN 978-981-4560-43-6.
J. Low Power Electron. Appl. 2018, 8, 39 16 of 16

20. Pan, S.; Capolino, F. Design of a CMOS On-Chip Slot Antenna with Extremely Flat Cavity at 140 GHz.
IEEE Antennas Wirel. Ppropag. Lett. 2011, 10, 827–830. [CrossRef]
21. Narde, R.S.; Mansoor, N.; Ganguly, A.; Venkataraman, J. On-Chip Antennas for Inter-Chip Wireless
Interconnections: Challenges and Opportunities. In Proceedings of the 12th IEEE European Conference on
Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP2018), London, UK, 9–13 April 2018.
22. Bertoni, H.L. Wireless Propagation for Modern Wireless Systems; Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA,
2000; pp. 86–106, ISBN 978-0130263735.
23. Burnside, W.; Burgener, K. High frequency scattering by a thin lossless dielectric slab. IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag. 1983, 31, 104–110. [CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).