FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (CIVL 3202)

SHEET PILE STRUCTURES (MODULE – III)

Introduction
A sheet pile wall is an earth and water retaining structure which is made up of a series of sheet piles driven to the
required depth in the ground. These walls are thinner in sections as compared to masonry walls. Connected or semi-
connected sheet piles are often used to build continuous walls for waterfront structures that range from small
waterfront pleasure boat launching facilities to large dock facilities (Fig. 1).

Fig.1 Example of water-front sheet pile wall

If the sheet pile wall does not have support above dredge level, then that sheet pile are called cantilever sheet pile
walls. It resists the lateral earth pressure and gains stability from the passive resistance of the soil below the dredge
level. The deflection pattern of such a wall is shown in Fig. 1(a) and is suitable for moderate heights of less than 6 m.
If the wall height is large, support against lateral pressure is provided by embedment in the ground (as in cantilever
sheet piling) as well as by the tie rods near the top of piling [Fig. 2(b and c)]. This type of earth retaining structure is
called an anchored bulkhead. Sheet piles may be of timber, reinforced concrete or steel. Sheet piles walls are generally
used for the following:
1. Water front structures
2. Building diversion dams such as cofferdams
3. River bank protection
4. Retaining the sides of cuts made in earth.
In gravity retaining walls which are rigid structures, failure is assumed to take place by rotation about the bottom of
the wall such that active / passive earth pressure conditions are generated. The weight of the gravity retaining wall is
an appreciable proportion of the sliding wedge. Classical earth pressure theories are used to compute earth pressure.
As compared to gravity retaining walls, sheet pile walls are supported differently. They are more flexible and
consequently do not yield in the same manner as the gravity retaining walls. Due to elastic deflection of the wall, an
anchored bulkhead will bulge or yield considerably more at a point between the level of anchor rod and the dredge
line than at other points [Figs.2(b and c)]. The large yield tends to reduce the magnitude of pressure on that portion of
the wall. The depth of penetration of sheet pile, elongation of tie rod and the yield of the anchors also influence the
pressure distribution.
Cantilever sheet pile walls depend for their stability on an adequate embedment into the soil below the dredge line.
Since the piles are fixed only at the bottom and are free at the top, they are called cantilever sheet piles. These piles are
economical for moderate wall height - about 6m or less measured above the dredge line. In such walls the sheet piles
act as a wide cantilever beam above the dredge line. The lateral deflection of this type of wall will be relatively large
because of the cantilever action. Erosion and scour in front of the wall i.e. lowering of dredge line should be controlled
since stability of the wall depends primarily on the developed passive resistance in front of the wall.
Anchored bulkheads are widely used for dock and harbour structures. Bulkheads consist of a single row of relatively
light sheet piles of which the lower ends are driven into the earth and the upper ends are anchored by tie or anchor
rods. The anchor rods are held in place by anchor (also called deadman) which are buried in the backfill at a
considerable distance from the bulkhead. The use of an anchor rod tends to reduce the lateral deflection, the bending
moment and the depth of penetration of pile.
 Anchor (deadman)

Sheet pile
Anchor rod
Deflected shape
Deflected shape
Dredge line Dredge line Dredge line
Sheet pile

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2 Sheet pile structures

Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls

When the height of earth to be retained by sheet piling is small, the piling acts as a cantilever. The forces acting on the
sheet pile wall are :
1. The active earth pressure on the back of the wall which tries to push the wall away from the backfill.
2. The passive pressure in front of the wall below the dredge line. The passive pressure resists the movements of
the wall.
General principle of design of cantilever sheet pile
The action of earth pressure against cantilever sheet piling can be best illustrated by a simple case shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 3 Earth pressure on cantilever sheet piling

In this case the sheet piling is assumed to be perfectly rigid. When a horizontal force P is applied at the top of the
piling, the upper portion of the piling tilts in the direction of P and the lower portion moves in the opposite direction as
shown by a dashed line in the Fig. 3. Thus the piling rotates about the stationary point O′. The portion above O′ is
subjected to a passive earth pressure from the soil on the left side of the pile and an active pressure on the right side of
the piling, whereas, the lower portion O′g is subjected to a passive earth pressure on the right side and an active
pressure on the left side of the piling. At point O′ the piling does not move and therefore is subjected to equal and
opposite earth pressures (at-rest from both sides) with a net earth pressure represented by abO′c equal to zero. For the
purpose of design, the curve bO′c is replaced by a straight line dc. Point d is located at such a location on the line af
that the sheet piling is in static equilibrium under the action of force P and the earth pressures represented by the areas
ade and ecg. The position of point d can be found by trial and error method.
Depth of Embedment of Cantilever Walls in Granular Soils
The active earth pressure on the back of the wall tries to move the wall away from the backfill. If the depth of
embedment is adequate the wall rotates about a point O′ situated above the bottom of the wall as shown in Fig. 4(a).
The types of pressure that act on the wall when rotation is likely to take place about O′ are:
1. Active earth force at the back of wall from the backfill surface upto the level of point of rotation, O′. This
force is designated as Pa1.
2. Passive earth force in front of the wall from the point of rotation, O′ upto the dredge line level. This force is
designated as Pp1.
3. Active earth force in front of the wall from the point of rotation, O′ upto the bottom of the wall. This force is
designated as Pa2.
4. Passive earth force at the back of wall from the point of rotation, O′ upto the bottom of the wall. This force is
designated as Pp2.

Fig. 4 Pressure distribution on a cantilever sheet pile retaining wall

If the passive and active earth pressures are algebraically combined, the resultant pressure distribution below the
dredge line are as shown in Fig. 4(b). In this figure:
D = Minimum depth of embedment with a FOS = 1
Ka = Rankine active earth pressure coefficient
Kp = Rankine passive earth pressure coefficient
K = Kp - Ka
pa = Net active earth pressure acting against the sheet pile at the dredge line level = gHKa

p p = Net passive earth pressure at the base of the pile wall acting towards the backfill= gDK - gHKa

p ¢p = Net passive earth pressure at the base of the pile wall acting against the backfill = gDK + gHKp
p ¢p¢ = Net passive earth pressure at the level of O = gy0K + gHKp
g = Effective unit weight of soil assuming same below and above the dredge level
y0 = Depth of point O below dredge line where the active and passive pressures are equal
y = Height of point of application of the total active force PA above point O.
h = Height of point G above the base of wall
D0 = Height of point O above the base of wall
Expression for y0
At the point O, the passive pressure acting towards the right should be equal to the active pressure acting towards the
left, i.e.
gy0 K p = g (H + y0 )K a or, gy0 (K p - K a ) = gHK a
gHK a p
Therefore, y0 = = a
g (K p - K a ) gK
(1)

Expression for h
For statical equilibrium, the sum of all forces in the horizontal direction shall be equal to zero, i.e.

p p (D - y0 ) + p p ( p p + p p¢ )h = 0
1 1
Pa -
2 2
Solving for h, we obtain
p p (D - y0 ) - 2 Pa
h= (2)
p p + p p¢
Taking moments of all the forces about the bottom of the pile, and equating to zero, we have,

Pa (D0 + y ) - p p ´ D0 ´ 0 + ( p p + p p¢ ) ´ h ´ = 0
1 D 1 h
2 3 2 3

6 Pa (D0 + p ) - p p D02 + ( p p + p p¢ ) h 2 = 0
1
(3)
2
We can write p p = gKD0 , p p¢ = p¢p¢ + gKD0

Substituting in Eq. (3) for p p , p ¢p and h and simplifying, we have,

D04 + C1 D03 + C2 D02 + C3 D0 + C4 = 0 (4)

p¢p¢ é 6P ù é 6 Pa yp¢p¢ + 4 Pa2 ù

C3 = - ê a 2 (2 ygK + p¢p¢ )ú ,
8 Pa
where, C1 = , C2 = - , C3 = - ê ú
gK gK ë (gK ) û êë (gK )2 úû
The minimum depth of embedment, D with a FOS = 1.0 is given by, D = D0 + y0. A minimum FOS of 1.5 to 2.0 may
be obtained by increasing the minimum depth of embedment D by 20% to 40%.
Cantilever sheet pile wall penetrating in sandy soil and backfill as sandy soil
Case I: Sheet pile wall in presence of water table
The basic principle for estimating net lateral pressure on cantilever sheet pile wall penetrating sandy soil is shown in
Fig. 5. Because the hydrostatic pressures at any depth from both sides of the wall will cancel each other, we consider
only the effective lateral pressures. The wall rotates about point O [Fig. 5(a)]. The net actual pressure distribution on
the wall is shown in Fig. 5(b). However, for design purpose, the simplified diagram [Fig. 5(c)] is used.
 Fig.5 Cantilever sheet pile penetrating sand

To develop the relationships for the depth of embedment of sheet piles driven in sandy soil Fig. 6 is used.

Fig. 6 Cantilever sheet pile penetrating sand (a) variation of net pressure diagram and (b) variation of moment
The soil retained by the sheet piling above dredge line is also sand. The WT is at a depth L1 below the top of the wall.
Let the effective angle of friction of the sand bef¢. The intensity of the active pressure at a depth z = L1 is
s 1¢ = gL1 K a (5)
æ f¢ ö
where, K a = tan 2 ç 45 - ÷
è 2ø
g = unit weight of soil above the water table
Similarly, the active pressure at a depth z = L1 + L2 (i.e. at the level of the dredge line) is
s 2¢ = (gL1 + g ¢L2 )K a (6)
g¢ = effective unit weight of soil = gsat - gw.
The active pressure at depth z is given by
s a¢ = [gL1 + g ¢L2 + g ¢( z - L1 - L2 )]K a (7)
The passive pressure at depth z is given by
s ¢p = g ¢( z - L1 - L2 )K p (8)
æ f¢ ö
where, K p = tan 2 ç 45 + ÷
è 2ø
Combining Eq. (7) and Eq. (8), we get the net lateral pressure given by
s ¢ = s a¢ - s ¢p = (gL1 + g ¢L2 )K a - g ¢( z - L1 - L2 )(K p - K a ) = s 2¢ - g ¢( z - L )(K p - K a ) (9)
where, L = L1 + L2
The net pressure, s ¢ = 0 at a depth L3 below the dredge line, so
s 2¢ - g ¢( z - L )(K p - K a ) = 0
s 2¢
or, ( z - L ) = L3 =
g ¢(K p - K a )
(10)

Eq. (10) indicates that the slope of the net pressure distribution line DEF is 1vertical : (Kp – Ka)g′ horizontal, so, in the
pressure diagram
(
HB = s 3¢ = L4 K p - K a g ¢ ) (11)
At the bottom of the sheet pile, passive pressure, s ¢p acts from the right toward the left side, and active pressure acts
from the left toward the right side of the sheet pile, so, at z = L + D,
s ¢p = (gL1 + g ¢L2 + g ¢D )K p (12)
At the same depth,
s a¢ = g ¢DK a (13)
Hence, the net lateral pressure at the bottom of the sheet pile is
s ¢p - s a¢ = s 4¢ = (gL1 + g ¢L2 )K p + g ¢D(K p - K a ) = (gL1 + g ¢L )K p + g ¢L3 (K p - K a ) + g ¢L4 (K p - K a )
or,
s ¢p - s a¢ = s 4¢ = s 5¢ + g ¢L4 (K p - K a ) (14)

(
where, s 5¢ = (gL1 + g ¢L )K p + g ¢L3 K p - K a ) (15)

D = L3 + L4 (16)
For the stability of the wall, the principles of statics can now be applied:
S horizontal forces per unit length of wall = 0
and S moment of the forces per unit length of wall about point B = 0
For the summation of the horizontal forces, we have
Area of the pressure diagram ACDE - area of EFHB + area of FHBG = 0
or,

P - s 3¢ L4 + (s 3¢ + s 4¢ )L5 = 0
1 1
(17)
2 2
where P = area of the pressure diagram ACDE.
Summing the moment of all the forces about point B yields

æ1 öæ L ö 1 æL ö
P(L4 + z ) - ç s 3¢ L4 ÷ç 4 ÷ + (s 3¢ + s 4¢ )L5 ç 5 ÷ = 0 (18)
è2 øè 3 ø 2 è 3ø
From Eq. (17)
s 3¢ L4 - 2 P
L5 = (19)
s 3¢ + s 4¢
Combining Eqs. (11), (14), (18) and (19) and simplifying we obtain the following fourth-degree equation in terms of
L4
L44 + A1 L34 - A2 L24 - A3 L4 - A4 = 0 (20)
In this equation,
s 5¢
A1 =
g ¢(K p - K a )
(21)

8P
A2 =
g ¢(K p - K a )
(22)

6 P[2 z g ¢(K p - K a ) + s 5¢ ]
A3 =
g ¢ 2 (K p - K a )
2
(23)

P[6 z s 5¢ + 4 P ]
A3 = 2
g ¢ (K p - K a )
2
(24)

Step by step procedure for obtaining the pressure diagram

1) Calculate Ka and Kp.
2) Calculate s 1¢ [Eq. (5)] and s 2¢ [Eq. (6)]. (Note: L1 and L2 will be given).
3) Calculate L3 [Eq. (10)].
4) Calculate P.
5) Calculate z (i.e. the centre of pressure for the area ACDE) by taking the moment about E.
6) Calculate s 5¢ [Eq. (15)].
7) Calculate A1, A2, A3 and A4 [Eqns. (21) through (24)].
8) Solve Eqn. (20) by trial and error to obtain L4.
9) Calculate s 4¢ [Eq. (14)].
10) Calculate s 3¢ [Eq. (11)].
11) Calculate L5 [Eq. (19)].
12) Draw a pressure distribution diagram as shown in Fig. 6(a).
13) Obtain the theoretical depth [Eq. (16)] of penetration as L3 + L4. The actual depth of penetration is increased by
about 20% to 30%.
Note that some designers prefer to use a FOS (F) on the passive earth pressure coefficient at the beginning. In that
case, in Step 1,
Kp
K p (design) = where, F is the factor of safety (usually between 1.5 and 2)
F
æ f¢ ö
For this type of analysis, follow Steps 1 through 12 with the value of K a = tan 2 ç 45 - ÷ and Kp(design) instead of Kp).
è 2ø
The actual depth of penetration can now be determined by adding L3, obtained from Step 3 and L4 obtained from Step
8.

Calculation of Maximum Bending Moment

The nature of variation of moment diagram for a cantilever sheet pile wall is shown in Fig. 6(b). The maximum
moment will occur between points E and F′. Obtaining the maximum moment Mmax per unit length of the wall requires
determining the point of zero shear. For a new axis z′ (with origin at point E) for zero shear
P=
1
(z ¢)2 (K p - K a )g ¢
2
or,
2P
z¢ =
(K p - K a )g ¢ (25)

Once the point of zero shear is determined [point F″ in Fig. 6(a)], the magnitude of maximum moment can be obtained
as

M max = P(z + z ¢) - ê g ¢z ¢2 (K p - K a )úç ÷ z ¢

é1 ùæ 1 ö
(26)
ë2 ûè 3 ø
The necessary profile of the sheet piling is then sized according to the allowable flexural stress of the sheet pile
material, or
 M max
S= (27)
s all
where,
S = section modulus of the sheet pile required per unit length of the structure
s all = allowable flexural stress of the sheet pile

Case II: Sheet pile wall in absence of water table

In the absence of WT the net pressure diagram is shown in Figure 7.

Fig. 7 Cantilever sheet pile penetrating sand in absence of water of water table
In this case,
s 2¢ = gLK a (28)
s 3¢ = gL4 (K p - K a ) (29)
s 4¢ = s 5¢ + gL4 (K p - K a ) (30)
s 5¢ = gLK p + gL3 (K p - K a ) (31)
s 2¢ LK a
L3 = =
g (K p - K a ) (K p - K a )
(32)

1 1
P = s 2¢ L + s 2¢ L3 (33)
2 2
L LK a L L(2 K a + K p )
z = L3 + = + =
3 (K p - K a ) 3 3(K p - K a )

and Eq. (20) transforms to

L44 + A1¢L34 - A2¢ L24 - A3¢ L4 - A4¢ = 0 (34)
where,
s 5¢
A1¢ =
g (K p - K a )
(35)

8P
A2¢ =
g (K p - K a )
(36)
A3¢ =
[
6 P 2 z g (K p - K a ) + s 5¢ ]
g (K p - K a )
2 2
(37)

P[6 z s 5¢ + 4 P]
A4¢ = 2
g (K p - K a )
2
(38)

Cantilever sheet pile wall penetrating in clayey soil and backfill as sandy soil
Case I: Sheet pile wall in presence of water table
Sometimes cantilever sheet piles are driven into clay layer with undrained cohesion c (f= 0). Figure 8 shows a
cantilever sheet pile wall driven into clay with a backfill of granular soil above the dredge line.

s 3¢

s 4¢
Fig. 8 Cantilever sheet pile penetrating clay
The WT is at a depth L1 below the top of the wall. Eqns. (1) and (2) give the intensity of the net pressures s 1¢ and s 2¢
and the diagram for pressure distribution above the level of dredge line can be drawn. The diagram for net pressure
distribution below the dredge line level can be drawn as follows.
At any depth greater than L1+L2, for f = 0, Ka = Kp = 1. Thus above the point of rotation O in Figure 6, the active
pressure from right to left is
s a¢ = [gL1 + g s¢ L2 + g c¢ ( z - L1 - L2 )] - 2c (39)
Similarly, the passive pressure from left to right may be expressed as
s ¢p = g c¢ ( z - L1 - L2 ) + 2c (40)
Thus, the net pressure is
s 3¢ = s ¢p - s a¢ = g c¢ (z - L1 - L2 ) + 2c - [gL1 + g s¢ L2 + g c¢ ( z - L1 - L2 )] + 2c = 4c - (gL1 + g s¢ L2 ) (41)
At the bottom of the sheet pile, the passive pressure from right to left is
s ¢p = (gL1 + g s¢ L2 + g c¢ D ) + 2c (42)
Similarly, the active pressure from left to right is
s a¢ = g c¢ D - 2c (43)
Hence, the net pressure is
s 4¢ = s ¢p - s a¢ = 4c + (gL1 + g s¢ L2 ) (44)
For equilibrium analysis, åF H = 0 ; that is,
area of the pressure diagram ACDE - area of EFIB + area of GIH = 0, or
P1 - [4c - (gL1 + g s¢ L2 )]D + L4 [4c - (gL1 + g s¢ L2 ) + 4c + (gL1 + g s¢ L2 )] = 0
1
(45)
2
where, P1 = area of the pressure diagram ACDE.
Simplifying the preceding equation produces
D[4c - (gL1 + g s¢ L2 )] - P1
L4 = (46)
4c
Now, taking the moment about point B (å M B = 0) yields
æL ö
2
P1 (D + z1 ) - [4c - (gL1 + g s¢ L2 )] + L4 (8c )ç 4 ÷ = 0
D 1
2 2 è 3ø
(47)
where, z1 = distance of the center of pressure of the diagram ACDE, measured from the level of the dredge line.
Combining Eqns. (46) and (47), we get,
P1 (P1 + 12cz1 )
D 2 [4c - (gL1 + g s¢ L2 )] - 2 DP1 - =0 (48)
(gL1 + g s¢ L2 ) + 2c
Eqn. (48) may be solved to get D, the theoretical depth of penetration of sheet pile.

Step by step procedure for obtaining the pressure diagram

1) Calculate Ka for the granular soil backfill.
2) Calculate s 1¢ [Eq. (1)] and s 2¢ [Eq. (2)].
3) Calculate P1 and z1 .
4) Use Eqn. (48) to obtain theoretical value of D.
5) Use Eqn. (46) to obtain L4.
6) Calculate s 3¢ [Eq. (41)] and s 4¢ [Eq. (44)].
7) Draw the pressure distribution diagram as shown in Fig. 8.
8) The actual depth of penetration is Dactual = (1.4 to 1.6)Dtheoretical.

Calculation of Maximum Bending Moment

According to Fig. 8, the maximum moment (zero shear) will be between L1 + L2 < z < L1 + L2 + L3. Using a new co-
ordinate system z′ (with z′ = 0 at the dredge line) for zero shear gives
P1 - s 3¢ z ¢ = 0
or,
P1
z¢ = (49)
s 3¢
The magnitude of the maximum moment may now be obtained:
s 3¢ z¢ 2
M max = P1 ( z ¢ + z1 ) - (50)
2

Case II: Sheet pile wall in absence of water table

Referring to Fig. 9 we get
s 2¢ = gLK a (51)
s 6 = 4c - gL (52)
s 7 = 4c + gL (53)
1 1
P1 = Ls 2¢ = gL2 K a (54)
2 2
 D[4c - gL] - gL2 K a
1
L4 = 2 (55)
4c

Fig. 9 Cantilever sheet pile penetrating clay without water table

The theoretical depth of penetration, D can be obtained by solving the following equation
P1 (P1 + 12cz1 )
D 2 (4c - gL ) - 2 DP1 - =0 (56)
gL + 2c
L
where, z1 =
3
The magnitude of the maximum moment in the wall is
s 6 z¢2
M max = P1 ( z ¢ + z1 ) - (57)
2
1 2
gL K a
P
where, z ¢ = 1 = 2 .
s 6 4c - gL

Cantilever sheet pile wall penetrating in clayey soil and backfill as clayey soil
Sheet pile wall in absence of water table
The pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 10.
The active pressure pa at any depth z may be expressed as
p a = s v K a - 2c K a (58)
where, s v = vertical pressure, gz
z = depth from the surface of the backfill.
The passive pressure pp at any depth y below the dredge line may be expressed as
p p = s v K p + 2c K p (59)
The soil is supposed to be in tension upto a depth of z0, and the pressure on the wall is zero in this zone.
At the dredge level (point A)
(a) The active pressure pa acting towards the left is
pa = gHK a - 2c K a (58)
when, f = 0, pa = gH - 2c = gH - qu (59)

where, qu = unconfined compressive strength of the clay = 2c.

(b) Since, f = 0, the passive pressure p p acting towards the left is

p p = 2c (60)
or, p p = qu (61)
The resultant of passive and active pressures at dredge level is
p p - pa = qu - (gH - qu ) = 2qu - gH = s 1¢ (62)

s 1¢

s 1¢ = 2qu - gH

Fig. 10 Cantilever sheet pile penetrating clay without water table

Below the dredge level

At any depth ‘y’ below the dredge level,

Passive pressure, p p = gy + qu (63)

Active pressure, pa = g (H + y ) - qu (64)

The resultant pressure is

p p - pa = (gy + qu ) - [g (H + y ) - qu ] = 2qu - gH = s 1¢ (65)

Eqns. 62 and 65 indicate that the resultant pressure remains constant at (2qu - gH) at all depths.
If passive pressure is developed on the backfill side at the bottom of the pile (point B), then

p p = g (H + D ) + qu acting towards the left (66)

pa = gD - qu acting towards the right (67)

The resultant is

p p - pa = g (H + D ) + qu - gD + qu = 2qu + gH = s 2¢ (68)

For static equilibrium, the sum of all the horizontal forces must be equal to zero, that is,

Pa - (2qu - gH )D + (2qu + 2qu )h = 0

1
(69)
2
Simplifying,

Pa - 2qu h - 2qu D + gHD = 0 (70)

Therefore,

D(2q u - gH ) - Pa
h= (71)
2q u
Also, for equilibrium, the sum of the moments at any point should be zero. Taking moments about the base,

h2
(2qu ) - (2qu - gH )D = 0
2
Pa ( y + D ) + (72)
6 2
Substituting for h in Eqn. (72) and simplifying

C1 D 2 + C2 D + C3 = 0

Pa (6qu y + Pa )
where, C1 = (2qu - gH ) , C2 = -2 Pa , C3 = -
(qu + gH )
The depth obtained from Eqn. (72) should be increased by 20% to 40%. Alternatively the unconfined compressive
strength, qu may be divided by a factor of safety (usually 1.5 to 2.0).
Limiting height of wall: The wall will be stable if the following condition is satisfied
2qu
³ gH (73)
F
where F is the factor of safety.
Calculation of Maximum Bending Moment
As per Fig. 8, the maximum BM may occur within the depth (D – h) below the dredge line. Let this depth be y0 below
the dredge line for zero shear. We may write,

Pa - p y0 = 0 (74)

or,
Pa
y0 = (75)
p
The expression for maximum BM is,

p y02
M max = Pa ( y 0 + y ) - (76)
2
where, p = (2qu - gH )

Anchored Sheet Pile Walls (Anchored Bulkhead)

When the height of the backfill material behind a cantilever sheet-pile wall exceeds about 6 m, tying the wall near the
top to anchor plates, anchor walls, or anchor piles becomes more economical. This type of construction is referred to
as anchored sheet pile wall or anchored bulkhead. Anchors minimize the depth of penetration required by the sheet
piles and also reduce the cross-sectional area and weight of the sheet piles needed for construction. However, the tie
rods and anchors must be carefully designed.
The two basic methods of designing anchored sheet pile walls are
1) Free-earth support method
2) Fixed-earth support method
Figs. 11(a and b) shows the assumed nature of deflection of the sheet piles for the two methods.
Free earth support method
If the sheet piles are driven to a shallow depth the deflection of a bulkhead is somewhat similar to that of a vertical
elastic beam whose lower end is simply supported and the other end is fixed [Fig. 11(a)].

Fig. 11 Nature of variation of deflection and moment for anchored sheet piles: (a) Free-earth support
method and (b) Fixed-earth support method
Bulkheads which satisfy this condition are called as bulkhead with free earth support. An adequately anchored
bulkhead with free earth support can fail either by bending or on account of the failure of the sand adjoining the wall
at the passive side by shear along a curved surface of sliding i.e. the slip surface of the passive wedge as shown in Fig.
12. The anchor is assumed to be rigid simple support about which the sheet pile rotates as a rigid body.
There are two methods of applying factor of safety in the design of bulkheads.
1. Compute the minimum depth of embedment and increase the value by 20% to 40% to give a factor of safety
of 1.5 to 2.0.
2. The alternative method is to apply factor of safety to Kp and determine the depth of embedment.
The free earth support method is based on the following assumptions:
1. The sheet piling is rigid as compared to the surrounding soil and may rotate at the anchor rod level, with
failure occurring by rotation about the anchor rod.
2. Passive earth pressure develops in the soil in front of the piling and active earth pressure develops in the soil
at the back of the piling.

Fig. 12 Conditions for free earth support of an anchored

Free earth support method for penetration in sandy soil and retaining sandy soil
Case 1: Determination of depth of embedment without applying FOS to Kp
Fig. 13 shows the anchored sheet pile wall driven into granular soil and also retaining granular soil backfill.
The water table is assumed to be at a depth h1 from the surface of backfill. The anchor rod is fixed at a height h2 above
the dredge line. The sheet pile is held in position by the anchor rod and the tension in the rod is Ta. The forces that are
acting on the sheet pile are
1. Active pressure due to the soil behind the pile.
2. Passive pressure due to the soil in front of the pile
3. The tension in the anchor rod.

The problem is to determine the minimum depth of embedment D. The resultant of the passive and active pressures is
shown in Fig. 13. If ‘y’ is the depth below ground level i.e. at GL, y = 0, then, from Fig. 13,
Active earth pressure below dredge level,
s a¢ = pa + g ¢( y - h1 - h3 )K a (77a)
where,
pa = (gh1 + g ¢h3 )K a (77b)
Passive earth pressure below dredge level,
s ¢p = g ¢( y - h1 - h3 )K p (78)
Hence, net pressure below dredge level is given by,
s ¢p - s a¢ = pa - g ¢( y - h1 - h3 )K (79)
where,
K = K p - Ka (80)
The distance y0 to the point of zero pressure is obtained where net pressure below dredge is zero, i.e.

y - (h1 + h3 ) = y0 =
pa
g ¢´ K
Taking moment about the anchor rod, we get,
Pa ´ ya = Pp ´ h4 (81)
1 2
But, Pp = ´ g b ´ K ´ D02 and h4 = h2 + y0 + D0
2 3
1 æ 2 ö
Hence, Pa ´ ya = ´ g b ´ K ´ D02 ´ ç h2 + y0 + D0 ÷ (82)
2 è 3 ø
Solving Eqn. (82) we get D0
The force in the anchor rod is given by

Ta = Pa - Pp (83)

The minimum depth of embedment is given by

D = D0 + y0 (84)

The maximum theoretical moment to which the sheet pile will be subjected occurs at a depth between z = h1 and z =
h1+h3. Here, z is measure from the top surface of the backfill. The depth z for zero shear and hence maximum moment
may be evaluated from

p1h1 - Ta + ( p1 )( z - h1 ) + K ag ¢( z - h1 ) = 0
1 1 2
(81)
2 2
Taking the moment about the point of zero shear, we obtain,

æ 2 ö
= - p1h1 ç z - h1 ÷ + Ta ( z - (h1 + h3 - h2 )) - p1
1 (z - h1 ) - 1 K g ¢(z - h )2 æ z - h1 ö
2
M max a 1 ç ÷ (82)
2 è 3 ø 2 2 è 3 ø

Fig. 13 Depth of embedment of anchored sheet pile wall penetrating sand by free earth support
method without applying FOS to Kp
Case 2: Determination of depth of embedment by applying FOS to Kp
The forces that are acting on the sheet pile wall is shown in Fig. 14. The maximum passive pressure that can be
mobilized = area of the triangle ABC shown in the figure. The passive pressure that has to be used in the computation
is the area of the figure ABEF. The triangle ABC is divided by a vertical line EF such that
Area ABC
Area ABEF = = Pp¢ (83)
FOS

Fig. 14 Depth of embedment of anchored sheet pile wall penetrating sand by free earth
support method by applying FOS to Kp

The equilibrium of the system requires that the sum of all the horizontal forces and moments about any point
should be equal to zero. Hence,
Pp¢ + Ta - Pa = 0 (84)
Taking moment about anchor point, we get,
Pa ya - Pp¢ h4 = 0 (85)
where,
1 1
Pp¢ = g b K p D2 ´ (86)
2 Fs
where, Fs is the assumed factor of safety.
Free earth support method for penetration in clayey soil and retaining sandy soil
Fig. 15 shows the pressure distribution

y
h h2
h3

q = gh1 + g b h2 = g e H

Fig. 15 Depth of embedment of anchored sheet pile wall penetrating clay by free
earth support method without applying FOS to Kp

The equivalent surcharge at the dredge line due to the backfill may be written as

q = gh1 + g b h3 = g e H (87)

where, h3 = depth of water above dredge line, ge is the effective equivalent unit weight of soil and H = h1 + h3
The active earth pressure acting towards the left at the dredge line level is (when f = 0) is

p a = q - qu (88)

The passive earth pressure acting towards the right is

p p = qu (89)

The resultant of passive and active earth pressures is

p p - pa = 2qu - q = p (90)

The pressure remains constant with depth. Taking moments of all the forces about the anchor rod, we have,

æ Dö
Pa y - D(2qu - q )ç h2 + ÷ = 0 (91)
è 2ø
where, y is the distance of anchor rod from Pa. Simplifying Eq. (91), we have
D2 + C1 D + C2 = 0 (92)

where,

C1 = 2h2 (93a)

2 yPa
C2 = - (93b)
2 qu - q
The force in the anchor can be found from horizontal equilibrium as Ta = Pa - PP
It can be found from Eqn. (90) that the wall will be unstable if

2qu - q = 0 (94a)

or,
4c - q = 0 (94b)

For all practical purposes, q = geH = gH, then Eqn. (90) may be written as
4c - gH = 0 (95a)

or,
c 1
NS = = = 0.25 (95b)
gH 4
Eqn. (95b) indicates that the wall is unstable if the ratio c/gH = 0.25. Ns is termed as stability number. If the wall
adhesion ca is taken into account the stability number Ns becomes,

c c
NS = 1+ a (95c)
gH c

ca
At passive failure, 1+ = 1.25
c
Hence, the stability number for sheet pile walls embedded in cohesive soils may be written as
1.25c
NS = (95d)
gH
The maximum BM occurs at a depth which lies between h1 and H.
Moment reduction for anchored sheet pile walls
The design of anchored sheet piling by the free-earth support method is based on the assumption that the piling is
perfectly rigid and the earth pressure distribution is hydrostatic, obeying classical earth pressure theory. In reality, the
sheet piling is rather flexible and the earth pressure differs considerably from the hydrostatic distribution. The sheet
piles deflect because they are flexible. This causes a redistribution of lateral earth pressure and leads to a reduction in
the maximum bending moment as compared to the value obtained in the free earth support method. On the basis of
model tests, Rowe (1952) has proposed moment reduction for sheet piling design based on free earth support method.
Moment reduction curves are provided to indicate the relationship between maximum BM and flexibility of the sheet
pile.
Fixed earth support method
If the sheet piles are driven to a considerable depth, as shown in Figure 16(a), the lower end of the bulkhead is
practically fixed in position, because the resistance of sand adjoining the end does not permit more than an
insignificant deviation of the wall from its initial vertical position. Therefore anchored sheet pile walls of this type are
called as bulkheads with fixed earth support. A securely anchored bulkhead with fixed earth support can fail only by
bending.
The deflected shape of the pile under fixed earth support condition is shown in Figure 16(a). The actual active
pressure distribution on such a pile is not linear as can be seen by the dashed line in the figure. However, for all
practical purposes, a linear distribution is assumed. The point b may be considered as the point of fixity of the sheet
pile and the point I on the pile is the point of inflection or point of contraflexure (zero bending moment). Figures 16(a
and b) show the pressure and moment distribution on the wall respectively.
The problem of bulkhead with fixed earth support may be solved by any one of the following methods:
1. Elastic line method.
2. Equivalent beam method.

Fig. 16 Fixed earth support condition

Equivalent beam method
The development of equivalent beam method is attributed to Blum (1931) and is based on the following principle:
1. The pressure diagram triangle Oab is transformed into triangle Odb [Figure 16(b)], thus increasing the area by the
amount adb. This increase is counterbalanced by adding an equivalent area ba′d′ on the back of the wall. The
pressures due to the area bce and ba′d′ may be replaced by a concentrated load Rc acting at point b to the left
[Figure 16(b)].
2. The sheet pile wall gob is assumed as a beam. This beam is supported freely at one end at anchor rod level by the
reaction Ta (pull or tension in anchor rod) and fixed at the other end at point b with reaction Rc.
3. At the inflection point [point I in Figure 16], there is no moment and only shears are transmitted from one side to
the other. Thus, the point of contraflexure acts as a hinge. So, the beam gob can be splitted into two parts (i) An
equivalent freely supported beam gI with reaction RI and Ta acting towards the right and (ii) Another beam Ib,
supported at I and b by the reactions RI and Rc, respectively [Figure 17].
The solution to the problem by equivalent beam method involves determination of RI and depth of embedment.
The solution to the problem depends on the depth yi of the inflection point I below the dredge line. It has been found
that the depth yi depends on f as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Values of yi for different values of f
f 20° 30° 40°
yi 0.25H 0.08H 0.007H
 Fig. 17 Principles of equivalent beam method

Determination of reaction RI
The method of determining RI is explained below:
1. Divide the pressure diagram on the beam go into a number of different parts [Fig. 17(b)].
2. P1, P2, P3..... etc. are the concentrated force of each part acting at the centroids of each part.
3. Take moments of all the forces RI, P1, P2, ....etc. about the anchor point and determine the value of RI.

The algebraic sum of all the horizontal forces on the beam go equated to zero gives the value of Ta.
Determination of depth of embedment D
Let db = depth of point b from O on the beam
Now consider the lower part of beam of the pile Ob [Fig. 17(b)]. Summing moments about b we have,
1 d
g ¢Kd b ´ d b ´ b = RI d b (96a)
2 3
or,
1
g ¢Kd b2 = RI (96b)
6
or,
6 RI
db = (96c)
g ¢K
Let Db = depth of point of fixity b from dredge line
Therefore, Db = db + y0
The depth of embedment D of the sheet pile wall below the dredge line for complete fixity is taken as D =
1.2Db.
 BEARING CAPACITY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION FROM SPT, SCPT AND PLATE LOAD
TESTS DATA (MODULE – III)
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings based on SPT values
Cohesionless soils
Based on the relation between N and f given by Peck et al. (1974), Teng developed the following expressions [Eqs.
1(a and b)] for computing net ultimate bearing capacity (qd)
For continuous footing
[ ( )
qnd = 0.16 3N 2 BRw + 5 100 + N 2 D f Rw¢ (kPa) ] (1a)

For square and circular footings

[ ( )
qnd = 0.32 N 2 BRw + 3 100 + N 2 D f Rw¢ (kPa)] (1b)

The value of N to be used in the above equation is the average value upto a depth equal to the width below the base of
the foundation. The water table correction factors are Rw and Rw¢ .

Dw
When 0 £ £ 1 , the water table correction factor, Rw is given by Eq. 2a
B
1æ D ö
Rw = ç1 + w ÷ (2a)
2è B ø
Dw
When 0 £ £ 1 , the water table correction factor, Rw¢ is given by Eq. 2b
Df

1 æ D¢ ö
Rw¢ = ç1 + w ÷ (2b)
2 çè D f ÷ø

where, Dw¢ is the depth of WT below GL limited to a depth equal to Df.

Dw¢ = 0 GL
GWT

Df

Dw¢ = D f Dw = 0

B
B

Dw = B

Fig. 1 A schematic diagram of shallow foundation showing Dw and D¢w

Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings based on CPT values
Cohesionless soils
The ultimate bearing capacity (in kg/cm2) in cohesionless soil may be evaluated using the Eqs. 3(a and b),
Strip foundation

qd = 28 - 0.0052(300 - qc )
1.5
(3a)

Square foundation

qd = 48 - 0.009(300 - qc )
1.5
(3b)

Cohesive soils
The ultimate bearing capacity (in kg/cm2) in cohesionless soil may be evaluated using the Eqs. 4(a and b),
Strip foundation
qd = 2 + 0.28qc (4a)
Square foundation
qd = 5 + 0.34qc (4b)

Safe Bearing Pressures based on SPT values for Footings on Cohesionless Soils
Footings on granular soils are sometimes proportioned using empirical relationships. Teng (1969) proposed an
expression (Eq. 5a) for safe bearing pressure for a settlement of 25mm based on the curves developed by Terzaghi and
Peck (1948).

æ B + 0 .3 ö
2

qs = 35 ( N corr - 3) ç ÷ Rw Fd (5a)
è 2B ø
where, qs = net allowable bearing pressure for a settlement of 25mm in KPa
Ncorr = corrected standard penetration value
Rw = water table correction factor

æ Df ö
Fd = depth factor = çç1 + ÷ £ 2.0
è B ÷ø
Df = depth of foundation in m
The safe bearing pressure for a settlement of 25mm as proposed by Meyerhoff is given by Eqs. 5(b and c)
For B £ 1.2 m,
qs = 12 N corr Rw Fd (5b)
For B > 1.2 m,

é B + 0 .3 ù
2

qs = 8 N corr ê Rw Fd (5c)
ë B úû
æ Df ö
where, Fd = çç1 + 0.33 ÷ £ 1.33
è B ÷ø
Experimental results indicate that the equations presented by Teng and Meyerhoff are too conservative. Bowles (1996)
proposed an approximate increase of 50% over that of Meyerhoff which can also be applied to Teng’s equation. The
modified equations are as follows:
Modified Teng’s expression (Eq. 6a)
 æ B + 0 .3 ö
2

qs = 53 ( N corr - 3)ç ÷ Rw Fd (6a)

è 2B ø
Modified Meyerhoff’s expression [Eqs. 6(b and c)]
For B £ 1.2 m,
qs = 20 N corr Rw Fd (6b)
For B > 1.2 m,

é B + 0 .3 ù
2

qs = 12.5 N corr ê Rw Fd (6c)

ë B úû
If the tolerable settlement is greater than 25mm, the safe bearing pressure computed by the above equations can be
increased linearly as per Eqn. 7,
S¢
q¢s = qs (7)
25
where, q¢ = net safe bearing pressure for a settlement of S¢ mm, qs = net safe bearing pressure for a settlement of 25
mm.
Safe Bearing Pressure for Raft Foundation on Sand
Because the differential settlements of a raft foundation are less than those of a footing foundation designed for the
same soil pressure it is reasonable to permit larger safe soil pressures on raft foundation. Peck et al. (1974)
recommended the following expressions of qs in t/m2 (Eq. 8a) and in kPa (Eq. 8b) for computing net safe bearing
pressure for 5 < N < 50
qs = 2.1N (8a)
qs = 21N (8b)
where, N is the SPT value corrected for dilatancy and overburden pressure. The above eqn. gives qs values above
water table. Necessary correction factor should be used for the presence of water table. The value of N to be
considered is the average of the values obtained upto a depth equal to the width of the raft.
Safe Bearing Pressure for Raft Foundation on Clay

Fig. 2 Determination of allowable bearing capacity from unconfined compressive strength

As for footings on clay the FOS against failure of the soil beneath a raft on clay should not be less than 3.0 under
normal loads or less than 2.0 under the most extreme loads, Fig. 2 may be used to obtain the allowable net soil
pressure for rafts on clay.
Safe Bearing Pressures based on CPT values for Footings on Cohesionless Soils
The static one penetration test in which a standard cone of 10 cm2 sectional area is pushed into the soil without the
necessity of boring provides a much more accurate and detailed variation in soil profile. Meyerhoff (1956) suggested a
set of empirical equations based on Terzaghi and Pech curves (1948). As these equations are also found to be
conservative, modified forms with an increase of 50% over the original values are given below [Eqs. 9(a and b)].
For B £ 1.2 m,
qs = 3.6qc Rw (9a)
For B > 1.2 m,
2
é 1ù
qs = 2.1qc ê1 + ú Rw (9b)
ë Bû
Where, qc is the cone point resistance in kg/cm2 and qs in kPa.
Empirical Equations based on Plate Load Test data for Footings on Cohesionless Soils
Housel’s (1929) Method of Determining Safe Bearing Pressure from Settlement Consideration
The method suggested by Housel for determining the safe bearing pressure on settlement consideration is given by Eq.
(10)
Q = mAp + nPp (10)
where, Q = load applied on a given plate, Ap = contact area of the plate, Pp = perimeter of the plate, m = a constant
corresponding to the bearing pressure, n = a constant corresponding to the perimeter shear.
Housel suggests two plate load tests with plates of different sizes, say B1´B1 and B2´B2.

Procedure
1. Two plate load tests are to be conducted at the foundation level of the prototype foundation.
2. Draw the load-settlement curves for each of the plate load tests.
3. Select the permissible settlement Sf of the foundation.
4. Determine the loads Q1 and Q2 from each of the curves for the given permissible settlement Sf.
Now, load applied on two plates (plate – 1 and 2) are given by Eqns. 11( a and b), respectively,
For PLT - 1
Q = mAp1 + nPp1 (11a)
For PLT - 2
Q = mAp 2 + nPp 2 (11b)
The unknown values of m and n can be found from the above equations. The equation for a prototype foundation (Eq.
12) may be written as
Q f = mA f + nPf (12)
where, Af = area of the foundation, Pf = perimeter of the foundation
When Af and Pf are known, the size of the foundation can be determined.